EARTH SCIENCE

WEEK 1

INTRODUCTION

Now, we are to start for our second quarter

of this subject. In this chapter you will get to know
the different processes that work on the surface of
the Earth such as Weathering, Erosion, and
Deposition and Soil Movement. The Earth is shaped
by many different geological processes. The forces
that cause these processes come from both above
and beneath the Earth’s surface is called exogenic
process, while the process comes within the Earth’s
surface is called endogenic process.
The exogenic processes involve weathering
that act on the landforms to break up the rocks. Erosion wears down the surface and carves
out valley features and the products of destruction are either dislocated under the influence
of the force of gravity or are carried away by the blowing wind, flowing waters, moving
glaciers etc. to lower areas like lakes, seas, oceans, etc. where deposition takes place. The
exogenic processes tend to remove all the unevenness on the surface of the Earth. As we
know, the roughness of the earth’s surface is
Figure 1
developed due to crustal movement, unequal https://images.app.goo.gl/nWYibTrprWrWXS9BA
erosion and deposition.

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 LESSON PROPER

Good day learner.

Today we will begin our lesson with process.

Specifically, we will be studying the following:

1. Exogenic Process

Figure 2 https://images.app.goo.gl/kj2fZPXh58ubTgwdA

-come from forces on or above the Earth’s surface.

-refers to the activities or phenomena that occur on the earth’s surface. Rocks are naturally
exposed to different forces that affect their physical characteristics.

 Weathering
-the breaking up of rocks by such agents as water, ice, chemicals, growing plants and
changing temperature.
- the breaking or crumbling of rocks by physical, chemical, or biological means is essential
for rock cycle, soil production, and movement of material on the earth’s surface.
-reduce the size of rocks and prepare materials for transport.

A. Physical Weathering

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 Figure 3 https://images.app.goo.gl/QPECgXAKK512jQ56A

-refers to the breaking up of big rocks into small fragments without changing the mineral
content of the rock.
- changes in temperature between day and night, and between seasons, lead to constant
expansion and contraction of rocks that result in cracks or crevices in rocks.

Some of the forces originate within the rock or mineral, while others are applied externally.
Both of these stresses lead to strain and the rupture of the rick. The process that may cause
mechanical rupture is caused by the following:

 Frost Action

Figure 4 https://images.app.goo.gl/Sbg57YS4hsMppc8n7

When water drips down into fractures and pores of rock, and then freezes. This causes
outward pressure that causes rocks to be broken apart into angular fragments.

 Exfoliation

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 Figure 5 https://images.app.goo.gl/GvqVyZhRsSa7U9Rs7

A form of mechanical weathering in which curved plates of rocks are stripped from rock
below. This results in exfoliation domes or dome-like hills and rounded boulders. Exfoliation
domes occur along planes of parting called joints, which are curved more or less parallel to
the surface.

 Abrasion

Figure 6 https://images.app.goo.gl/wE3JHypmC8bqvqjq5

Occurs when some force causes two rock surfaces to come together causing mechanical
wearing or grinding of their surfaces. Collision between rock surfaces normally occurs
through the erosional transport of material by wind, water, or ice.

 Crystallization

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 Figure 7 https://images.app.goo.gl/ZA1wGZ5RrTtz8y7j9

The necessary stresses needed for the mechanical rupturing of rocks and minerals. Crystal
growth causes stress as a result of a compounds’s or an element’s change of physical state
with change in temperature. The transformation from liquid to solid crystalline form produces
a volumetric change which in turn causes the necessary mechanical action for rupture.

 Pressure Release

Figure 8https://images.app.goo.gl/ND4paoadjv7MJ7zA7

Rock can cause physical weathering due to unloading. The majority of igneous rocks are
created deep under the Earth’s surface at much higher pressures and temperatures.

 Hydraulic Action

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 Figure 9 https://images.app.goo.gl/b8VyQsxRJh8MadH47

The breaking of rocks into fragments caused by water from powerful waves that move
rapidly into cracks in the rock.

 Thermal Stress (Insolation)

Figure 10 https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fstatic.wikia.nocookie.net%2F141f31cf-f055-4e58-8513-
8aa030037556%2Fscale-to-width%2F300&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fgeology-fundamentals.fandom.com%2Fwiki
%2F4245380%2Finsolation-weathering-&tbnid=3I9VG75Z4P

It is the result of the physical inability of rocks to conduct heat well. This inability to conduct
heat results in differential rates of expansion and contraction. Thus, the surface of the rock
expands more than its interior, and this stress will eventually cause the rock to rupture.
B. Chemical Weathering

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 Figure 11 https://images.app.goo.gl/gMt7RBipZTwtDwAc9

-decomposes or decays rocks.

-breakdown of rocks by chemical mechanisms.
-this process usually involves water and how it reacts with other substances in the rocks.

A number of different processes can result in chemical weathering. The most common
processes are the following:

 Hydrolysis
It is the weathering reaction that occurs when the two surfaces of water and compound
meet. It onvolves the reaction between mineral ions and the ions of water, the hydrogen ion
(H+) and the hydroxide ion (OH-), and results in the decomposition of the rock surface by
forming new compounds, and by increasing the pH of the solution involved through the
release of the hydroxide ions.

 Oxidation
It is the reaction that occurs between compounds and oxygen. The net result of this reaction
is the removal of one or more electrons from a compound which causes the structure to be
less rigid and increasingly unstable. The most common oxides are those iron and aluminum,
and their respective red and yellow staining of soils is quite common in tropical regions
which have high temperatures and precipitations.

 Hydration
It involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH- to a reacted compound. In many situations
the hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion become a structural part of the crystal lattice of the
mineral. Hydration also allows for the acceleration of other decomposition reactions by
expanding the crystal lattice offering more surface area for reaction

 Carbonation
It is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate ions with minerals. The formation of
carbonates usually takes place as a result of other chemical processes.

C. Biological Weathering

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 Figure 12 https://images.app.goo.gl/R777wqhZiNNP2nJz9

It involves the disintegration of rock and mineral due to the chemical and/or physical agents
of an organism. The types of an organism that can cause weathering range from bacteria to
plants to animals.
1. Simple breaking of particles, by the consumption of soils particles by animals. Particles
can also fracture because of animal burrowing or by the pressure put forth by growing
roots.
2. Organisms can influence the moisture in soils and therefore enhance weathering.
Shade from aerial leaves and stems, the presence of root masses, and humus all act
to increase the availability of water in the soil profile. Water is a necessary component
in several physical and chemical weathering processes.
3. Organisms can influence the acidity of the soil solution. Respiration form plant roots
releases carbon dioxide. Of the carbon dioxide mixes with water, carbonic acid is
formed which lowers soil pH.

D. Products of Weathering

Figure 13 https://images.app.goo.gl/qrnDhWBGoaXpmDTm7

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 The process of weathering can result in the following outcomes on rocks and minerals:

1. The first products of weathering is a mantle of broken and decomposed material of

varying thickness and composition called regolith which covers the areas except those
from which it is removed as soon as formed.
2. Weathering gradually weakens rocks, and eventually produces new geological
materials that are more stable in the new environment. Weathering generally produces
finer and less dense rock materials, and weaker, more porous and permeable rock
masses.
3. The residue of weathering consists of chemically altered and unaltered materials. Many
fo the chemically altered products of weathering become very simple small compounds
of nutrient ons. These residues then can be dissolved or transported by water,
released to the atmosphere as a gas, or taken up by plants for nutrition.

E. Agents of Weathering
 Rain
The mechanical action of rain consists mainly in the washing of loose particles of soil and
rock to lower levels. This phenomenon is known as rain-wash. It is the means by which
rivers receive much of the sediments they carry in suspension. The chemical weathering
effects of the rain are seen its solvent action on some rocks notably limestones. Heavy rains
can lead to landslide. Vegetation protects the ground from the immediate disintegrating
effects of rainfall.

 Frost
In cold climated the action of the frost is to break off angular fragment from exposed rock
surface, a process sometimes referred to as ice-wedge.
 Wind
It is one of the two natural agents which transport rock material against gravity. Its effect is
three-fold.

1. It removes loose particles of rock decay as it blows over a surface

2. Charged with these grains the wind act asnan abrading sand-blast driving the grains rock
surfaces which becomes worn and polished in course of time.

3. The blown grains are accumulated to from sand-dunes.

 Insolation
When a rock surface is exposed to a fluctuating temperature, as in arid and semi-arid
regions, the expansion which occurs during the day and contraction at night, constantly
repeated have a weakening effect on the texture of the rock over a period of time.

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 The outer heated layers tend to pull away from the cooler rock underneath a process known
as exfoliation. By the unequal expansion and contraction of its mineral constituents the
strain is set up in a rock and its texture is loosened. This kind of weathering is usual in
climates where high-day and low-night temperatures are conventional.

F. Mass Wasting

Figure 14 https://images.app.goo.gl/vudzPvr88UGpFgcY7

-also known as mass movement or slope movement

-happens when soil, sand, regolith, and rock move downslope typically as a mass, due to the
force of gravity, or due to the flow of water and water content as in submarine environments
and mudslides.

Types of Mass Movement

a. Soil Creep
- gravity pull down slope the soil or rock in different directions over time. The steeper the
slope, the faster the creep.
- the slow movement of large quantities of soil over a long period of time.

b. Landslide
-rapid movement of a large mass of earth and rocks down a hill or a mountainside when
there is heavy rainfall like in areas with less vegetation.

c. Flow
-water, air, and ice are often involved in enabling fluid-like motion of material.

d. Slump
-involves a mass of soil or other material sliding along a curved surface.

e. Fall

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 -a rock fall for example, is where the regolith moves down a slope, but volume or viscosity is
not sufficient to behave as a flow.

2. Endogenic Process

Figure 15 https://images.app.goo.gl/6TKhZGov7yiniJtk7

- not only the processes that occur on the surface of earth have an effect on it. The activities
or forces in the interior of the earth, also influenced how the planet shaped.

Folds

Geologic events such as deformation and displacement of rocks give stress and strain in
rocks causing it to have fracture or crumple into folds which is very visible among rocks with
layering. In addition, a fold is a bend in rock or a wavelike plastic deformation in rock layers
that are the result of horizontal compressional stress.

Folding is one of the enogenic process. When two forces push towards each other from
opposite sides, the rock layers will bend into folds. The processes by which folds are formed
are due to compressional forces known as folding.

Two Most Common Types of Folds

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 Figure 16 https://images.app.goo.gl/FFEDvobjYr1pawQU6

1. Anticlines

- formed when there is a convex up fold in rock that is similar to an arch-like structure with
the rock bends dipping away from the center of the structure.

- up warping of rock layers that results on an arch-like structure with a convex-up

configuration.
 Gentle Anticline

When the dip angle less than 40o , sometimes 1o or 2o.

 Steep Anticline

When the dip angle ranges between 40o and 90o.

2. Synclines

-formed when the rock layers are warped downward as a result of compressional forces.

Types of Folds

The nature of folds depends on various factors such as the nature of rocks, the nature and
the intensity of compressive forces, duration of the operation of the compressive forces etc.
Bases on the inclinations of the limbs the folds are classified into 5 types:

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 Figure 17 https://images.app.goo.gl/hZuFLKG8vXZ5U4Lq6

1. Symmetrical Folds

If both the limbs incline uniformly then they are called symmetrical folds. These folds are an
example of open folds and are formed when compressive forces work regularly but with
moderate intensity.

2. Asymmetrical Folds

These are characterized by unequal irregular limbs which incline at different angles. One
limb is relatively larger and the inclination is moderate and regular while the other limb is
relatively shorter with steep inclination.

3. Monoclinal Folds

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 Figure 18 https://images.app.goo.gl/GJoxZhussjX1HcsGQ8

These are the folds in which one limb inclines moderately with regular slope while the other
limb inclines steeply at right angle and the slope is almost vertical.

4. Isoclinal Folds

Figure 19 https://images.app.goo.gl/yDPLmo4cXNhNPAGJ6

These folds are formed when the compressive forces are so strong that both the limbs of the
fold become parallel but not horizontal.

5. Recumbent Folds

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 Figure 20 https://images.app.goo.gl/yDPLmo4cXNhNPAGJ6

These folds are formed when compressive forces are so strong that both the limbs of the
folds become parallel as well as horizontal.

Fault

Figure 21 https://images.app.goo.gl/yhhTAgYb3ZZqXHYLA

When the crustal rcks are displaced, due to tensional moement caused by the endogenic
forces, along a plane, the resultant structure is called fault. The plane along which the rock
blocks are displaces is called fault plane.

Types of Faults

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 1. Normal Faults

– occurs when tensional forces act in opposite directions causing the foot wall to be pushed
upward and the hanging wall go downward.

Normal faults are formed due to the displacement of both of rock blocks in opposite
directionsdue to tensional force.

2. Reverse Faults

– occurs when compression forces cause one block to be pushed up and over the other
block.

Reverse faults are formed due to the movement of both the fractured rock clocks towards
each other.

3. Lateral / Strike Strip Faults

– occurs when the stresses exerted are exerted parallel to each other.

This type of faults are formed when the rock beds are displaced horizontally along the fault
plane due to horizontal movement.

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 Geological Processes

Figure 22 https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fi.pinimg.com%2Foriginals%2F89%2F40%2F8d
%2F89408d83f63bed2cd45bd295cc8296fa.jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pinterest.com%2Fpin
%2F357965870373086125%2F&tbnid=QUqUGqzKB8l_UM&vet=1&docid=S5c7zaBOWFSJQM&w=9

Figure 23 https://images.app.goo.gl/iS7oji1zNoYDsZfh6

Diastrophism - geological process that forms

structures such as

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 mountains, valleys, and
plateau on the crust.
Magmatism - geological process by which
magma is produced by partial
melting of subsurface rocks.

Magma

is pushed upward by pressure through vents and can

reach the earth’s surface. Diastrophism and magmatism
continuously change the face of the earth. The displacement
and deformation of rock layers in the earth’s crust and mantle
also cause observable variations in the topography of the
earth, such as the great depths and heights of land structures
that are distributed worldwide.

Deformation in the earth’s crust are caused by

multidirectional forces of pressure. These may result in
changes in the total area and overall configuration or shape of
the ground and in the position or elevation of the rock layers.

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