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Dielectric Materials
Introduction to Dielectric
Dielectric Parameters
Dielectric Loss
Dielectric Properties
• When these materials are used to prevent flow of electricity through them on the
application of potential difference, then they are called insulators or passive
dielectrics.
• On the other hand, if they are used for charge storage then they are called
dielectrics or active dielectrics.
• Polarisation (𝑃)
• Polarizability (𝛼)
For vacuum, 𝜀 = 𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10−12 𝐹𝑚−1
𝜇
• The total dipole moment of a system constituting of point charges
𝑛
𝜇𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑖=1 𝑄𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑃 = 𝜇 /𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Polarizability (𝜶): When a dielectric material is placed in an electric field, the
displacement of electric charge gives rise to the creation of dipole in the material.
The polarization P of an elementary particle is directly proportional to the electric
field strength E.
𝐹 𝑄
𝑃∝𝐸 ∴𝐸= =
𝑑𝑞 4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2
𝑃 = 𝛼𝐸
• If the solid material contains 𝑁 number of particles per unit volume, then the
polarization can be written as
𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝐸
• The electrical insulating materials are classified into seven classes, according to their
temperature limits based on their thermal stability.
Types of Dielectric Polarizations
• When the specimen is placed inside a D.C. electric field, polarization is due to four types of
processes
1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Dipolar or Orientation polarization
4. Interfacial or Space charge polarization
1. Electronic polarization
+ +
- -
Electric Field
• Due to the displacement of positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons in
opposite directions, when an external electric field is applied, and thereby a dipole moment is
created in the dielectric.
𝜇𝑒 ∝ 𝐸, 𝜇𝑒 = 𝛼𝑒 𝐸 where ‘αe’ is called electronic polarizability constant
𝛼𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3
• Hence electronic Polarizability is directly proportional to cube of the radius of the atom. It
occurs only at optical frequencies (1015Hz). It is independent on temperature
𝑃𝑒 = 4𝑁𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3 𝐸
𝜀𝑟 − 1 = 4𝑁𝜋𝑅3
The electronic polarization is observed where there is negligible interaction between atoms.
Example: Inert gases.
𝑅𝐻𝑒 < 𝑅𝑁𝑒 < 𝑅𝐴𝑟 < 𝑅𝐾𝑟 < 𝑅𝑋𝑒 < 𝑅𝑅𝑛
𝛼𝐻𝑒 < 𝛼𝑁𝑒 < 𝛼𝐴𝑟 < 𝛼𝐾𝑟 < 𝛼𝑋𝑒 < 𝛼𝑅𝑛
• Ionic polarization arises due to the displacement of negative ions and positive ions in opposite
directions and it occurs in ionic molecules such as NaCl, KBr, KCl and LiBr in the presence of
electric field.
- No field + -
+
- - - - -
+ + +
-
- +
- - + - + -
+ +
+ -
- - - + with field
- + - + - +
+ - + +
Electric field
𝑥1 𝑥2
• The induced average ionic polarization produced per ionic dipole is 𝑃𝑖 = 𝛼𝑖 𝐸. The
polarization produced for a crystal having N number of dipoles per unit volume is 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑁𝛼𝑖 𝐸.
• 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 be the displacements of the –ve and +ve ions. The dipole moment is 𝜇𝑖 = 𝑒(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 )
• The force experienced by the ions due to the applied electric field is
𝐹 ∝ 𝑥1, ∝ 𝑥2
= 𝛽1 𝑥1 =𝛽2 𝑥2 where 𝛽1 and 𝛽2 are the constants and they are directly proportional to
the mass and angular frequency of the respective ions.
𝛽1 ∝ 𝑚 and 𝛽2 ∝ 𝑀
∝ 𝜔02 ∝ 𝜔02
• The force experienced by both ions 𝐹 = 𝑒𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔02 𝑥1 = 𝑀𝜔02 𝑥2
𝑒𝐸 𝑒𝐸
𝑥1 = 𝑥2 =
𝑚𝜔02 𝑀𝜔02
𝑒2 1 1
• The induced dipole moment is 𝜇𝑖 = 𝜔2 +𝑀 𝐸
0 𝑚
𝑒2 1 1
• The ionic polarizability is 𝛼𝑖 = +
𝜔02 𝑚 𝑀
𝑒2 1 1
• The ionic polarization is 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑁 𝜔2 𝑚 + 𝑀 𝐸.
0
• It is independent of temperature
• In addition to 𝑃𝑖 , an ionic molecules also possesses 𝑃𝑒 due to the displacement of electron clouds.
The 𝑃𝑒 of an ionic molecules will be in the order of 1/10th of 𝑃𝑖 . Hence, its magnitude is much
smaller than the 𝑃𝑖 .
• If electronic and Ionic polarizations occur together then it is called “Volume Polarization”.
3. Dipolar or Orientation polarization
• This polarization is produced only in case of polar molecules such as 𝐻2 𝑂 , 𝐻𝐶𝑙 and
Nitrobenzene.
𝐶𝑙 − 𝐻+
Net dipole
moment is
𝑏 The dipole in a HCl molecule
zero
Net dipole
moment is
not zero
𝜋
• The maximum work done energy is 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇 𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 𝑝
= 2𝜇𝑝 𝐸
𝜇𝑝 𝐸
• The ratio of average dipole energy to average thermal energy is 5 . If this ratio is greater
𝐾 𝑇
2 𝐵
than unity then the orientation polarisation is said to be effective.
𝜇𝑝 ×𝜇𝑝 𝐸
• The average orientation polarisation is 𝑃𝑂 ∝ 5
𝐾 𝑇
2 𝐵
• If the calculation for average dipole energy is properly done using Boltzmann’s statistics, then
2𝐸
𝜇𝑝
the average orientation polarisation is 𝑃𝑂 = 3𝐾
𝐵𝑇
2
𝜇𝑝
• The orientation polarizability is 𝛼𝑂 = 3𝐾
𝐵𝑇
+ - + + - +
- - +
+
- - - +
- + +
- - -
- +
+ + - - +
𝑎 in the absence of electric field 𝑏 in the presence of electric field
• Due to the d iff u s io n of ions, along the field direction, thereby giving rise to
redistribution of charges in the dielectrics.
Total polarizability
Temperature dependence of polarization
• The straight line makes an intercept at the y-axis, when 1/T = 0. The value of the
temp. independent portion in the plot is
𝑁 𝛼𝑒 + 𝛼𝑖 .
• Let us consider a solid dielectric, which exhibits only electronic polarizability and
placed in a electric field.
𝑃
• 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸 + , 𝐸𝑖 is also known as Lorentz internal field.
3𝜀0
𝑃
• The total polarization is 𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 + ………………………(1)
3𝜀0
𝑃 𝐷
• We know that 𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃 and = 𝐸 − 𝜀0
𝐸
𝑃
• From the definition of electronic displacement vector, D = ε𝐸 ∴ 𝐸 = 𝜀 − 𝜀0 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 − 𝜀0
𝑃
• = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 − 1 and 𝑃 = 𝐸𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 − 1 ………………………………..(2)
𝐸
𝐸𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 −1 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 −1
• 𝐸𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 − 1 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝐸 + , 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 − 1 = 𝑁𝛼𝑒 1 +
3𝜀0 3𝜀0
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 −1 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 −1 𝜀𝑟 −1 1
• 𝑁𝛼𝑒 = 𝜀 𝜀 −1 , = 3𝜀 , = 3𝜀 𝑁𝛼𝑒 ……………(3)
1+ 0 3𝜀𝑟 3𝜀0 0 +𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 −1 𝜀𝑟 +2 0
0
• By sub. The values of 𝜀𝑟 , 𝜀0 and 𝑁 one can determine the electronic polarizability 𝛼𝑒 .
𝑛
• For a dielectric material consisting 𝑁 number of dipoles 𝜀𝑟 − 1 1
= 𝑁𝑖 𝛼𝑒𝑖
𝜀𝑟 + 2 3𝜀0
𝑖
• 𝑁𝑖 and 𝛼𝑒𝑖 are the appropriate quantities for the types of atoms and molecules.
Assumptions:
• All the dielectric materials are considered to be imperfect capacitor and can be
represented in the form of Resistance ‘R’ and Capacitance ‘C’ in parallel.
𝐼
Here, cos 𝜃 is power factor and 𝛿 is loss angle
𝐼𝐶
For good dielectric materials 𝜃 is close to 900
𝛿 𝛿 is very small.
𝜃 𝐼𝑅
Phaser diagram of dielectric material
𝐼𝑅 𝑉/𝑅 1 𝜃 𝐼𝑅
tan 𝛿 = = =
𝐼𝐶 𝑉 1 𝜔𝐶 𝑅𝜔𝐶
𝑉2
𝑃= = 𝑉 2 𝜔𝐶 tan 𝛿
𝑅
Dielectric Strength
• It is a measure of the ability of that material to withstand high
electric fields
or
• Maximum electric field that the dielectric can withstand without
suffering electrical break down
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝑑
Dielectric Breakdown
• When a voltage is applied to a dielectric material and thereby the
electric field is increased, it can withstand up to a certain maximum
voltage before it permits large current to pass through it. This
phenomenon in which the dielectric material fails to offer insulation
resistance for large applied voltage is known as dielectric breakdown
and the corresponding voltage is known as breakdown voltage.
Types of Dielectric Breakdown
1. Intrinsic breakdown
2. Thermal breakdown
3. Discharge breakdown
4. Electrochemical breakdown
5. Defect breakdown
Intrinsic Breakdown
• when a dielectric is subjected to high electric fields the electrons in the
valence band acquire sufficient energy to overcome the large energy
gap and get excited to the conduction band. The mobile electrons get
highly accelerated in the high electric field and so by collisions they
excite more electrons to the conduction band thus more and more
electrons are released to the conduction band resulting in an avalanche
of conduction electrons.
Characteristics:
• It can occur even at low temperature.
• It requires relatively large electric field.
• This breakdown occurs mostly in thin samples.
• It does not depend on the electrode configuration and shape of the
material.
Thermal Breakdown
Characteristics:
• Some dielectric materials may have surface defects like cracks and
pores.
• Moisture and other impurities can get filled up at these places leading
to defect breakdown.
Dielectric Properties
• The following are some of the key properties of dielectric materials that determine
their suitability for specific application.
• Relative Permittivity.
• Dielectric Strength.
• Dielectric Loss
• Mechanical Properties
• Insulation Resistance
• Temperature Effects
Piezo- electric
dielectric
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