Workbook ESS Year 1

Environmental
Systems and Societies

Year 1 Workbook
Name: __________________________________
Class: _______________
1.1 Environmental
Value Systems
Significant Ideas:
Historical events, among other influences, affect the development of environmental value
systems and environmental movements.
There is a wide spectrum of environmental value systems each with their own premises and
applications.
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IB ESS | 1.1 Environmental Value Systems
VOCABULARY SHEET
Add a definition or description for each word or phrase. Under ‘prompt’ you may wish to
add an alternative word, small picture or a translation.
Word/Phrase Prompt Definition/Description
Environmental …………………………………………………..………..
value system ……………………………………………………………
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Ecocentric ……………………………………………………………
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Anthropocentric ……………………………………………………………
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Technocentric ……………………………………………………………
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Deep ecologist ……………………………………………………………
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Soft ecologist ……………………………………………………………
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Environmental …………………………………………………..………..
manager ……………………………………………………………
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Cornucopian ……………………………………………………………
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Biocentric ……………………………………………………………
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What is an EVS
1. Define “Environmental Value System”.

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2. Look at the systems diagram for an EVS. Add any additional inputs and outputs that you can
think of.
(Hints: think about what things influence a person’s knowledge and opinions on the
environment.)
education opinions of
friends
A person’s environmental
values
decision to
recycle waste
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3. Define the following value systems:
Ecocentric
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Anthropocentric
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Technocentric
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4. Summarise the viewpoints of the following types of people:
Cornucopians
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Environmental Managers
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Deep ecologists
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Ecocentrists Anthropocentrists Technocentrists
______________________________ ______________________________ (This is mainly a cornucopian

______________________________ ______________________________ viewpoint): It is not a major
______________________________ ______________________________ problem. Species are going extinct
______________________________ ______________________________ because of pollutants,
deforestation etc. but these
______________________________ ______________________________
activities are the result of
______________________________ ______________________________ economic development and this is
Why is this
______________________________ ______________________________ perhaps more important than
a
______________________________ ______________________________ conserving some species; we can
problem?
______________________________ ______________________________ fix any problems this might cause
later using human ingenuity.
______________________________ ______________________________
largely a consequence of human activities.
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____________ ____________
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Change our lifestyle: we need to
use fewer harmful chemicals, stop ______________________________ ______________________________
burning fossil fuels etc. We need to ______________________________ ______________________________
accept having fewer luxuries in ______________________________ ______________________________
order to stop polluting the
______________________________ ______________________________
environment and destroying
What natural habitats. ______________________________ ______________________________
should we ______________________________ ______________________________
do about ______________________________ ______________________________
it? ______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
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The rate of extinctions world-wide is currently very high; the number of species going extinct is
5. Complete the table to summarise some possible viewpoints of the following types of people.
currently a lot more than it has been through most of geological time. This high extinction rate is
5
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____________ ____________
Historical Influences on EVSs
1. Draw a timeline to mark some of the major events in history that have influenced
environmental value systems. As a minimum, you must include the following (but you are
encouraged to add others):
The agricultural revolution, the industrial revolution, the green revolution,
founding of Greenpeace, Carson’s “Silent Spring” published, at least two major
environmental disasters
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What is Your EVS?
1. What is your environmental value system? Justify your opinion using examples of
environmental systems.
Note: You may have a combination of different viewpoints, this is fine. There is no wrong answer when
giving your opinion but you do need to be able to justify it.
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1.2 Systems and
Models
Significant Ideas:
A systems approach can help in the study of complex environmental issues.
The use of systems and models simplifies interactions but may provide a more holistic view
without reducing issues to single processes.
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IB ESS | 1.2 Systems and Models
VOCABULARY SHEET
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System ……………………………………………………………
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Systems approach ……………………………………………………………
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Reductionism ……………………………………………………………
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Model ……………………………………………………………
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Storage ……………………………………………………………
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Flow ……………………………………………………………
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Transfer ……………………………………………………………
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Transformation ……………………………………………………………
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Open system ……………………………………………………………
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Closed system ……………………………………………………………
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Isolate system ……………………………………………………………
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What is a System?
1.
a) Compare reductionism with the systems approaches to scientific research.
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b) Describe what is meant by the term “emergent properties”.
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2. There are several components that are present for most systems. Match the words below with
the descriptions
Flow Input Output Storages Boundary
The stock of matter or energy within a system.
The movement of matter or energy from one storage to

another, or into/out of the system.
The designated area separating the system from its

surroundings.
Matter or energy entering the system.
Matter or energy exiting the system.
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3. Flows can be categorized into two distinct types depending on whether the matter/energy is
changed or just moved. State and describe what these categories are.
Type of flow: ________________________
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Type of flow: ________________________
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4. Draw a systems diagram to represent a fish farm
(The fish are in the ocean but contained within the farm by a net until caught and sold. They are
provided with food and medicine, and produce waste products, sometimes polluting the
surrounding water. Bacteria/pathogens will also feed on the food and may cause infections in
the fish.)
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Types of System
1. Systems can be categorized depending on whether or not energy and matter are able to
enter/exit the system. Outline what is meant by the following in terms of energy and matter:
Open system
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Closed system
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Isolated system
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2. State whether the following are open, closed or isolated systems.
Type of system Description
A natural forest ecosystem
A closed zip-lock bag
A fishbowl
An adiabatic* drinks flask

(This is only theoretical – not physically possible)
* “Adiabatic” means it is a perfect insulator – if you put hot tea in it, it would never cool down. Ever.
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Models
1. Define the term “model”.

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2. There are a number of types of model such as:
• Physical models
• Computer simulations
• Mathematical models (often using computers if they are very complex)
• Diagrams (e.g. systems diagrams)
a) Describe a physical model you have seen or used recently.

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b) If you have ever checked the weather forecast, you have used (or seen the results of)
a computer simulation model. Explain why weather forecast tools are considered models.
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c) Explain why a systems diagram is considered a model.
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3. Models are very useful but also have their limitations and disadvantages.
a) Using the table, summarise the advantages and disadvantages of using models. Use
the headings to guide your answers.
Advantages
Simplifying a complex reality
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Predicting future changes
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Identifying patterns
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Visualising small or large systems
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Limitations
Simplification vs accuracy
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Specialist knowledge (or lack of)
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Quality of input data
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4. Evaluate the following model of a sheep farm system:
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1.3 Energy and
Equilibria
Significant Ideas:
The laws of thermodynamics govern the flow of energy in a system and the ability to do
work.
Systems can exist in alternative stable states or as equilibria between which there are tipping
points.
Destabilizing positive feedback mechanisms will drive systems toward these tipping points,
whereas stabilizing negative feedback mechanisms will resist such changes.
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IB ESS | 1.3 Energy and Equilibria
VOCABULARY SHEET
First law of …………………………………………………..………..

thermodynamics ……………………………………………………………
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Second law of …………………………………………………..………..

thermodynamics ……………………………………………………………
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Entropy ……………………………………………………………
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Stable equilibrium ……………………………………………………………
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Steady-state …………………………………………………..………..
equilibrium ……………………………………………………………
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Negative …………………………………………………..………..
feedback ……………………………………………………………
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Positive feedback ……………………………………………………………
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Resilience ……………………………………………………………
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Tipping point ……………………………………………………………
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Energy and Entropy
1. a) State the first law of thermodynamics.
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b) A student makes the following statement:
“As a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics, energy is never lost
from an ecosystem.”
Explain why this is not correct.
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2.
a) State the second law of thermodynamics.
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b) In a food chain, the amount of energy available to each successive trophic level
decreases substantially. Explain how this demonstrates the second law of thermodynamics.
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3. Define “entropy”
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4. Draw a model to demonstrate energy transfers and transformations through an ecosystem.
(Help: Start with a basic food web or chain, then consider the various flows of energy, including sunlight,
heat, chemical energy in biomass etc. Include values for the flows, such as percentages. Note that
conversion of sunlight in photosynthesis is roughly 1% efficient, and the transfer of energy to higher trophic
levels is about 10% efficient)
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Equilibrium
1. Define equilibrium.
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2.
a) Compare “static equilibrium” and “steady state equilibrium”.
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b) State and explain two examples of each of the above types of equilibrium. Examples are
included for each.
Type of
Example Explanation
Equilibrium
A place will have births and deaths, but will
A country’s
ultimately remain unchanged (assuming the two
population
are in balance).
Steady ________________________________________________
state ________________________________________________
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The hat is not in motion, remaining in equilibrium.
A hat on a hook
There are no inputs or outputs creating a change.
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Static ________________________________________________
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3. Compare “stable equilibrium” and “unstable equilibrium”.
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4. Is a simple ecosystem or a more complex ecosystem more likely to maintain a stable
equilibrium when faced with disturbance? Explain your answer, using examples.
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Feedback
1.
a) Define negative feedback.
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b) Look at graph showing a predator-prey relationship:
Explain how predator-prey relationships can keep populations relatively constant through
negative feedback.
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c) Outline one more example of negative feedback.
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2.
a) Define positive feedback.
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b) Outline “the vicious cycle of poverty” as an example of positive feedback.
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c) Draw a diagram to represent a positive feedback mechanism involving the albedo
effect.
3. An IB student has a lot of work to do and gets stressed. As a result, they might struggle to
focus on their work, and delay in completing it. The workload piles up more and more because
they aren’t getting through it, making them more stressed.
What type of feedback mechanism is being described here? Explain your answer.
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Resilience
1.
a) Describe what is meant by the term “resilience”.
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b) Describe the connection between resilience and stability.
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2. Describe what is meant by the term “tipping point”.
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3.
a) Explain how the size of storages and the diversity of a system can affect its resilience.
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b) Using the table, state and explain the resilience of the stated systems.
(Help: consider the disturbances that might occur, such as diseases, invasive species, weather changes etc...)
Resilience
System Explanation
(high / moderate / low)
There are many interactions between

organisms if the biodiversity is high. If there is a
A very large forest change, e.g. a decrease the population of a
ecosystem with High particular species through disease, those
high biodiversity organisms that feed on it will have alternative
food sources to turn to. The system will remain
mostly unchanged.
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A large field with _____________________________________________
only corn growing _____________________________________________
in it, with a small
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number of insects
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feeding on the
corn. _____________________________________________
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An isolated village _____________________________________________
community in the _____________________________________________
Gobi desert, with
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a population of
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around 1000
people. _____________________________________________
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The community of _____________________________________________
Shanghai, China. _____________________________________________
Population _____________________________________________
roughly _____________________________________________
24,000,000. _____________________________________________
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4. Explain how the following human activities might affect the resilience of the system stated.
Note: there is a range of possible correct answers for each system (but you only need to state
one).
Activity: Extensive use of fossil fuels, resulting in increased atmospheric levels of greenhouse
gases.
System: The ocean food web
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Activity: Introduction of invasive bird species
System: A forest ecosystem
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Activity: Population control using a “one child policy”
System: A large society
(Help: think about possible problems associated with an “aging population”)
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5. Choose one of the examples in question 4. Imagine that the activity described pushes the
system to a tipping point.
Describe the tipping point and evaluate the consequences.
(Help: Think about the new equilibrium the system might reach and what it would be like. What are the advantages
and disadvantages to the system?)
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1.4 Sustainability
Significant Ideas:
All systems can be viewed through the lens of sustainability.
Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs.
Environmental indicators and ecological footprints can be used to assess sustainability.
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) play an important role in sustainable development.
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IB ESS | 1.4 Sustainability
VOCABULARY SHEET
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Sustainability ……………………………………………………………
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Natural capital ……………………………………………………………
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Natural income ……………………………………………………………
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(Natural income …………………………………………………..………..

of…) Goods ……………………………………………………………
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(Natural income …………………………………………………..………..

of…) Services ……………………………………………………………
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Environmental …………………………………………………..………..
Impact ……………………………………………………………
Assessment ……………………………………………………………
Ecological …………………………………………………..………..
footprint ……………………………………………………………
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Sustainability and Natural Capital
1. Define “sustainability”.
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2. List the ways in which a nation might measure sustainability.
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3. State at least one advantage of measuring sustainability...
...on a local scale:
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...on a global scale:
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4. Define “natural capital”.

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5. For the country you live in (or you could choose the country you’re from if it’s different to the
country you currently live in), list as many items of natural capital as you can think of that are
provided by the ecosystem.
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Sustainability vs Natural Capital vs Natural Income
1. Define “natural income”.

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2. Using examples, distinguish between natural income of goods and natural income of
services.
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3. Explain how unsustainable land use might affect natural income for the current and future
generations.
Hints:
• Think about the benefits of unsustainable land use (there are some, at least in the short-
term) as well as the drawbacks.
• Consider the various goods as well as services that land can provide, and the different
people that benefit.
• Provide a balanced argument: should future generations be prioritized over the current
generation? How might a technocentric person’s opinion differ from an ecocentric
person’s opinion?
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The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
• The MEA is very extensive and a lot of information has been published. To explore this
research, a good place to start is the “Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing: Synthesis”,
available here:
http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.356.aspx.pdf.
• The research has also been summarised in a more accessible format at this website:
http://www.greenfacts.org/en/ecosystems/index.htm
1. Summarise the purpose of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.

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2. Summarise the key findings of the MEA with regards to:
a) The percentage of ecosystems worldwide that are currently being degraded.
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b) Fish stock exploitation
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c) Surface freshwater use
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c) Mangroves
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Use the “Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing: Synthesis” document to get information to answer
question 3, 4 and 5.
3. Regarding biomes (see page 4)

a) Which three biomes had the most area converted by 1950?
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b) Which three biomes had the most area converted between 1950 and 1990?
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c) What is the main cause for biome conversion?
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4. Regarding extinction rates (see page 5):
a) What is the current situation on global animal extinction rates?
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b) How is this expected to change in the future?
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5. The report states (Page 6) that “The degradation of ecosystem services often causes
significant harm to human well-being.”
a) Figure 8 on page 9 will help answer the following:
i) State the natural income of goods a forest can provide.
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ii) State the natural income of services a forest can provide.
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b) In what way(s) might a forest ecosystem’s services become “degraded”?
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c) Using forests as an example, explain how the use of natural capital for “marketed
benefits” may be less economically sustainable than use for “non-marketed benefits”.
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Environmental Impact Assessments
1. Outline the purpose of an Environmental Impact Assessment.

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2. Using the table, briefly outline the stages of creating an EIA.
Stage Details
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Screening ________________________________________________________
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Scoping ________________________________________________________
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Baseline study ________________________________________________________
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Impact prediction ________________________________________________________
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Mitigation ________________________________________________________
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Monitoring/
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Assessment
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3. Outline the reasons for creating a non-technical summary of an EIA.

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4. Summarise at least four criticisms of EIAs.
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Ecological Footprints
1. Outline what is meant by the term “ecological footprint”.

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2. Outline how the following factors relate to the ecological footprint of a country.
The first one has been done for you.
Factor Details
Cropland The amount of land required to provide food for human
consumption (including food, animal feed, and other products
taken from crops).
Grazing land
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Carbon
sequestration
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Forests
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Built-up land
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Fisheries
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An ecological footprint is often expressed as an area of land: if the size of a nation’s ecological
footprint is larger than their actual land mass, then they are living beyond their means and this is
not sustainable.
3. Explain the link between EF and sustainability.
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Another convenient way to think about an EF is “number of Earths”. For example, how many
Earths would we need if everybody on the planet lived your lifestyle?
4. Using the “number of Earths” method, make a sensible estimate of your ecological footprint.
Justify the answer your give.
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5. Do some online research: find the ecological footprint of the country you live in, and
compare it to the ecological footprint of one other country, and explain the differences. You
may find data to explain the differences and/or you may use your own knowledge about
lifestyle differences between the two countries.
http://data.footprintnetwork.org is a useful resource for this.
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1.5 Humans and
Pollution
Significant Ideas:
Pollution is a highly diverse phenomenon of human disturbance in ecosystems.
Management strategies can be applied at different levels.
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IB ESS | 1.5 Humans and Pollution
VOCABULARY SHEET

Pollution
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Organic pollutant
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Inorganic
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pollutant
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Point source
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pollutant
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Non-point source
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pollutant
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Primary pollutant
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Secondary
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pollutant
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DDT
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Persistent pollutant
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Acute pollution
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Chronic pollution
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What is Pollution?
1. Define “pollution”.
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2. Pollutants can be categorized as “primary” and “secondary” pollutants. Using examples,
explain the difference between these two terms.
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3. The table below lists a number of different examples of pollution. From the list, choose the
matching pollution type.
light, sound, inorganic substances, organic substances, heat
Pollution Type Example
Sulphur dioxide from a

factory entering the air
Manure used as fertilizer

on farmland washing into
a lake
A bright garden light
shining into the
neighbour’s house
Disruptive noise coming
from a busy road near a
housing estate
Warm water entering a

river from a factory
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4. a) State one example of point and non-point source pollution.
Point source pollution:
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Non-point source pollution:
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b) Explain how point and non-point source pollution differ.
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5. Air quality in Beijing is particularly poor as a result of coal-burning, amongst other activities.
This is an example of chronic pollution. Using an example of acute pollution to support your
answer, explain why Beijing air pollution is an example of chronic pollution.
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________________________________________________________________
6. Some pollutants are considered persistent, while others are biodegradable. Using an example
of each to support your answer, explain what these terms mean.
Persistent Pollutant
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Biodegradable Pollutant
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
43
DDT
1. State two uses of DDT.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. With reference to biomagnification, describe the harmful effects of DDT on birds.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. List some of the potential impacts of DDT on humans.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Summarise the effect that Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring had on public opinion on DDT use.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. Evaluate the use of DDT and justify your own opinion on its use.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
44
Pollution Management
Plastics are a major source of pollution with many negative consequences, particularly for
aquatic organism and marine birds if the plastic enters the oceans (and it often does). Plastic
can enter the environment in a number of ways. Poor waste management as well as littering
adds plastic to the environment, and drinks bottles in particular are a major problem. Micro-
beads, which are tiny balls of plastic added to shower gels and cosmetic products, are washed
down the sink and enter water ways directly. Another source is micro-fibers which are
degraded from clothes and are washed away in the laundry.
Plastics that enter the ocean can affect some marine birds; the Laysan Albatross, for example,
feeds by skimming the surface of the water with its beak, meaning it will scoop up and swallow
any plastic that is floating. This often results in the death of young albatrosses, as they are not
able to regurgitate the material. Fish can be harmed by ingesting microplastics, which are
bioaccumulated and then biomagnified through the food chain to higher organisms such as
larger fish, birds and even humans.
1. Using the pollution management model, summarise possible management strategies for
plastics at each of the three levels. You’re expected to make your own sensible suggestions.
Process of Level of pollution

Possible strategy for plastic pollution
pollution management
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Human activity _________________________________________________
Altering human _________________________________________________
producing
activity _________________________________________________
pollutant
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Release of _________________________________________________
Controlling release
pollutant into _________________________________________________
of pollutant
the environment _________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Impact of Clean-up and _________________________________________________
pollutant on restoration of _________________________________________________
ecosystem damaged systems _________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
45
2.1 Species and
Populations
Significant ideas:
A species interacts with its abiotic and biotic environment, and its niche is described by
these interactions.
Populations change and respond to interactions with the environment.
All systems have a carrying capacity for a given species.
46
IB ESS | 2.1 Species and Populations
VOCABULARY SHEET

Species
…………………………………………………..………..
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Habitat
…………………………………………………..………..
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Niche
…………………………………………………..………..
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Fundamental
…………………………………………………..………..
niche
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Realized niche
…………………………………………………..………..
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
S curve
…………………………………………………..………..
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
J curve
…………………………………………………..………..
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Carrying capacity
…………………………………………………..………..
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Limiting factor
…………………………………………………..………..
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Biotic factors
…………………………………………………..………..
(influencing
……………………………………………………………
populations)
……………………………………………………………
Abiotic factors
…………………………………………………..………..
(influencing
……………………………………………………………
populations)
……………………………………………………………
47
Key Vocabulary
1. Define the following:

Species
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Habitat
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Niche
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Abiotic factors
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Biotic factors
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Carrying capacity
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
48
2. Distinguish between fundamental niche and realized niche.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Explain why population growth slows when a population approaches its carrying capacity.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
49
Interactions
1. Define the following species interactions

Competition
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Predation
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Herbivory
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Parasitism
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Mutualism
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Distinguish between intra- and inter-specific competition.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
50
Population Changes
1. Outline what is represented in S and J curves.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Draw a labeled S and J curve.
• Include a dotted line to represent the carrying capacity.
• Show fluctuation on the J curve.
S curve:
J curve:
51
2.2 Communities and
Ecosystems
Significant Ideas:
The interactions of species with their environment results in energy and nutrients flow.
Photosynthesis and respiration play a significant role in the flow of energy in communities.
The feeding relationships in a system can be modeled using food chains, food webs and
ecological pyramids.
52
IB ESS | 2.2 Communities and Ecosystems
VOCABULARY SHEET
…………………………………………………..………..
Community ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Ecosystem ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Respiration ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Photosynthesis ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Chemosynthesis ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Producer ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Consumer ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Decomposer ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Food web ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Ecological …………………………………………………..………..
pyramid ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
53
Photosynthesis and Respiration
1. Define respiration.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Respiration releases energy. State the form of energy that this will eventually become.
________________________________________________________________
3. State three energy conversions that occur in ecosystems ending in the energy form stated
above.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Write the word equation AND chemical equation for respiration.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. Define photosynthesis.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6. Write the word equation AND chemical equation for photosynthesis.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
7. State a type of organism that can occupy the first trophic level of a food chain but not
perform photosynthesis.
________________________________________________________________
54
8. Explain how the transfers of energy and matter through photosynthesis support the first and
second laws of thermodynamics.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
9. Construct a systems diagram showing the transfers of energy and matter through an
ecosystem with four trophic levels. (Don’t forget to draw a boundary).
55
Ecological Pyramids
1. Compare and contrast pyramids of biomass and pyramids of productivity.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. State the units used for storages of biomass as represented in pyramids of biomass.
________________________________________________________________
3. State the units used for energy flow as represented in pyramids of productivity.
________________________________________________________________
4. Draw ecological pyramids to represent the following data:
a) A pyramid of numbers: one tree is consumed by 100 caterpillars, which are eaten by 20 birds.
b) A pyramid of biomass for an ecosystem which contains 1kg m-2 of grass. Crickets eat the
grass and frogs eat the crickets. 20% of the energy is transferred to the second trophic level,
and 10% is transferred to the third level.
56
c) A pyramid of productivity for a food chain involving herbs, insects and voles. Assume an
efficiency of transfer of 10% between all trophic levels, and an NPP value of 10,000 KJ m-2 yr-1
57
Biomagnification and Bioaccumulation
1. Define “bioaccumulation”.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Define “biomagnification”.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Explain how the emission of elemental and methyl mercury into Minamata bay resulted in
local people suffering from Mercury poisoning.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. DDT is used as a pesticide. The material is persistant: explain what this means.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
58
5. According to a study in Long Island Estuary, concentrations of less than 0.1ppm of DDT in
plankton led to concentrations of up to 25 ppm in sea birds (Ehrlich et al. 1998). Explain why the
concentration is notably higher in seabirds.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6. In sufficient amounts, DDT effects the hardness of bird shells (which often results in the shell
breaking and the offspring dying before hatching at an appropriate time). Draw a diagram to
show how DDT run-off from farmland can result in egg-thinning in seagulls.
References
Ehrlich, P. R., Dobkin, D. S. and Wheye, D. (1998) DDT and Birds [online] Available:
https://web.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/DDT_and_Birds.html
59
2.3 Flows of Energy
and Matter
Significant ideas:
Ecosystems are linked together by energy and matter flows.
The Sun’s energy drives these flows and humans are impacting the flows of energy and
matter both locally and globally.
60
IB ESS | 2.3 Flows of Energy and Matter
VOCABULARY SHEET
…………………………………………………..………..
NPP ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
GPP ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
NSP ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
GSP ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Reflection (of …………………………………………………..………..

energy) ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Absorption (of …………………………………………………..………..

energy) ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Insolation ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Trophic level ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Maximum …………………………………………………..………..
sustainable yield ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Efficiency ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
61
Energy Transfers
1. Draw a diagram to summarise the transfers and transformations of solar energy that occur as
it reaches the Earth. Use the details listed below:
3% reflection by scatter 17% absorption by molecules/dust

19% reflection by clouds 3% absorption by clouds
9% reflection by ground 49% absorption by the ground
2. Roughly what percentage of the Sun’s radiation is available to plants for photosynthesis?
________________________________________________________________
62
Productivity
1. The sentences below each describe one of the phrases in the box. Write the correct phrase
below each sentence.
Net primary productivity Gross primary productivity
Net secondary productivity Gross secondary productivity
Maximum sustainable yield
The total amount of stuff (energy or biomass) that’s taken in and assimilated by a consumer.
An example is all the food that an animal takes in, subtracting what it releases as faeces.
________________________________________________________________
The total amount of energy/matter assimilated by a producer (e.g. a plant), before it gets
used by the plant for respiration.
________________________________________________________________
The food that an animal consumes, with fecal losses AND respiration subtracted. This is
basically what is available to the next trophic level.
________________________________________________________________
The amount of energy/biomass that a producer takes in that it actually keeps (and doesn’t
use for respiration).
________________________________________________________________
This is equivalent to NPP or NSP (depending on the context). It’s basically the amount of
“useful” stuff that is produced by a system.
________________________________________________________________
2. Complete the table below summarizing the details of productivity:
Productivity Abbr. Calculation Units

type
Net primary
productivity
Food eaten – fecal loss
NSP
63
The Carbon Cycle
1.
a) Complete the table to list the flows and storages in the carbon cycle.
Storages Flows
b) Draw a systems diagram to represent the carbon cycle. Include all storages and
flows.
64
The Nitrogen Cycle
1.
a) Complete the table to list the flows and storages in the nitrogen cycle.
Storages Flows
b) Draw a systems diagram to represent the nitrogen cycle. Include all storages and
flows.
65
Human Impacts
1. Outline ways in which humans influence energy flows.

Hints:
• Greenhouse gases
• Increased water vapour (clouds are reflective)
• Deforestation
• CFCs, ozone and UV light
• Agriculture: disrupting the natural flow through a food chain/web
• ... (any others you can think of?)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Explain the impact of the industrial revolution on the carbon cycle.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
66
3. Outline the ways in which the agriculture industry has influenced the nitrogen cycle.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
67
2.4 Biomes, Zonation
and Succession
Significant Ideas:
Climate determines the type of biome in a given area although individual ecosystems may
vary due to many local abiotic and biotic factors.
Succession leads to climax communities that may vary due to random events and
interactions over time. This leads to a pattern of alternative stable states for given
ecosystems.
Ecosystem stability, succession and biodiversity are intrinsically linked.
Image: Navarras (CC0)

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Climate_infl
uence_on_terrestrial_biome.svg
68
IB ESS | 2.4 Biomes, Zonation and Succession
VOCABULARY SHEET
…………………………………………………..………..
Biome ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Zonation ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Primary succession ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Secondary …………………………………………………..………..
succession ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Climax community ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Pioneer species ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Tricellular model ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
r strategist ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
K strategist ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
69
Biomes and Their Distribution
1. Define “biome”.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. There are lots of types of biome but they can be grouped into five major classes. List them.
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
3. The distribution of biomes is largely affected by productivity, which is influenced by
photosynthesis. State how the following climatic variables affect the rate of photosynthesis
Climate Variable Effect on photosynthesis
_________________________________________________________
Insolation _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Temperature _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Precipitation _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
4. What else, apart from climate, can influence the distribution of biomes.
________________________________________________________________
5. State the type of biome of the area that you currently live in.
________________________________________________________________
70
6. On the world map below, label one example of each biome. Name the nation and/or region
that you have labeled in each case. Complete the details in the table. One has been done as
an example.
TR
Label Biome Name Nation/region
TR Tropical Rainforest The Amazon Brazil
P/HI
TG
TDF
CF
Tu
71
Factors Influencing Biomes
1. Without taking seasonal changes into account, describe how latitude affects insolation and
temperature.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. With the help of a diagram, explain the changes described above.
Hint: solar zenith angle
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. The diagram below shows the relationship between temperature, precipitation and biomes.
Show your working for these questions. What
precipitation and temperature values will result
in...
i) A tropical rainforest
Precip. Range: _______________________
Temp. Range: _______________________
ii) Tundra
Precip. Range: _______________________
Temp. Range: _______________________
Image ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biome#/media/File:PrecipitationTempBiomes.jpg (Creative Common 0 license)
72
4. Precipitation to evaporation ratios (P/E) influence soil conditions. Explain why...
a) ...a high P/E results in low soil fertility:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) ...a low P/E results in salinization of soil:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
73
5. Complete the diagram below to represent the tri-cellular model of atmospheric circulation.
Label your diagram.
Pole
90o
Earth
Equator - 0o
6. With reference to the tri-cellular model, summarise what is happening in terms of air
movement and precipitation at the following places:
Location Air/precipitation
Warm air rises. Water condenses as it rise so there is high amount of

ITCZ
precipitation
Between
________________________________________________
90o and 60o ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
At 60o
________________________________________________
Between
________________________________________________
60o and 30o ________________________________________________
74
7. Most scientists agree that the global climate is changing. As a result, biomes are moving.
a) Outline the changes that are occurring worldwide as a consequence of global

climate change.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) Briefly explain the ways some species are moving in response to climate change.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
c) Summarise the limits to species movement and migration.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
75
Zonation
1. Define “Zonation”:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Complete the table below to show the factors that vary with altitude and how they vary.
One of them has been completed for you.
Factor How it varies
Temperature Decreases as altitude increases.
76
3. Kite diagrams are an effective way to show how species abundance changes along an
environmental gradient. Use the kite diagram below to answer the questions
a) State which species is most abundant in rock pools
______________________________
b) State which species is present furthest from the shoreline
______________________________
c) Using the ACFOR scale, state the maximum abundance of the following species in the
specified location:
Species Location Abundance (ACFOR)

A Sand
B Sand
C Sand
A Rock pools
77
Succession
1. State what is meant by the term “succession” of an ecosystem.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Distinguish between primary and secondary succession.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Give 2 circumstances in which primary and secondary succession may occur.
Circumstances in which primary Circumstances in which secondary

succession may occur succession may occur
_________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________
(For the following two questions, think carefully about what the command words are asking for).
4.
a) Describe the changes in both NPP and GPP that occur throughout succession.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) Explain the changes in both NPP and GPP that occur throughout succession.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
78
5. Complete the boxes to show the stages of primary succession
Stage Terrain/soil Biota
No real soil. Only mineral

Bare surface None.
particles.
________________________________
________________________________ Pioneer species.
Stage 1:
________________________________ R-selected species, small in size with
colonization
________________________________ short life cycles and rapid growth.
________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
Stage 2:
________________________________ ____________________________________
Establishment
________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
Stage 3:
________________________________ ____________________________________
Competition
________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
Stage 4:
________________________________ ____________________________________
Stabilisation
________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
Climax
________________________________ ____________________________________
community
________________________________ ____________________________________
________________________________ ____________________________________
79
6. Outline how the following change throughout succession
NPP
GPP
Productivity:Respiration
ratio
Soil depth
Complexity of
ecosystem
Energy flow
Average organism size
7. The specific climax community that is formed from succession will vary. Explain why this is.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
8. a) List the ways in which humans can disrupt the process of succession.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) When succession is disrupted, the system may recover quickly or slowly from the disruption,
depending on its resilience. Explain what is meant by ecosystem resilience.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
80
2.5 Investigating
Ecosystems
Significant Ideas
The description and investigation of ecosystems allows for comparisons to be made
between different ecosystems and for them to be monitored, modeled and evaluated over
time, measuring both natural change and human impacts.
Ecosystems can be better understood through the investigation and quantification of their
components.
81
IB ESS | 2.5 Investigating Ecosystems
VOCABULARY SHEET
…………………………………………………..………..
Classification key ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Sampling strategy ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Reliability ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Accuracy ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Validity ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Species richness ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Species evenness ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Quadrat ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Turbidity ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
ACFOR scale ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
82
Measuring Abiotic Factors in Water Ecosystems
1. List the abiotic components of a marine ecosystem that might be measured.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. Outline what the following abiotic variables are and summarise the methods used to measure
them in freshwater ecosystems.
Turbidity
Details Brief summary of process
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
Flow Velocity
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
83
pH
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
Temperature
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
Dissolved Oxygen
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
84
3. State and evaluate two methods of measuring oxygen concentrations in water.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
85
Measuring Abiotic Components in Terrestrial Ecosystems
1. Outline what the following abiotic variables are and summarise the methods used to measure
them in terrestrial ecosystems.
Air Temperature
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
Light intensity
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
Wind Speed
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
Rainfall
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
86
Soil Texture
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________________
87
Measuring Biotic Components in Terrestrial Ecosystems
4. Design an investigation to compare the NPP and GPP of 2 different lakes.

Use the bottles method and include a diagram, as well as the calculations you would use.
Method
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
88
Diagram
Calculations
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
89
5. Briefly summarise a method to measure productivity of plant material.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
6. Briefly summarise a method for measuring net secondary productivity.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
7. Briefly explain the use and procedure for the following:
Sweep nets
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Pooters
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Tree beating
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Kick sampling
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
90
8. Create a paired statement key to identify 6 aquatic invertebrates.
Use your textbook or do research to find pictures of the organisms
mayfly nymph, damselfly nymph, dragonfly nymph, water scorpion, water

beetle, saucer bug
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________
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91
Measuring Abundance
9. Summarise the capture, mark, release, recapture method.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
10. Write the formula for the Lincoln index.
Include what each symbol stands for (e.g. “n1=...”)
11. Use the following information to calculate an estimated population size of using the Lincoln
index.
A class of 10 students collected data on snails from a small forest area. They
captured 25 snails and marked them, then released them. They returned 1 day
later to find they had captured 31 snails, 4 of which were marked.
Estimated population of snails = ________________________

(Nearest whole number, avoid using decimals)
92
12. Evaluate this method of estimating the snail population size.
(Hints: What assumptions must we make for the Lincoln Index to be reliable and how likely is it
those assumptions are true? Are there any reasons why this method is inaccurate or not
reliable?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
93
Measuring Species Diversity
13. Describe what is meant by “species diversity”.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
14. Write the equation used for Simpson’s Reciprocal Index. Include what each component
stands for (e.g. “N = ...”)
94
15. Students collected data on the plant species present in an area using a quadrat. The
numbers below are an estimate of the total amount of each plant within that area.
2008 2016
Species A 78 95
Species B 45 17
Species C 61 21
Species D 38 0
Species Richness
(question a)
Species diversity
(question b)
a) Complete the table to show the species richness.

b) Calculate the species diversity for each year using the Simpson’s Reciprocal Index.
Show your working below, and add your answers in the table
c) In which year is the species diversity of the ecosystem higher?
Year : ____________________
95
3.1 Introduction to
Biodiversity
Significant ideas:
Biodiversity can be identified in a variety of forms including species diversity, habitat diversity
and genetic diversity.
The ability to both understand and quantify biodiversity is important to conservation efforts.
96
IB ESS | 3.1 An Introduction to Biodiversity
VOCABULARY SHEET
…………………………………………………..………..
Species diversity ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Genetic diversity ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Habitat diversity ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Diversity index ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Biodiversity …………………………………………………..………..
hotspot ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
97
Types of Biodiversity
1. SPECIES DIVERSITY
a) Outline what is meant by “species diversity”.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) Look at the data comparing fish species in two ponds
Pond A Pond B
Fish species 1 30 54
Fish species 2 25 13
Fish species 3 36 0
Fish species 4 18 3
RICHNESS
EVENNESS
i) Complete the boxes to state the species richness (a number) and species evenness
(“more even” or “less even”) for each pond.
ii) Using the Simpson’s Reciprocal Index (D) to ascertain which of the ponds has a
higher species diversity. SHOW YOUR WORKING.
Pond with the highest species diversity = _______________
98
2. Habitat diversity
a) Outline what is meant by “habitat diversity”
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) Complete the spider diagram to list as many habitat types as you can think of.
canopy
Examples
of Habitats
3. Genetic diversity
a) Outline what is meant by “genetic diversity”.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) With reference to two named examples, describe what is meant by “low genetic
diversity” and “high genetic diversity”.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
99
Biodiversity – Why Bother?
1. Outline the relevance of a diversity index.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Outline why it is important to quantify biodiversity.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Explain why assessing changes in biodiversity over time can be important.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Biodiversity data can be used to designate an area as a biodiversity hotspot.
a) Define “biodiversity hotspot”.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) List the criteria used to designate an area as a biodiversity hotspot.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
100
3.2 Origins of
Biodiversity
Significant ideas:
Evolution is a gradual change in the genetic character of populations over many
generations achieved largely through the mechanism of natural selection.
Environmental change gives new challenges to species, which drives evolution diversity.
There have been major mass extinction events in the geological past.
101
IB ESS | 3.2 Origins of Biodiversity
VOCABULARY SHEET
…………………………………………………..………..
Genetic variation ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Biological fitness ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Natural selection ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Evolution ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Speciation ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Extinct ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Mass extinction ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Continental drift ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Land bridge ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
102
Natural Selection
1. Define Speciation.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Using the table, summarise the mechanism of natural selection.
Details
____________________________________
____________________________________
Variation ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Fitness ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Reproductive success ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Inheritance ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
103
Isolation of Populations
1. List three physical barriers that might separate populations.
______________________
______________________
______________________
2. Outline the factors which might provide different selection pressures on populations that have
been split and separated.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Using modern nations/continents as a reference, outline the structure of the ancient
continent, “Gondwana”.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. With reference to plate tectonics, explain how Gondwana was transformed into the structure
of continents we currently have on Earth.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. Explain how land bridges may influence the evolution of species.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
104
Mass Extinctions
1.
a) Outline what is meant by the term “background extinction rate”.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) State the estimated background extinction rate, including the units.
________________________________________________________________
2.
a) Outline what is meant by the term “mass extinction”.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) How many mass extinctions have occurred through geological history (not including the
influence of humans)?
__________________________
3. Outline three factors that may have resulted in mass extinctions in the past.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
105
4. Complete the table showing the details of mass extinctions through geological history
Time
(Millions of Geological time period Proportion of families lost
years ago)
Forward
in time
Note: In biological classification a “family” is a specific group of species. A family contains

anywhere up to a thousand species.
106
3.3 Threats to
Biodiversity
Significant ideas:
While global biodiversity is difficult to quantify, it is decreasing rapidly due to human activity.
Classification of species conservation status can provide a useful tool in conservation of
biodiversity.
107
IB ESS | 3.3 Threats to Biodiversity
VOCABULARY SHEET
…………………………………………………..………..
IUCN ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Red list ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Background …………………………………………………..………..
extinction rate ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Natural hazard ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Habitat …………………………………………………..………..
fragmentation ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Overexploitation ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Alien species ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
108
Species Number and Species Loss
1. State the number of species known to science (species that have been found and named).
________________________________________________________________
2. One estimate for the total species number alive on Earth today is about 7 million. Explain why
this number is much larger than your answer to question 1.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Evaluate the current estimates of total species number on Earth today.
Help: when you evaluate, you should give a balanced argument, weighing up the positives and negatives. One way
to approach this particular questions is to give reasons for why current estimates of species number might be quite
reliable, and reasons why the estimate may not be so reliable.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Discuss how current extinction rates compare with those through geological history.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
109
5. Use the headings below to describe the ways in which humans are causing species loss.
Habitat destruction and fragmentation
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Introduction of invasive species
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Pollution
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Agricultural practices
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Overharvesting (e.g. of fish)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Hunting/poaching
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
110
The Impact of Humans on Tropical Biomes
1.
a) What proportion of the Earth is covered by tropical rainforests?
________________________________________________________________
b) What proportion of all species on Earth live in tropical rainforests?
________________________________________________________________
2. With reference to biodiversity hotspots, describe the levels of species and habitat diversity in
tropical rainforests.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Using the headings to guide you, describe the ecological services that tropical rainforests
provide.
Oxygen production
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Nutrient cycling and soil formation
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Sequestration of carbon dioxide
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
111
4. Complete the scatter diagram to list the income of goods that rainforests can provide.
RAINFORESTS:
Income of goods
5. Outline the changes in percentage cover of rainforests over the Earth over the past 60 years.
Use facts and statistics to support your answer if possible.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6. Give reasons for the changes outlined in question five.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
112
7.
a) In tropical biomes (as with many) there is a conflict between exploitation, sustainable
development and conservation. Outline this conflict.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) Most tropical biomes cover Less Economically Developed Countries. Why might the
conflict mentioned in part a) be more of a problem than it would in an MEDC?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
113
8. Using the table, evaluate the impact of human activity on biodiversity in tropical biomes. Use
bullet points
Help: Consider the ways in which exploitation of tropical biomes is useful to us (consider the income of
goods we get when we exploit rainforests or clear the land for something else) and also discuss the
negative impacts.
Advantages Disadvantages
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
____________________________ ____________________________
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114
Threatened Species and the IUCN Red List
1. In the table below, outline the factors that influence how prone a species is to extinction.
Factor Details
_________________________________________
Geographical _________________________________________
range
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
Genetic diversity _________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
Population density _________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
Number of _________________________________________
populations
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
Body size
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
Reproductive
_________________________________________
potential _________________________________________
_________________________________________
115
_________________________________________
Migration _________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
Dispersers _________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
Ability to _________________________________________
move/disperse
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
Specialized niche _________________________________________
requirements
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
Usefulness to _________________________________________
humans
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
Island organisms _________________________________________
_________________________________________
2. What does the acronym “I.U.C.N.” stand for?

________________________________________________________________
3. What is the IUCN red list?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
116
4. List the IUCN red list categories in the table below.
Category Shorthand
Increasing
extinction
risk
5. How does the IUCN describe its mission?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6. The IUCN is an international agency involving a large number of nations and involves many
government and non-government organisations.
Why is this level of cooperation necessary when creating and updating the red list?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
117
3.4 Conservation of
Biodiversity
Significant ideas:
The impact of losing biodiversity drives conservation efforts.
The variety of arguments given for the conservation of biodiversity will depend on
environmental value systems.
There are various approaches to the conservation of biodiversity, with associated strengths
and limitations.
118
IB ESS | 3.4 Conservation of Biodiversity
VOCABULARY SHEET
Species …………………………………………………..………..
conservation ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Habitat …………………………………………………..………..
conservation ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
CITES ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Biorights ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
GO ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
IGO ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
NGO ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
119
Reasons for Species and Habitat Preservation
1. A number of reasons to preserve biodiversity are listed below. Outline each one. For each
one circle the appropriate word(s) to state whether this is an aesthetic, ecological, economic,
ethical or social reason to preserve biodiversity. Each one may fall into one or multiple
categories.
Food sources ( Aesthetic Ecological Economic Ethical Social )
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Ecological services ( Aesthetic Ecological Economic Ethical Social )
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Economic Value ( Aesthetic Ecological Economic Ethical Social )
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Educational Value ( Aesthetic Ecological Economic Ethical Social )
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Biological control agents ( Aesthetic Ecological Economic Ethical Social )
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Gene Pools ( Aesthetic Ecological Economic Ethical Social )
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Future unknown uses ( Aesthetic Ecological Economic Ethical Social )
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Medicine ( Aesthetic Ecological Economic Ethical Social )
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Rights of indigenous peoples ( Aesthetic Ecological Economic Ethical Social )
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
120
Recreation ( Aesthetic Ecological Economic Ethical Social )
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Ecotourism ( Aesthetic Ecological Economic Ethical Social )
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Biorights ( Aesthetic Ecological Economic Ethical Social )
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
121
International Cooperation and Conventions on Biodiversity
1.
a) What do the following acronyms stand for?
IGO
________________________________________________________________
GO
________________________________________________________________
NGO
________________________________________________________________
b) Compare and contrast the above types of organisation. Include examples of each
on in your answer.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
122
2. IGOs, GOs and NGOs are all involved in conservation. List and explain the factors that affect
how successful they are in ecosystem conservation and restoration.
Factor Explanation
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
3. Outline the role that the United Nations (UN) has had on biodiversity conservation.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. The World Conservation Strategy (WCS), published in 1980, was pivotal in its impacts on the
conservation effort.
a) List the organisations involved (don’t use acronyms).
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) List the aims of the World Conservation Strategy.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
123
Approaches to Conservation – Species Conservation
1. Conservation methods may involve habitat conservation or species conservation (and often
a mixture of both).
Outline what is meant by the terms:
Species Conservation
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Habitat Conservation
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2.
a) What does CITES stand for?
________________________________________________________________
b) Outline the aim of CITES.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
c) Species are group by CITES into three appendices. State the criteria for these:
Appendix I
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Appendix II
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Appendix III
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
124
3. Captive breeding facilities include zoos and aquaria as well as other specialised facilities.
a) Outline what the term “captive breeding programme” means.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) Using the subheadings as a guide, evaluate the use of captive breeding programs
Examples of success stories

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Difficulties in re-introduction to a habitat
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Ethical objections to zoos
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Financial cost
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Summarise the function of seed banks
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
125
5.
a) State what is meant by “flagship species”. Include examples.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) Evaluate the use of flagship species for conservation. Use the subheadings as a guide.
Instant appeal
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
“Umbrella” effects
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Prioritizing species
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Dangerous animals
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6.
a) Using examples, describe the term “keystone species”.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
126
Approaches to conservation – Habitat Conservation
1. Explain what is meant by the term “habitat conservation”

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Explain “edge effect” with regards to conservation areas.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. The shape of a nature reserve is an important factor in how effective it is.

The shapes below represent the structure of a range of nature reserves. For each one, explain
why one structure is an advantage over the other.
Better Worse Explanation
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
127
3.
a) List any conservation areas in your country/state/region.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b) With reference to question 3, describe the shape of one of the nature reserves you
listed in a):
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
c) It’s impossible that a nature reserve could be the perfect shape/design. Briefly evaluate
the shape of the nature reserve discussed in part b):
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
128
4.1 Introduction to
Water Systems
Significant ideas:
The hydrological cycle is a system of water flows and storages that may be disrupted by
human activity.
129
IB ESS | 4.1 Introduction to Water Systems
VOCABULARY SHEET
…………………………………………………..………..
Hydrological cycle ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Water budget ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Aquifer ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Advection ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Irrigation ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Surface (ocean) …………………………………………………..………..

currents ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Deep water …………………………………………………..………..

(ocean) currents ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
El Niño Southern …………………………………………………..………..

Oscillation ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
130
The Water Budget
1. State the energy source that drives the water cycle.

________________________________________________________________
2. Draw a diagram to summarise the relative proportions of the Earth’s storages of water.
3. Roughly how long is the turnover time for water in each of the following storages?
Storage Turnover time
Oceans
Groundwater
Atmosphere
Icecaps
Rivers
131
3. Draw a systems diagram of the hydrological cycle. Include the following:
Storages Flows
• Organisms • Evapotranspiration
• Oceans • Sublimation
• Groundwater • Evaporation
• Lakes • Advection
• Soil • Precipitation
• Rivers • Melting
• Atmosphere • Freezing
• Glacier and ice • Flooding
caps • Surface run-off
• Infiltration
• Percolation
• Stream flow
132
Human Activities
1. Outline how the following human activities can impact the water cycle:
Withdrawals
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Discharges
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Changing the speed of flow
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Diverting rivers
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Explain how urbanisation can lead to flash floods.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
133
Ocean Circulation
1. Outline what is meant the “the oceanic conveyor belt”.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. In terms of temperature and density, explain how global ocean currents move.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Explain how...
Ocean currents affect climate
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Climate affects ocean currents
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
134
4.2 Access to
Freshwater
Significant Ideas
The supplies of freshwater resources are inequitably available and unevenly distributed,
which can lead to conflict and concerns over water security.
Freshwater resources can be sustainably managed using a variety of different approaches.
135
IB ESS |4.2 Access to Freshwater
VOCABULARY SHEET
…………………………………………………..………..
Freshwater ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Grey water ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Water scarcity ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Aquifer ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Fossil aquifer ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Groundwater ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Irrigation ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Salinization ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
136
Freshwater Use
1. Humans use a lot of fresh water in their daily lives. List the uses of freshwater under the
categories below. (Focus on what grey water can be used for, not necessarily what it
commonly is used for).
“White” water “Grey” water
• Drinking water • Water for cleaning the car
137
2. State a similarity and difference between white and grey water.
Similarity:
_______________________________________________________________
Difference:
_______________________________________________________________
3. Look at your lists in question 1. Categorise the uses into those mostly used by people in
MEDCs, those mostly used in LEDCs, and those used in both.
LEDCs
MEDCs
4. What can you deduce from your diagram in question 3?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. The diagram above is a type of model. Evaluate this model.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
138
Freshwater Supply
6. Explain why the freshwater requirements of a nation increases over time with respect to:
Population
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Industrial Development
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Expansion of farmland
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
139
7. Briefly describe the ways that the following can limit the supply of freshwater.
Industrialisation
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Irrigation of farmland
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Use of pesticides
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Use of fertilisers
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
High extraction rates from aquifers
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
140
8. Explain how the following issues linked to climate change can influence the availability of
water.
Factor Effect on water supply
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
Rising sea level
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
Changing rainfall patterns
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
Changes in amount and
timing of snow melt
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
9. Outline how water scarcity can lead to conflict.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
141
Enhancing Freshwater Supplies
10. Draw a labeled diagram to show the structure of an aquifer.
11. State what is meant by “aquifer”.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
12. Look at the following ways to increase water supply. Describe and evaluate each one.
Method Brief Description Evaluation

_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
Build _____________________ _____________________
reservoirs
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
Redistribute _____________________ _____________________
water
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
142
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
Desalination _____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
Rainwater _____________________ _____________________
harvesting
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
Recharging _____________________ _____________________
aquifers
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
Closed-water _____________________ _____________________
car washes
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
Grey water _____________________ _____________________
recycling
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
Use drought
resistant _____________________ _____________________
crops _____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
143
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
Reduce
fertilizer and
_____________________ _____________________
pesticide use _____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
Use organic _____________________ _____________________
(instead of _____________________ _____________________
chemical)
fertilisers
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
Water
treatment by _____________________ _____________________
factories _____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
Reduce _____________________ _____________________
temperature _____________________ _____________________
of water
discharge
_____________________ _____________________
_____________________ _____________________
144
CASE STUDY: Freshwater and Conflict
Conduct your own research to answer the following questions about water scarcity in North
Eastern Africa.
A helpful article regarding the freshwater supply of the Nile Basin can be found at:
http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publication/conflict-on-the-nile-the-future-of-transboundary-water-disputes-over-
the-world-s-longest-river/
13. List the countries that rely on the River Nile for freshwater.
________________________________________________________________
14. State why the above nations are motivated to claim a share of freshwater from the Nile.
_______________________________________________________________
15. Describe how freshwater distribution has changed as a consequence of the Entebbe
agreement.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
145
16. Discuss, using specific examples, the instances of conflict over the freshwater resources form
the River Nile. In your answer, include historical instances and speculations about future
conflicts.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
146
4.3 Aquatic Food
Production Systems
Significant ideas:
Aquatic systems provide a source of food production.
Unsustainable use of aquatic ecosystems can lead to environmental degradation and
collapse of wild fisheries.
Aquaculture provides potential for increased food production.
147
IB ESS | 4.3 Aquatic Food Production Systems
VOCABULARY SHEET
…………………………………………………..………..
Phytoplankton ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Continental shelf ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Upwelling ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Biorights ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Sustainable ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Maximum …………………………………………………..………..
sustainable yield ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Rights of …………………………………………………..………..
indigenous ……………………………………………………………
peoples ……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Aquaculture ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
The tragedy of the …………………………………………………..………..

commons ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
148
Aquatic Food Webs
1. State the trophic level of phytoplankton in an aquatic food web.

________________________________________________________________
2. Distinguish between benthic and pelagic marine organisms.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Explain the distribution of varying productivity in marine ecosystems.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Explain why the territorial water of a country is of significant value to a nation.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
149
(Un-) Sustainable Fishing
1. State and explain the trend in demand for aquatic food resources over time.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Describe what is meant by the term “aquaculture”.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. The amount of food provided by wild-catch fish is plateauing worldwide, while the amount
provided by aquaculture is increasing. Suggest reasons for this.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Explain the need for more sustainable aquaculture.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. Describe ways in which aquaculture is becoming more sustainable.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
150
6. Outline an aquaculture system that is unsustainable, and explain the ways in which it is
unsustainable.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
151
7. Explain how modern fishing practices and technology contribute to the unsustainability of the
wild fishing industry. Use the table to guide your answers.
____________________________________________
GPS navigation ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
At-sea
refrigeration ____________________________________________
techniques ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Factory vessels ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Indiscriminate
fishing ____________________________________________
equipment ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Use of trawlers ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
152
8. Summarise ways in which unsustainable exploitation of aquatic systems can be mitigated.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
9. Evaluate the above strategies.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
153
Controversial Fishing
1. Describe what is meant by the term “biorights”.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. What type of environmental value system is expressed by a person who puts a strong
emphasis on biorights?
________________________________________________________________
3. Summarise the arguments against harvesting of seals and whales
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. List some of the products made from whales.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. State and justify your opinion on the harvesting of whales.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
154
Controversial Fishing – CASE STUDY
To answer the following questions you will need to conduct your own research into whaling in
Iceland, and amongst Inuit people. You can use the following resources as a starting point:
iwc.int/
iwc.int/aboriginal
uk.whales.org/issues/whaling-in-iceland
1. What is the International Whaling Commission and what is their role?

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. There is currently a moratorium on whaling. Explain what this means.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Summarise Iceland’s historical relationship with the IWC.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Despite being a member of the IWC and there subject to the moratorium, Iceland continued
to hunt fin whales (amongst other whale species). What loophole did they use?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. State and explain the current ruling on whaling for aboriginal groups such as Inuits.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
155
5. Compare whaling practices and justification by Iceland with those of the Inuit people.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
156
4.4 Water Pollution
Significant ideas:
Water pollution, both groundwater and surface water, is a major global problem the effects
of which influence human and other biological systems.
157
IB ESS | 4.4 Water Pollution
VOCABULARY SHEET
Limiting factor (to …………………………………………………..………..

growth of ……………………………………………………………
producers) ……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Organic pollutant ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Inorganic …………………………………………………..………..
pollutant ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
Biochemical …………………………………………………..………..
oxygen demand ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Indicator species ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Biotic index ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Eutrophication ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………..
Dead zone ……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
158
Types of Water Pollution
1. Define water pollution.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Give three examples of natural pollution sources.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
3. Outline what is meant by the term anthropogenic pollutant.
________________________________________________________________
4. Pollutants may be organic or inorganic. Give three examples of each and state their possible
effects.
Pollutant Type Example Effect
Organic
Inorganic
5. List three sources of freshwater pollution and three sources of marine pollution.
Freshwater pollution Marine Pollution
159
Measuring Water Pollution
1. Describe what is meant by the term Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Describe what is meant by the term biotic index.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. a) Outline how indicator species can be used to assess pollution levels in water.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
160
b) The diagram below represents a river. There is a point-source of organic pollution from a
factory at point X. Using examples of organisms, and the phrase “pollution (in)tolerant
organism”, compare and explain the distribution of freshwater invertebrates you may expect
to find at each site A, B, C and D.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
161
IB ESS | Essay Tasks
This essay will be marked using markbands. The markband descriptors can be found at:
Question 1.1
Describe and justify your environmental value system. Include examples of
environmental issues and your attitude towards them to support your answer.
[9 marks]
Question 1.2
Evaluate the Lotka-Volterra equations as a model for predator-prey relationships.
[9 marks]
Question 1.3
Explain the factors that determine the resilience of an ecosystem and describe
scenarios that could push a system beyond a tipping point.
[9 marks]
Question 1.4
Evaluate the use of Environmental Impact Assessments in sustainable industrial
development.
[9 marks]
Background Information
Watch the video on ocean plastic on Midway Atoll. (bit.ly/midway-video)
WARNING: The video shows scenes of animal death and decay.
Further information can be found in this article. (cnn.it/plastic-island-ess)

Question 1.5
Choose one environmental value system and explain the pollution management
strategies that a person with that value system may propose to solve the problem of
ocean plastic. Evaluate the proposals.
[9 marks]
Question 2.1
‘Niche’ is a term typically associated with wild plants and animals. Describe a human’s
niche, using examples to support your answer, and justify whether the term can be
correctly applied to humans.
[9 marks]
162
Question 2.2
DDT can accumulate through the food chain in increasing concentrations as a
consequence of biomagnification. Compare the attitudes that an ecocentrist and an
anthropocentrist may have on the use of DDT.
[9 marks]
Question 2.3
Evaluate the diagram as a model for the carbon cycle. [9 marks]
Background Information
Surtsey is a young volcanic island formed between 1963 and 1967. Read the ‘Results’
section (from page 5525) of the article (bit.ly/surtsey-succession) and use this
information, as well as further research, to answer the question below.
Question 2.4
Explain the ecological changes that have occured on Surtsey since its formation in the
late 1960s. Include justified predictions about its future development.
[9 marks]
163
Question 3.1
Using examples to support your answer, justify reasons for the collection of biodiversity
data.
[9 marks]
Question 3.2
Discuss evidence that suggests we are in a sixth mass extinction.
[9 marks]
Question 3.3
The wildlife trade is a threat to biodiversity. Explain why eliminating the trade of
endangered species is a challenge and describe solutions to the problem.
[9 marks]
Question 3.4
Compare species-based and habitat-based conservation and explain which would
be most effective at conserving a named endangered species.
[9 marks]
Question 4.1
Choose two environmental value systems and compare the attitudes people of each
value system may have to diverting rivers to provide water for human use.
[9 marks]
Question 4.2
Outline and evaluate strategies that can be used to meet increasing demand for
freshwater.
[9 marks]
Question 4.3
"A move towards aquaculture is essential for a future of sustainable fishing."
Do you agree with this statement? Justify your opinion.

[9 marks]
Question 4.4
Describe and evaluate pollution management strategies to tackle fertiliser-related
eutrophication.
[9 marks]
164
Essay example
Pollution management strategies may be aimed at either preventing the production of
pollutants or limiting their release into ecosystems.
With reference to eutrophication, evaluate the relative efficiency ofthese two approaches
to management. [9]
How do I approach this question?

The command term is evaluate, so you have to show the relative strengths and weaknesses
of strategies to prevent the production of pollutants and to limit their release into ecosytems.
You will need to come to a conclusion regarding which you think is best, and why.
• You will need to show an understanding of concepts and terminology of eutrophication,

distinction between prevention and limiting management strategies, inorganic nutrients,
phosphate-free detergents, organic vs inorganic fertilizers, organic farming, domestic and
agricultural waste, sewage
treatment, nitrate/phosphate stripping, buffer zones, point versus non-point sources, etc.
• You should show breadth in addressing and linking a range of strategies with their
effectiveness in reducing impacts of pollutants, from different sources, on different
ecosystems, and their relevance and validity for different societies, etc.
• You should provide examples of prevention strategies (changing human activity) e.g.
alternative fertilizers, phosphate-free detergents, and limiting strategies e.g.
nitrate/phosphate stripping phase in water treatment, use of buffer zones, in named case
studies/societies, etc.
• You should offer a balanced analysis of the relative efficiency of the two approaches in
reducing impacts on ecosystems; meeting needs of societies, cost and ease of application,
etc.
• You will need to provide a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by, analysis
and examples given. For example, generally, prevention strategies are more efficient
because they are directed at the root of the problem, but limiting strategies may be seen
as more appropriate from an anthropocentric/technocentric perspective as they will be of
less hindrance to productivity.
SAMPLE STUDENT ANSWER
Eutrophication is the nutrient enrichment of water bodies due to

excessive inputs of nutrients that cause excessive algal growth,
resulting in algal blooms. Pollution refers to the addition of a
substance into the environment by human activities, at a rate
greater than that at which it can be rendered harmless; by the
environment, and has an appreciable or negative impact on the
organisms in the ecosystem. In the context of eutrophication,
pollution would refer to the runoff of fertilizers containing
nitrates/phosphates into nearby water bodies, such as lakes, as well
as sewage effluent pipes. Fertilizer runoff would be a non-point
source of pollution as it originates from numerous, widespread
sources. So it would be more difficult to monitor and manage.
Discharge from sewage effluent pipes, conversely, is a point-source
165
pollution since it is from a single, clearly identifiable site, so it would
be relatively easier to monitor and manage. One pollution
management strategy at the level of preventing the pollutants is to
ban detergents containing phosphates, which are there to address
washing in hard water.
Another strategy is to use legislation to promote more ecofriendly
detergents, which could be helpful in raising awareness about the
environment in the public. Also, using organic fertilizer such as
manure instead of artificial fertilizers is beneficial since runoff of
phosphates is reduced and organic fertilizer releases nutrient more
slowly, helping the crop plants in their uptake of nutrients.
Enforcing legislation to limit the production or use of fertilizers is

another strategy, but this may be detrimental to farmers as less
fertilizer use would mean reduced crop yields and thus reduced
income. Additionally, promoting campaigns and education about
using less fertilizer and detergent may be helpful, but they may be
limited to a local extent and it should be noted that it is difficult to
change human behaviour without financial incentives. Other
strategies for preventing production of the pollutant include
encouraging farmers to do mixed cropping and crop rotation so
that the soil is more fertile and less fertilizer will need to be used,
which is economically beneficial to the farmer as well. Pollution
management strategies to limit the release of pollutant into aquatic
ecosystems include planting a buffer zone between the field and
water body to act as a filter and reduce runoff. This is ecologically
beneficial as the buffer zones can provide habitats to other species.
Also, enforcing legislation to limit the maximum amount of fertilizer
that can be sprayed is possible, but would be difficult to enforce
and check for compliance. Further, diverting and treating the
sewage to decrease slurry can be used, but this diverting is difficult
and expensive.
166
IB ESS | Essay Markbands
Section B of Paper 2 involves writing essays. The 9-mark questions are marked using the
following markbands.
(This is taken from the ESS Guide, First Examinations 2017)
Marks Descriptor
The response does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below and is not
0 relevant to the question.
The response contains:

minimal evidence of knowledge and understanding of ESS issues or concepts
fragmented knowledge statements poorly linked to the context of the question
some appropriate use of ESS terminology
1-3 no examples where required, or examples with insufficient
explanation/relevance
superficial analysis that amounts to no more than a list of facts/ideas
judgments/conclusions that are vague or not supported by
evidence/argument.

some evidence of sound knowledge and understanding of ESS issues and
concepts
knowledge statements effectively linked to the context of the question
4-6 largely appropriate use of ESS terminology
some use of relevant examples where required, but with limited explanation
clear analysis that shows a degree of balance
some clear judgments/conclusions, supported by limited evidence/arguments.

substantial evidence of sound knowledge and understanding of ESS issues and
concepts
a wide breadth of knowledge statements effectively linked with each other,
and to the context of the question
7-9 consistently appropriate and precise use of ESS terminology
effective use of pertinent, well-explained examples, where required, showing
some originality
thorough, well-balanced, insightful analysis
explicit judgments/conclusions that are well-supported by evidence/arguments
and that include some critical reflection.
167

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Environmental

Systems and Societies

Word/Phrase Prompt Definition/Description

1. Define “Environmental Value System”.

______________________________ ______________________________ (This is mainly a cornucopian

Word/Phrase Prompt Definition/Description

The stock of matter or energy within a system.

The movement of matter or energy from one storage to

The designated area separating the system from its

Matter or energy entering the system.

Matter or energy exiting the system.

Type of flow: ________________________

Type of flow: ________________________

Type of system Description

A natural forest ecosystem

A closed zip-lock bag

An adiabatic* drinks flask

1. Define the term “model”.

a) Describe a physical model you have seen or used recently.

Word/Phrase Prompt Definition/Description

First law of …………………………………………………..………..

Second law of …………………………………………………..………..

1. a) State the first law of thermodynamics.

There are many interactions between

Word/Phrase Prompt Definition/Description

(Natural income …………………………………………………..………..

(Natural income …………………………………………………..………..

4. Define “natural capital”.

1. Define “natural income”.

1. Summarise the purpose of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.

3. Regarding biomes (see page 4)

1. Outline the purpose of an Environmental Impact Assessment.

3. Outline the reasons for creating a non-technical summary of an EIA.

1. Outline what is meant by the term “ecological footprint”.

Word/Phrase Prompt Definition/Description

light, sound, inorganic substances, organic substances, heat

Pollution Type Example

Sulphur dioxide from a

Manure used as fertilizer

Warm water entering a

1. State two uses of DDT.

Process of Level of pollution

Word/Phrase Prompt Definition/Description

1. Define the following:

1. Define the following species interactions

1. Outline what is represented in S and J curves.

Word/Phrase Prompt Definition/Description

1. Compare and contrast pyramids of biomass and pyramids of productivity.

Word/Phrase Prompt Definition/Description

Reflection (of …………………………………………………..………..

Absorption (of …………………………………………………..………..

3% reflection by scatter 17% absorption by molecules/dust

Productivity Abbr. Calculation Units

Food eaten – fecal loss

1. Outline ways in which humans influence energy flows.

Image: Navarras (CC0)

Word/Phrase Prompt Definition/Description

Climate Variable Effect on photosynthesis

Label Biome Name Nation/region

TR Tropical Rainforest The Amazon Brazil

Image ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biome#/media/File:PrecipitationTempBiomes.jpg (Creative Common 0 license)

Warm air rises. Water condenses as it rise so there is high amount of

a) Outline the changes that are occurring worldwide as a consequence of global

c) Summarise the limits to species movement and migration.

(This is mainly a cornucopian