T.C.

GEBZE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

URBAN RISK ASSESSMENT

GROUP- 7
A GRADUATION PROJECT SUBMITTED FOR THE
A
DEGREE OF BACHELOR
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

THESIS SUPERVISORS
ASSOC.PROF.DR. ABDULLAH CAN ZULFIKAR
ASSIST.PROF.DR. ÜLGEN MERT TUĞSAL
ASSIST.PROF.DR. AHU MUTLU KÖMEÇ
ASSOC.PROF.DR. SAVAŞ KARABULUT

GEBZE
2023
Preface
This study is a bachelor's degree thesis in the Department of Civil Engineering at
Gebze Technical University. The aim of the study is to design representative buildings
according to building typology of the neighborhood in the district of Çayırova in
Kocaeli, which is a result of previous study and test the performance of these designed
representative buildings through non-linear pushover analysis.

As a nation, we have experienced numerous devastating natural disasters

throughout history, with earthquakes being the foremost among them. The earthquakes
that occurred on February 6, 2023, in Kahramanmaraş, affected 11 provinces and
resulted in the loss of many lives among our citizens. I respectfully commemorate all
those who lost their lives in this earthquake, which deeply affected us as a nation.

Our motivation in this study is to inform readers about the earthquake realities of
our country and to provide solutions. I hope that our urban risk assessment will shed
light on steps towards reducing the potential earthquake impacts in the region.
Summary

In our fall semester project, we focused on conducting a building inventory in

Çayırova, consisting of 962 buildings. The purpose was to identify the most common
building type in Çayırova's Özgürlük Neighborhood. Our findings indicated that the
prevalent building type was a reinforced concrete structure, ranging from 4 to 6 floors,
constructed between 2008 and 2018. Moreover, we discovered that the majority of
these buildings exhibited heavy overhanging and weak floor characteristics.

Utilizing these initial results, our current semester project aimed to select three
sample buildings for further analysis. These buildings were chosen based on their
specific attributes, namely, two with 5 stories, one with 2 stories, and another with 7
stories. All three structures displayed heavy overhangs and soft floors. To facilitate the
subsequent analysis, we determined the dimensions and created architectural plans for
each building.

Next, we performed pushover analysis on the selected buildings using SAP2000

software. This analysis allowed us to assess the structural response under seismic
forces and obtain the target displacement values. Subsequently, we identified nine
representative earthquakes for our study. Employing time history analysis, we
simulated the response of the buildings to these earthquakes, capturing their dynamic
behavior. Finally, we derived fragility curves, which provided insights into the
vulnerability of the selected buildings based on their structural characteristics.

Overall, our project integrated multiple methodologies, starting from earthquake

representation and building inventory, and culminating in pushover analysis, time
history analysis, and fragility curve determination. The results obtained from this
comprehensive study will contribute to a better understanding of the structural
behavior of buildings for structural improvements.

Keywords: Probabilistic Risk Analysis, Street Survey, Building Inventory,

Seismic Hazard Analysis, Building Typology, Python, Design Spectrum, Capacity
Curves, Pushover Analysis, Time History Analysis

ii
Özet

Güz dönemi projemizde, Çayırova'da 962 binadan oluşan bir bina envanteri
çıkarmaya odaklandık. Amaç, Çayırova'nın Özgürlük Mahallesi'ndeki en yaygın bina
türünü belirlemekti. Bulgularımız, 2008 ile 2018 yılları arasında inşa edilen 4 ila 6 kat
arasında değişen betonarme yapıların en yaygın bina tipi olduğunu göstermiştir.
Ayrıca, bu binaların çoğunun ağır çıkma ve zayıf zemin özellikleri sergilediğini
keşfettik.

Bu ilk sonuçları kullanarak, mevcut dönem projemiz daha fazla analiz için üç örnek
bina seçmeyi amaçladı. Bu binalar, ikisi 5 katlı, biri 2 katlı ve diğeri 7 katlı olmak
üzere belirli özelliklerine göre seçilmiştir. Her üç yapı da ağır çıkıntılar ve yumuşak
zeminler sergiliyordu. Sonraki analizi kolaylaştırmak için her binanın boyutlarını
belirledik ve mimari planlarını oluşturduk.

Ardından, SAP2000 yazılımını kullanarak seçilen binalar üzerinde pushover analizi

gerçekleştirdik. Bu analiz, sismik kuvvetler altında yapısal tepkiyi değerlendirmemizi
ve hedef yer değiştirme değerlerini elde etmemizi sağladı. Daha sonra, çalışmamız için
dokuz temsili deprem belirledik. Zaman geçmişi analizini kullanarak, binaların bu
depremlere tepkisini simüle ettik ve dinamik davranışlarını yakaladık. Son olarak,
seçilen binaların yapısal özelliklerine dayalı olarak kırılganlıklarına ilişkin içgörü
sağlayan kırılganlık eğrileri türettik.

Genel olarak, projemiz deprem temsili ve bina envanterinden başlayarak pushover

analizi, zaman geçmişi analizi ve kırılganlık eğrisi belirleme ile sonuçlanan çoklu
metodolojileri entegre etmiştir. Bu kapsamlı çalışmadan elde edilen sonuçlar, yapısal
iyileştirmeler için binaların yapısal davranışlarının daha iyi anlaşılmasına katkıda
bulunacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Olasılıksal Risk Analizi, Sokak Araştırması, Bina Envanteri,

Sismik Tehlike Analizi, Bina Tipolojisi, Python, Tasarım Spektrumu, Kapasite
Eğrileri, İtme Analizi, Zaman Tanım Alanı Analizi

iii
Acknowledgement
We sincerely thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdullah Can ZULFIKAR, for your invaluable
knowledge and guidance throughout the study. Your expertise and guidance were
crucial in the completion of the study and I am truly grateful for your support.

We would like to thank Assist. Prof. Ulgen MERT TUGSAL, for providing support
in all areas throughout my academic life, not only for theoretical knowledge, but also
for your valuable experience in life and profession. Your suggestions and
encouragements have contributed greatly to the completion of the study. I give my
warmest thanks to you.

We would like to thank Assist. Prof. Ahu KOMEÇ MUTLU, for your support and
guidance at all times at the beginning of my academic life. I am deeply indebted to
your contribution to the study and the knowledge and experience you shared.

We would also like to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Savaş KARABULUT, for sharing his
experience and knowledge with me. Words cannot express my gratitude for your
contributions and efforts to the study.

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Table of Content

Preface ...................................................................................................................... i
Summary ................................................................................................................. ii
Özet ........................................................................................................................ iii
Acknowledgement .................................................................................................. iv
Table of Content ...................................................................................................... v
List of Figures ........................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ........................................................................................................ viii
1. Introduction ................................................................................................... 1
1.1 The Aim of the Study................................................................................. 3
1.2 Target Region of the Project ...................................................................... 3
1.3 Visualition of Target Region in Python ..................................................... 4
1.4 Building Inventory and Typology.............................................................. 5
2. Literature Review ........................................................................................ 10
3. Methodology ............................................................................................... 13
3.1 Creating the Model through SAP2000..................................................... 13
3.2 Pushover Analysis.................................................................................... 14
3.3 Time History Analysis ............................................................................. 18
3.3.1 Selection and Scaling ....................................................................... 19
4. Description of Investigated Structures ........................................................ 23
4.1 Analytical Model ..................................................................................... 23
4.2 Ground Motion ........................................................................................ 28
5. Results and Discussions .............................................................................. 29
5.1 Pushover Analysis Application ................................................................ 29
5.2 Time-History Analysis Application ......................................................... 41
6. Conclusion ................................................................................................... 45
References ............................................................................................................. 47

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List of Figures

Figure 1.2.1: Project Location, captured via NETCAD .......................................... 3

Figure 1.2.2:Project Location, captured via NETCAD ........................................... 3
Figure 1.4.1: Visualization of percentages in 3-D column graphs in.Table 1.1...... 6
Figure 1.4.2: Example of Heavy Overhang (a) and Weak Floor (b) , Taken by
NETCAD application during street survey. ................................................................. 6
Figure 1.4.3 : Example of Short Column (a) , Weak Floor (b), Heavy Overhang (c)
and Building Adjacency Effect, Taken by NETCAD application during street survey.
...................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 3.21:Force–deformation relationship of a typical plastic hinge (ATC-40,
FEMA-356) ................................................................................................................ 16
Figure 3.3.1:Target Spectrum................................................................................ 19
Figure 3.3.2:Inputting Values................................................................................ 20
Figure 3.3.3:The Acceleration Graphs of Earthquakes ......................................... 21
Figure 4.1.1:Plan view of 2 story building, created in AutoCAD ......................... 24
Figure 4.4.2:Plan view of 2 story building, created in AutoCAD ......................... 25
Figure 4..4..75:Render View for 7-story building, taken from Lumion ................ 27
Figure 4.4.6:Render View for 5-story building, taken from Lumion .................... 27
Figure 5.5.1:Performance Level of 30x30 Column............................................... 34
Figure 5.5.2:Performance Level of 40x40 Column............................................... 34
Figure 5.5..3:Performance Level of 50x50 Column.............................................. 35
Figure 5.5.4:Performance Level of 60x60 Column............................................... 35
Figure 5.5.5: Pushover Curve of 2-Storey Building.............................................. 36
Figure 5.5.7:Pushover Curve of 7-Storey Building............................................... 37
Figure 5.5..8:Hinge formation in 2-Storey Building: ............................................ 39
Figure 5.5.9:Hinge formation in 5-Storey Building .............................................. 39
Figure 5.5.10:Hinge formation in 7-Storey Building ............................................ 40
Figure .5.2.1:Displacement of two storey building under “Abbar” ground motion
.................................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 5.2.2:Displacement of two storey building under “El Mayor-
Cucapah_Mexico” ground motion ............................................................................. 41

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 Figure 5.3.3:Displacement of two storey building under “Mohammad Abad-e-
Modkoon” ground motion.......................................................................................... 41
Figure 5.2.4:Displacement of five storey building under “North Palm Spring Fire
Sta #36” ground motion ............................................................................................. 42
Figure 5.2.5:Displacement of five storey building under “Whitewater Trout Farm”
ground motion ............................................................................................................ 42
Figure 5.2.6:Displacement of five storey building under “Joshua Tree N.M.- Keys
View” ground motion ................................................................................................ 42
Figure 5.2.7:Displacement of seven storey building under “Bam_Iran” ground
motion ........................................................................................................................ 43
Figure 5.3.8:Displacement of seven storey building under “Landers” ground motion
.................................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 5.3..9:Displacement of seven storey building under “Imperial Valley-06”
ground motion ............................................................................................................ 43

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List of Tables

Table 1.4.1 : The distribution of Building Categorization in Çayırova Region ...... 8

Table 3.3.1:Selected Nine Earthquake .................................................................. 20
Table 3.2:Scale Factors of Earthquakes ................................................................ 22
Table 4.11:Building Description ........................................................................... 23
Table 4.2.1:Design Spectrum ................................................................................ 28
Table 5..1:C30x30 Column – Moment Curvature Curve ...................................... 29
Table 5..2:C40x40 Column – Moment Curvature Curve ...................................... 29
Table 5.3:C60x60 Column – Moment Curvature Curve ...................................... 30
Table 5.5.5:Performance Levels for 30x30 Column ............................................. 32
Table 5.5.6:Performance Levels for 40x40 Column ............................................. 32
Table 5.5.7:Performance Levels for 50x50 Column ............................................. 33
Table 5.5.8:Performance Levels for 60x60 Column ............................................. 33
Table 5.5.9:Target displacement for 2-Storey Building ........................................ 37
Table 5.5.10:Target displacement for 5-Storey Building ...................................... 38
Table 5.5..11:Target displacement for 7-Storey Building ..................................... 38
Table 5.2..1:Maximum displacements of buildings with different story numbers
under three different ground motiın ........................................................................... 44

viii
1. Introduction

Seismic hazards pose a significant threat to urban regions, necessitating the

development of strategies to enhance community resilience and mitigate potential
risks. In the context of the Çayırova region, this graduation project aims to contribute
to seismic hazard and risk assessment efforts by employing a performance-based
design approach. Building upon a comprehensive analysis conducted in the first term,
which involved the formation of a building inventory and an examination of building
typologies and their structural models, this second term study focuses on analyzing
selected building types under seismic motion. By integrating the outcomes of the initial
study with performance-based design principles, this project seeks to identify priority
high-risk buildings in the Çayırova region and provide valuable insights and
recommendations to enhance the community's resilience against potential earthquake
hazards.

The Çayırova region, located in the Kocaeli province, is susceptible to seismic

activities due to its proximity to major active fault lines. In the first term of this
graduation project, a comprehensive analysis was undertaken to establish a building
inventory for the region. This analysis involved a detailed examination of the region's
characteristics and an in-depth site inspection of buildings in a pre-determined
residential area. The findings of the initial study provided a fundamental understanding
of the prevailing building typologies and their structural models within the Çayırova
region.

Building upon the knowledge and insights gained from the first term study, this
second term project adopts a performance-based design approach to assess the seismic
performance of selected building types. Performance-based design offers a proactive
and systematic framework that takes into account the expected seismic hazards in the
region and aims to optimize the performance of structures based on predefined
performance objectives. By considering factors such as structural response, occupant
safety, and building functionality, performance-based design provides a more
comprehensive assessment of seismic risks compared to traditional prescriptive
methods. (Ghobarah, 2001)

1
 The primary objective of this study is to identify priority high-risk buildings in the
Çayırova region by conducting an analysis under seismic motion. This analysis will
consider the structural models and characteristics of the selected building types
identified in the first term study. By integrating the seismic hazard assessment for the
region and the performance-based design principles, the project aims to determine
distinctive risk groups and evaluate the vulnerability of these buildings to seismic
forces.

The outcomes of this study will provide valuable insights for local authorities and
stakeholders, enabling them to prioritize resources and take proactive measures to
enhance the resilience of the Çayırova community against potential earthquake
hazards. By integrating performance-based design principles into seismic hazard and
risk assessments, this project seeks to bridge the gap between theory and practice,
offering a practical framework to inform decision-making processes and contribute to
the development of more resilient and sustainable urban environments.

In summary, this second term graduation project builds upon the findings and
understanding gained from the first term study, focusing on the analysis of selected
building types under seismic motion in the Çayırova region. By utilizing a
performance-based design approach, the project aims to identify priority high-risk
buildings, assess their vulnerability to seismic forces, and provide recommendations
to enhance the community's resilience. The subsequent sections of this paper will delve
into the methodology, data sources, analysis techniques, and results, ultimately
offering insights and recommendations to support earthquake hazard mitigation efforts
in the Çayırova region.

2
1.1 The Aim of the Study
The aim of this project is to utilize a performance-based design approach to analyze
selected building types under seismic motion in the Çayırova region of Kocaeli. By
integrating the outcomes of a comprehensive analysis conducted in the first term,
which established a building inventory and examined building typologies and their
structural models, this study seeks to identify priority high-risk buildings and assess
their vulnerability to seismic forces. The project aims to provide valuable insights and
recommendations to enhance the resilience of the Çayırova community against
potential earthquake hazards, ultimately contributing to seismic hazard and risk
mitigation efforts in the region.

1.2 Target Region of the Project

In this section, the location information, structure distribution, transportation
network and the demographic density of the region in Kocaeli province, Çayırova
district, Özgürlük neighborhood, which is the area where the study will be conducted.

Figure
Figure 1.2.1:
1.2.2:Project
Project Location,
Location, captured
captured via
via NETCAD
NETCAD

3
 Çayırova district consists of 9 neighborhoods and has an area of 29 km2 with a
population of 140,274. Since 1985, its population has developed rapidly with the
intensity of industrialization. This rapid urbanization led to internal migration
movements. With the rapidly developing industry after 1985, there was an intense
migration to Çayırova from various regions of Anatolia. The population of Çayırova,
which contains many mass housing areas within its borders, increases by 7-8% on
average every year. As can be understood from the Address Based Population
Registration System Population Census Results for the years 2009-2020, it is seen that
there is an increase in population every year.

In this graduation project, Çayırova is selected as a project location for several

reasons such as it’s geolocation due to North Anatolian Fault Line, its urban sprawl
due to migrations and strong relations with the local government due to its location
being very close to our university. Nearly 963 building located in Özgürlük
Neighbourhood are examined through NETCAD site provided to us by the local
government.

1.3 Visualition of Target Region in Python

The time, location and magnitude of an earthquake that may occur in a particular
region is a big question mark. For this reason, it is of great importance to know the
magnitüde and frequency of earthquakes, especially, in regions with high seismic
activity such as Marmara Region. With the earthquake data observed in such places
from the past, the probability of an earthquake that may occur in future and the return
periods of those earthquakes can be calculated by statistical methods. (Figure 1.2)

Figure 1.3.1 - Marmara Region Earthquake Map

4
 In this study, Marmara Region Earthquake Map, in figure 4.1, is drawn which is
bounded by the coordinates 38.00˚-42.00˚N and 25.00˚-32.00˚E, using the Pygmt
library in Python. Earthquake datas are received from KOERI and limited from 1900
to November, 2022 with magnitude MD ≥ 2.5. This map shows us that the Marmara
Region is a very important earthquake zone, and it should be noted that the provinces
in the region and surrounding provinces are located in the earthquake-risk area.
Because in order to prevent the risk, it is first accepted that the risk exists, and Marmara
Region is definitely is a risky region in terms of earthquakes. In order to investigate
the seismicity of Çayırova, target region, and its surroundings, after the earthquake
map, in figure 4.2, is drawn which is bounded by the coordinates 40.5˚- 41.00˚N and
29.00˚-29.50˚E.

1.4 Building Inventory and Typology

In this section, statistical study has been conducted on the 968 building in order to
get the related building typology in the Çayırova District. Table 1.1 shows the
percentage for the existance of the negative effects mentioned in street survey method.
In order to embrace the statistics in an effective way, percentages are visualized in 3-
D column graphs in Figure 1.3.

Table 1.1.: Statistics for the existance of the negative effects mentioned in street survey method.

Weak Floor Heavy Overhangs Short Column Ground Slope

Doesn't
626 64.67% 159 16.43% 905 93.49% 885 91.43%
Exist
Exist 342 35.33% 809 83.57% 63 6.51% 83 8.57%
TOTAL 968 100.00% 968 100.00% 968 100.00% 968 100.00%
Plan Irregularity Vertical Irregularity Adjacency
Doesn't
795 82.13% 871 89.98% 718 74.17%
Exist
Exist 173 17.87% 97 10.02% 250 25.83%
TOTAL 968 100.00% 968 100.00% 968 100.00%

5
 Building Typology

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Weak Floor Heavy Short Column Adjacency Plan Ground Slope Vertical
Overhangs Irregularity Irregularity

Doesn't Exist Exist

Figure 1.4.1: Visualization of percentages in 3-D column graphs in.Table 1.1

Also, in order to emphasize the examples of the negative effects in the building
performance score, such examples about weak floor, short column, heavy overhang
and pounding between adjacent buildings are given with highlights of the negative
effect, in the Figure 1.4. All these photos are taken by the NETCAD application during
the field studies for the building inventory.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.4.2: Example of Heavy Overhang (a) and Weak Floor (b) , Taken by NETCAD application during street
survey.

6
 In order to identify our building typology, buildings are arranged to a coding system
based on their structural system, number of floors and construction period. In this
coding system, there are 3 digits symbolize the related parameters, such as the first
digit symbolize the structural system, second symbolize the number of floors and third
symbolize the construction period.(Table 1.2.)

Table 1.2: Example of building coding system for structure classification

Construction
CODE Structural System Type Number of Floors Date
B111 1-3 Before 2000
B112 1-3 2000-2007
B113 1-3 2008-2018
B114 1-3 After 2018
B121 4-6 Before 2000
B122 4-6 2000-2007
Reinforced Concrete
B123 4-6 2008-2018
B124 4-6 After 2018
B131 7-16 Before 2000
B132 7-16 2000-2007
B133 7-16 2008-2018
B134 7-16 After 2018
B211 1-3 Before 2000
B212 1-3 2000-2007
B213 1-3 2008-2018
B214 1-3 After 2018
B221 4-6 Before 2000
Reinforced Concrete
B222 4-6 2000-2007
with
B223 Shear Walls 4-6 2008-2018
B224 4-6 After 2018
B231 7-16 Before 2000
B232 7-16 2000-2007
B233 7-16 2008-2018
B234 7-16 After 2018

For the evaluation of the building inventory and the derivation of building
typologies, building groups constituting the majority in the study regions were used.
In Table 1.3., the distribution of ELER Building Categorization in Çayırova region is
given.

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 Table 1.4.1 : The distribution of Building Categorization in Çayırova Region

CODE Quantitiy Percentage CODE Quantitiy Percentage

B111 94 9.7% B211 8 0.8%
B112 91 9.4% B212 7 0.7%
B113 11 1.1% B213 1 0.1%
B114 0 0.0% B214 1 0.1%
B121 110 11.4% B221 33 3.4%
B122 165 17.0% B222 36 3.7%
B123 201 20.8% B223 101 10.4%
B124 51 5.3% B224 25 2.6%
B131 0 0.0% B131 0 0.0%
B132 2 0.2% B132 2 0.2%
B133 18 1.9% B133 18 1.9%
B134 5 0.5% B134 5 0.5%

In the focused region, the B123 building type constitutes the majority in the region
with the percentage of 20.8%, meaning the number of buildings that reflects reinforced
concrete frame system, between 4-6 floors and built between 2008-2018 are in
majority in this building inventory.This rate was followed by B122 with 17%. From
the Table 1.3., it seems that the building groups are well distributed in different
building typologies. In this context, in the analysis evaluation, the damage assessment
of these structures under the influence of earthquakes is emphasized.

In order to get a clear understanding of the data distribution, finally, you can also
see the distribution of the 968 buildings in terms of construction date, structural system
type and number of floors in the graphs.

Building Type - Number of Floors

7
21
%22 %74.6 %3.4
Low Rise (1-3 Floors) Mid Rise (4-6 Floors) High Rise (7-16 Floors)

Figure 1.6: Distribution of 968 buidings located in Çayırova based on their Structural System Type

8
 Building Typology - Construction Date

8,57%
Pre-Code (<2000)
25,31%
Low-Code (2000-2007)
35,02%
Medium-Code (2008-
2018)
31,10% High-Code (>2018)

Figure 1.5: Distribution of 968 buidings located in Çayırova based on their Number of Floors.

Building Typology - Structural Type

22,73%
RC Frame

Shear Wall
77,27%

Figure 1.7: Distribution of 968 buidings located in Çayırova based on their Construction Date.

As a result of the study performed in the previous term’s graduation project, The
majority of the buildings in the area have weak floors and heavy overhangs. As a result,
representative reinforced concrete buildings with the same floor plans, including 2, 5
and 7 storey structures with weak floors and substantial overhangs, are built for the
project's continuance.(Figure 1.5 , Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7)

9
2. Literature Review

Low-rise and mid-rise RC frame buildings constitute a significant portion of the

building stock in Turkey. These buildings are commonly used for residential and
commercial purposes and have replaced traditional construction techniques due to
rapid urban growth. However, the majority of these buildings have not been adequately
designed to resist earthquake forces, making them highly vulnerable to seismic action.
Quantifying the seismic risk posed by the existing building stock is crucial for effective
risk mitigation. Fragility assessment, which involves identifying the probability of
exceeding damage limit states, plays a key role in seismic risk quantification. This
study focuses on assessing the fragility of low-rise and mid-rise RC buildings in
Turkey.

In this section, we draw upon the findings of two significant studies conducted by
Akkar et al. and Erberik, which contribute valuable insights into the assessment of
building fragility and seismic risk in Turkey. Akkar et al. (2005) focused on the
development of displacement-based fragility functions for low- and mid-rise ordinary
concrete buildings, considering factors such as global drift and interstory drift ratios.
Their study addressed the urgent need for reliable seismic loss estimation tools in built
environments, particularly for the vulnerable building stock prevalent in Turkey.
Similarly, Erberik (2008) emphasized the assessment of fragility information for low-
rise and mid-rise reinforced concrete buildings, which constitute a major portion of the
building stock in Turkey. By utilizing the Düzce Damage Database and conducting
sensitivity analyses, Erberik generated reference fragility curves specific to these
structures, highlighting the influence of parameters such as stiffness, strength, and
degradation characteristics on seismic vulnerability. The incorporation of these
studies' findings significantly enriches our understanding of the fragility-based
assessment of typical mid-rise and low-rise buildings in Turkey.

Akkar, conducted a study called "Displacement-Based Fragility Functions for Low-

and Mid-rise Ordinary Concrete Buildings." Their objective was to develop fragility
functions that estimate the probability of exceeding damage limit states for these
buildings under seismic excitation. The study considers global drift ratio as the damage
limit state, as the selected buildings do not possess soft stories. Fragility curves are

10
developed using a set of 82 strong ground motions, accounting for uncertainties
associated with structural capacity, damage limit-state definition, and ground motion
intensity. The study focuses on two to five-story existing RC buildings in Turkey,
which constitute a significant portion of the vulnerable building stock. The fragility
curves provide valuable information for regional loss estimation studies in different
seismic-prone zones of Turkey. You can see the related Fragility Curves for two to
five-story building at Figure 2.1. (Akkar, Sucuoğlu, & Yakut, 2005)

Figure 2.1:Fragility Curves for 2 and 5 story RC Buildings, Akkar (2005

On the other hand, Erberik's study aimed to assess the fragility of typical low-rise
and mid-rise RC buildings in Turkey. The study utilized the Duzce Damage Database,
which was compiled after the devastating 1999 Kocaeli and Duzce earthquakes in the
Marmara region. The database provided valuable field data, allowing for the
generation of reference fragility curves specific to Turkish RC structures. The study
investigated the sensitivity of parameters and techniques involved in the fragility curve
generation process. By regenerating and comparing the fragility curves with the
reference curves, the study assessed the accuracy of the estimated damage compared
to actual field data. The results indicated that the fragility curves successfully captured
the specific characteristics of the building stock, such as stiffness, strength, and the
influence of infill walls. The study concluded that while simplified fragility analysis

11
and deterministic seismic hazard analysis provide rough estimates of the actual
damage distribution, incorporating country-specific characteristics is essential for
accurate seismic vulnerability assessment. (Erberik, 2008)

Figure 2.2:Fragility Curves for Low and Mid Rise RC Buildings, Erberik (2008)

The articles by Akkar et al. and Erberik make significant contributions to our study
on the time history analysis of your RC building inventory. These studies provide
valuable insights into the assessment of seismic vulnerability and the generation of
fragility curves specific to low-rise and mid-rise RC buildings. Akkar et al. focus on
deriving fragility functions based on displacement, considering various damage limit
states and ground motion intensities. By incorporating their findings, we can enhance
the accuracy of our time history analysis by utilizing appropriate fragility curves
tailored to our building inventory. Similarly, Erberik's study emphasizes reflecting
country-specific characteristics and utilizing the Duzce field database to generate
fragility curves. By considering the sensitivities of parameters and techniques
involved, we can obtain a more accurate assessment of the seismic vulnerability of our
building inventory.

12
3. Methodology

This section presents the methodology employed to analyze selected building types
under seismic motion and assess their vulnerability in the Çayırova region. The
approach integrates field investigations, data collection, seismic hazard assessment,
building typology analysis, and performance-based design principles. Software
applications, including SAP2000, were utilized, along with mathematical formulas and
computational algorithms, such as TBEC2018. Detailed explanations of each
methodological component, including procedures, data sources, and analytical
techniques, are provided in the subsections.

3.1 Creating the Model through SAP2000

SAP2000 is a widely used software package for structural analysis and design.
Developed by Computers and Structures, Inc. (CSI), it offers advanced capabilities for
modeling, analyzing, and designing a wide range of structures, including buildings,
bridges, dams, and towers.

The software utilizes a finite element analysis approach, which discretizes the
structure into smaller elements to simulate its behavior under different loads and
conditions. It incorporates a user-friendly graphical interface that allows engineers and
designers to create 3D models of structures, assign material properties, define
boundary conditions, and apply loads. (CSI, 2006)

SAP2000 was utilized extensively throughout this graduation project. The general
finite element package has been used for the creation of model. A three-dimensional
model of each structure has been created to undertake the non-linear analysis.
SAP2000 offers advanced capabilities for analyzing the seismic behavior of structures,
making it a valuable tool for assessing the vulnerability of selected building types in
the Çayırova region.

13
 SAP2000 is a widely recognized software package employed for structural analysis
and design purposes. Developed by Computers and Structures, Inc. (CSI), this
software offers an extensive range of capabilities, enabling engineers and designers to
model, analyze, and design various structures with precision.

The process of creating a structural model in SAP2000 involves several essential

steps that ensure the accurate representation of the physical structure within the
software environment. First, the geometry of the structure is defined, encompassing
parameters such as dimensions, floor plans, and elevations. This geometric
information can be inputted manually within the SAP2000 interface or imported from
external CAD software. Next, material properties are assigned to the structural
elements comprising the model. These properties encompass parameters such as
modulus of elasticity, yield strength, and density, which are specific to the materials
used in the structure, such as concrete, steel, or masonry.

After defining the geometry and material properties, the structural elements are
created within the SAP2000 software. These elements, such as beams, columns, slabs,
and walls, are designed to simulate the physical components of the actual structure. To
ensure the model's validity and realistic behavior, appropriate boundary conditions are
defined. These boundary conditions reflect the supports and restraints that exist within
the physical structure. By properly assigning fixed supports, pinned supports, or other
boundary conditions within SAP2000, the model can accurately simulate the
interactions between the structure and its foundation or adjacent structures.

Finally, the subsequent step involves applying various loads to the model to
replicate the actual loading conditions experienced by the structure. These loads may
include dead loads, live loads, wind loads, and seismic loads, among others. It is
crucial to accurately specify the magnitude, direction, and distribution of these loads,
based on established design codes, regulations, and recognized engineering practices.

3.2 Pushover Analysis

The purpose of conducting pushover analysis is to assess the anticipated
performance of a structural system by estimating its strength and deformation demands

14
during design earthquakes. This analysis involves a static inelastic approach, where
the obtained demands are compared to available capacities at desired performance
levels. Important parameters considered in the evaluation include global drift,
interstory drift, inelastic element deformations, deformations between elements, and
forces in elements and connections that cannot sustain inelastic deformations. The
inelastic static pushover analysis serves as a method to predict seismic forces and
deformations, accounting for the redistribution of internal forces when the structure
exceeds its elastic range.

Pushover analysis provides valuable information that cannot be obtained from

elastic static or dynamic analyses alone. It offers insights into realistic force demands
on potentially brittle elements, estimates of deformation demands for elements that
need to deform inelastically to dissipate energy, consequences of strength deterioration
on the structural system's behavior, identification of critical regions with high
deformation demands requiring detailed attention, identification of strength
discontinuities, estimation of interstory drifts considering strength or stiffness
discontinuities, and verification of load paths and completeness of the structural
system. (Krawinkler & Seneviratna, 1998)

A pushover analysis involves applying a gradually increasing pattern of lateral

loads to a structure, simulating the inertial forces it would experience during ground
shaking. As the loads increase incrementally, different structural elements may yield
in a sequential manner, leading to a reduction in overall stiffness. By conducting a
pushover analysis, it is possible to determine a distinctive nonlinear force-
displacement relationship for the structure. This relationship provides valuable
insights into the structural behavior and response under seismic forces.

In SAP2000, nonlinear behaviour is assumed to occur within frame elements at

concentrated plastic hinges. The default types include an uncoupled moment hinges,
an uncoupled axial hinges, an uncoupled shear hinges and a coupled axial force and
biaxial bending moment hinges. Instead of default values for hinge properties in
SAP2000, the moment curvature diagrams are obtained by an Excel as well as the
interaction diagrams for each member of the building.

15
 Figure 3.21:Force–deformation relationship of a typical plastic hinge (TBEC 2018)

Figure 3.2.1 illustrates the force-deformation behavior of a plastic hinge, with five
points denoted as A, B, C, D, and E. The specific values assigned to each of these
points depend on various factors such as the type of element, material properties,
longitudinal and transverse steel content, and axial load level on the element. These
values are determined based on guidelines provided by ATC-40, FEMA-356. (Erdem,
Demir, Bağcı, & Kantar, 2010)

In the context of ductile elements, both ATC and FEMA define three limit
conditions for the cross-section behavior. These conditions are immediate occupancy
(IO), life safety (LS), and collapse prevention (CP). The IO condition marks the point
at which the behavior of the section extends beyond elasticity. The LS condition
represents the limit beyond elasticity where the section can still ensure its strength in
a safe manner. The CP condition, on the other hand, represents the limit of behavior
just before collapse occurs.

16
 By defining these limit conditions, it becomes possible to assess the performance
of ductile elements in terms of their force-deformation characteristics and their ability
to withstand seismic forces at different levels of intensity. The Different Building
performance levels are shown in Table 3.2
Table 3.2Different Performance levels in Building:

For instance, let us consider a case study involving the evaluation of a reinforced
concrete (RC) building using pushover analysis. The building, a 10-story structure
located in a high-seismicity region, is designed to meet the performance objectives
defined by the immediate occupancy (IO) level, ensuring the safety of occupants
during design earthquakes. By conducting a pushover analysis, we can assess the
building's response to seismic forces and identify potential areas of concern. The
analysis involves applying incremental lateral loads to the structure and monitoring
the corresponding force-displacement relationship. As the analysis progresses, we
observe the progressive yielding and deformation of key elements such as columns
and beams. By comparing the obtained demand parameters, such as interstory drifts
and inelastic element deformations, to the available capacities at the desired
performance level, the engineer can evaluate the building's structural integrity and
determine if any design modifications or reinforcements are necessary to meet the
performance objectives.

17
3.3 Time History Analysis
In this method, the equation of motion of the structural system under an accepted
earthquake motion, which is accepted by considering the non-linear behavior of the
carrier system, is solved numerically, and all elastic and plastic deformations,
displacements and cross-sectional effects of the system are found depending on time,
as in the linear behavior.

Then, plastic hinge rotation and unit elongation/shortening demands of concrete

and reinforcement are determined in the system. In this method, which has the most
comprehensive solution, the considerable number of acceptances requires carefulness
in the interpretation of the results. In addition, it is recommended that the selected
earthquake record corresponds with the spectrum curve given in the regulation (Part
3.3.1) and a solution should be made with as many records as possible.

The time history analysis methodology employed for the risk assessment of
buildings in the Çayırova region includes an investigation into the impact of
earthquakes with similar properties to those that might occur in the area (Part 3.3.1).
This approach aims to compare the displacements caused by these seismic events with
the target displacements obtained previously. Additionally, the step-by-step analysis
of the dynamic response provided by time history analysis allows for the identification
of potential failure points within the structure under seismic forces.

Suitable earthquake ground motions representative of the anticipated seismic events in

the Çayırova region are selected. These ground motions exhibit similar properties to
the target earthquakes. Careful consideration is given to ensure compatibility with the
design response spectrum for the specific site. More detailed explanations can be found
in the part 3.3.1.

18
3.3.1 Selection and Scaling

Time history analysis needs to be applied to the designed buildings. Therefore,

separate earthquakes should be applied to the buildings, and this analysis should be
performed. Before conducting this analysis, it is necessary to select the earthquakes
that will affect the buildings. The Peek Ground Motion database is utilized to select
earthquakes that will impact our structures.

Firstly, user-defined spectra documents of our region are uploaded. Subsequently,

the Peek Ground Motion database provides us with the Target Spectrum graph.

Figure 3.3.1:Target Spectrum

Before proceeding with earthquake research, certain parameters need to be inputted.

The automatic input determination feature was employed, followed by modifying
some values and entering the characteristics of an earthquake that may occur in the
Kocaeli Çayırova region. It is noted that the fault line type in Çayırova is strike-slip.
The earthquake magnitudes observed in this region during our initial research period
ranged from 6.5 to 7.8 magnitudes.

Additionally, considering that we would be affecting three different earthquakes

separately on the three structures we have, a total of nine earthquake records were
required. Therefore, values were entered to generate ten records. (Figure 3.3.1)

19
 Figure 3.3.2:Inputting Values

Upon selecting all these parameters, the earthquake record search was initiated.
Subsequently, the website provided us with ten earthquake records, from which we
selected nine earthquakes. (Figure 3.3.2)

Table 3.3.1:Selected Nine Earthquake

The accelerariton graphs of these earthquakes are given in the Table 3.3.1

20
 Figure 3.33.3:The Acceleration Graphs of Earthquakes

The website we utilized also offers a scaled spectra graph. Scaling spectra enables
the comparison of two spectra by applying the target spectrum of a reference region to
another earthquake spectrum. This procedure allows us to assess the effectiveness of
a specific earthquake spectrum in relation to a designated design target spectrum. To
achieve compatibility between the design earthquake spectrum and the actual
earthquake record, scale factors are employed.

Scale factors play a crucial role in structural analysis, as they ensure a more accurate
assessment of how structures will behave under real earthquake conditions. By
adjusting the scale factor, we achieve alignment between the design earthquake
spectrum and the actual earthquake record, resulting in a more precise representation

21
of the spectral characteristics of the actual earthquake in relation to the design
earthquake spectrum.

The Peak Ground Motion Database site has calculated scale factors for each
earthquake, which can be observed in the provided in figure. (Table 3.2)

Table 3.2:Scale Factors of Earthquakes

Additionally, you can view the scaled spectra graph obtained from this website, as
well as the graph we obtained independently. (Figure 3.3.4)

Figure 3.3.4 :Scaled Spectra of Website and Scaled Spectra of Our

22
4. Description of Investigated Structures

4.1 Analytical Model

Two, five and seven story structures who consist weak floor and heavy overhang
are considered to represent the RC building types for the study. These consists of a
typical beam–column RC frame building with no shear walls, located in a high-
seismicity region of Turkey. Building is designed according to Earthquake Code,
considering both gravity and seismic loads (first order earthquake zone and soil class
ZC are assumed) (Table 4.1.1). Material properties are assumed to be 16MPa for the
concrete compressive strength, 420 MPa for the yield strength of longitudinal and 220
Mpa for the transverse reinforcements.(Figure 4.1.1)

Table 4.1.1:Building Description

Building Informations
Soil Class ZC
Earthquake Ground Motion Level DD-2
Coordinates (38 ; 42)
Ss 0.733
S1 0.197
SDs 0.66
Sd1 0.158
Building Occupancy Class BKS = 3 (Residence)
Building Importance Factor I = 1 (Residence)
Earthquake Design Class DTS = 1
Building Height Class BYS = 6
Building Performance Level DD-2 için KH
Building Carrier System R=8
Overstrength Factor D=3
Live Load Mass Participation Coefficient n = 0.3

23
 Figure 4.1.1:Plan view of 2 story building, created in AutoCAD

The buildings are 15 m by 15 m in plan, and the first floors are 13 m by 13 m due
to heavy overhang factor.. The story heights are 3 m for each building, first floors
being 3.7 m due to weak floor factor.

The dimensions of columns are 300 mm × 300 mm for 2 story buiding. For 5 story
and 7 story buildings, central columns are 500 mm × 500 mm and the others are 400
mm x 400 mm for others. All beams are T-shaped and their dimensions are 300 mm ×
600 mm. The effective width of the beams are calculated according to TBEC2018. The
vertical loads consist of dead and live loads of slabs, wall loads on beams and dead
loads of columns and beams.

24
 The RC residential building was analyzed in detail by performing both pushover
and nonlinear time history analyses according to the TBEC2018. Three-dimensional
finite element model of the residential building was prepared in structural analysis
program (SAP 2000) shown in Fig. 5.

For the 2 story building, all the column dimensions in a story are 30 x 30 cm, and
for the 5 story building they are 40 x 40 and 50 x 50 cm (Fig. 6). The column
dimensions in a defined position in the plan are the same in the other stories of the
building. The reinforcement of beams and columns was considered at a minimum
according to TBEC2018 regulations, with the confinement zone neglected and 8 mm
diameter (ϕ8) stirrups spaced at 150 mm intervals along the beams and columns.
Flexural rigidity is calculated for each member. Beams and columns were modeled as
frame elements that were connected to each other at the joints. Reinforcement scheme
is given in Fig. 4.1.2. In Fig. 4.1.2, the number before ‘‘Ø’’ is the number of bars and
after ‘‘Ø’’ is the diameter of bar in mm. A heavy projection was added at a length of
1 meter in each direction. The weights of the walls were included in the calculations
in this study, but their contribution to lateral resistance was not taken into account.

Figure 4.4.2:Plan view of 2 story building, created in AutoCAD

In order to visualize the buildings, Sketch-up application was used and for rendering
Lumion was used. You can see them in the following figures.

25
Figure 4.4.2 :2D Front Plan View of the Selected Buildings with Heavy Overhang and Weak Floor

Figure 4.4.3:3D View of the Selected Buildings, created in Sketch-Up

Figure 4.4..5 : Render View for 2-story building, taken from Lumion

26
 Figure 4.4.4:Render View for 5-story building, taken from Lumion

Figure 4..4..73:Render View for 7-story building, taken from Lumion

27
4.2 Ground Motion

In nonlinear time history and pushover analysis, the selection of an appropriate

acceleration record is a crucial step. For this study, the record of the Çayırova region
is selected as the ground motion input. The earthquale data was taken from AFAD
Earthquake Inquiry System. As a result of the examinations, visualization was carried
out and a different figures were obtained.

Earthquake data provides a valuable opportunity to examine the causes of building

damages during past seismic events in Turkey. For the analysis, the acceleration record
obtained from a nearby station utilized. The Design Spectrum from the Earthquake
data, corresponding to the station, is shown in Figure 4.2.1

Design Spectrum
3

2,5

2
Sae

1,5

0,5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
T

Table 4.2.1:Design Spectrum

28
5. Results and Discussions

5.1 Pushover Analysis Application

In this part of the project, we complete the pushover analysis for the building, get
the pushover curve and target displacement for the structure.
First of all, we determine the performance levels of columns and beams sections
such as immediate occupancy, life safety, and collapse prevention performance level
for each sections before defining hinge properties in model. To define this performance
leves, we get the idealized moment-curvature curves for each sections shown in tables
below

70

60

50
Moment

40

30

20

10

0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45
Curvature
Table 5..1:C30x30 Column – Moment Curvature Curve

140

120

100
Moment

80

60

40

20

0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35
Curvature

Table 5..2:C40x40 Column – Moment Curvature Curve

29
 Table 5.3:C60x60 Column – Moment Curvature Curve

500
450
400
350
300
Moment

250
200
150
100
50
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16
Curvature

Table 5.4:C60x60 Column – Moment Curvature Curve

300

250

200
Moment

150

100

50

0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25
Curvature

To get this moment-curvature curves, Mu, Myield, ϕyield and ϕu values for each
section, we modal our sections in SAP2000 section designer. After that, we calculate
the θp(G) for each section by following the formula.

30
 According to TBDY2018 5.8.1.2 and 5.8.1.3, we calculate the θp(GÖ) and θp(KH) for
each sections, and also we assume the θp(SH) as 0 for this project.

The allowable limit for plastic rotation is calculated through the flexural analysis
using the accepted concrete and reinforcing steel models and the axial force affecting
the section. Here,Øu represents the section's capacity-demand curve, and the final term
indicates the contribution of bond-slip to the section rotation.

31
Table 5.1.4:Performance Levels for 30x30 Column

30x30 Column
d' 0,04
h 0,3
db 0,014
Lp 0,15
Ls 1,5
ϕu 0,4
ϕyield 0,012
ϕp 0,39
θp G 0,058
θp GÖ 0,054
θp KH 0,040
θp SH 0
Mu/My 1,54

Table 5.5.5:Performance Levels for 40x40 Column

40x40 Column
d' 0,04
h 0,4
db 0,014
Lp 0,2
Ls 1,5
ϕu 0,29
ϕyield 0,008
ϕp 0,28
θp G 0,056
θp GÖ 0,047
θp KH 0,035
θp SH 0
Mu/My 1,63

32
Table 5.5.6:Performance Levels for 50x50 Column

50x50 Column
d' 0,05
h 0,5
db 0,02
Lp 0,25
Ls 1,5
ϕu 0,22
ϕyield 0,0064
ϕp 0,21
θp G 0,053
θp GÖ 0,046
θp KH 0,034
θp SH 0
Mu/My 1,67

Table 5.1.7:Performance Levels for 60x60 Column

60x60 Column
d' 0,05
h 0,6
db 0,02
Lp 0,3
Ls 1,5
ϕu 0,14
ϕyield 0,005
ϕp 0,13
θp G 0,040
θp GÖ 0,032
θp KH 0,024
θp SH 0
Mu/My 1,58

33
 After modeling in SAP2000, the maximum axial load was examined for each
element under the influence of load combinations. Based on these axial loads, moment-
rotation hinge assignments were made for each element.

Figure 5.1.1:Performance Level of 30x30 Column

Figure 5.5.2:Performance Level of 40x40 Column

34
 Figure 5.5..3:Performance Level of 50x50 Column

Figure 5.5.4:Performance Level of 60x60 Column

Interacting P-M2-M3 hinges were preferred for columns (Figure: XX) as they are
subjected to axial load from the Z-axis and moments from the X and Y directions. M3
hinges were assigned for beams . When assigning the hinges, necessary collapse
behavior adjustments were made according to TBDY2018.

35
 After assigning the hinges, fictitious loads were applied at the diaphragm points of
each floor, causing the building to be horizontally displaced up to 4% of the building
height in the X and Y directions.
As a result, a pushover curve was obtained. Using the design spectrum, the target
displacement of the structure was determined. In this way the safety of the structure is
assessed by pushing it again up to the target displacement.

Figure 5.5.5: Pushover Curve of 2-Storey Building

Figure 5.5.6:Pushover Curve of 5-Stoery Building

36
 Figure 5.5.6:Pushover Curve of 7-Storey Building

Table 5.5.8:Target displacement for 2-Storey Building

37
 Table 5.5.9:Target displacement for 5-Storey Building

Pushover Curve Y-Direction

10,000

9,000

8,000

7,000

6,000
Design Spectrum
Sae(g)

5,000
Pushover Curve

4,000 Target
Displacement
3,000

2,000

1,000 T.D.=0.044 m

0,000
0,000 0,050 0,100 0,150 0,200 0,250 0,300 0,350 0,400 0,450 0,500
Sdd (m)

Table 5.5..10:Target displacement for 7-Storey Building

38
 After obtaining target displacements, the structure is pushed up to this limit (4.7 cm
for x-direction, 4.4 cm for y-direction). Then, the hinges results are investigated. Thus,
we are able to check if the structure remain safe or not.

Figure 5.5..7:Hinge formation in 2-Storey Building:

Figure 5.5.8:Hinge formation in 5-Storey Building

39
 Figure 5.5.9:Hinge formation in 7-Storey Building

The figure above represents the status of all hinges defined in model. It is possible
to say that non of beams and columns fail under seismic event. Therefore, we might
conclude that the building we have designed is safe enough to ensure the evacuation
of people inside in the event of a possible earthquake.

40
5.2 Time-History Analysis Application

Figure .5.2.1:Displacement of two storey building under “Abbar” ground motion

Figure 5.2.2:Displacement of two storey building under “El Mayor-Cucapah_Mexico” ground motion

Figure 5.3.3:Displacement of two storey building under “Mohammad Abad-e-Modkoon” ground motion

41
Figure 5.2.4:Displacement of five storey building under “North Palm Spring Fire Sta #36” ground motion

Figure 5.2.5:Displacement of five storey building under “Whitewater Trout Farm” ground motion

Figure 5.2.6:Displacement of five storey building under “Joshua Tree N.M.- Keys View” ground motion

42
Figure 5.2.7:Displacement of seven storey building under “Bam_Iran” ground motion

Figure 5.3.8:Displacement of seven storey building under “Landers” ground motion

Figure 5.3..9:Displacement of seven storey building

under “Imperial Valley-06” ground motion

43
 Table 5.2..1:Maximum displacements of buildings with different story numbers under three different ground
motiın

By comparing the obtained displacements (Table 5.2.1), plastic deformations, and

internal forces from the time history analysis with the target values determined
previously, a comprehensive assessment of the building's response under similar
seismic events is achieved. Any disparities between the observed and desired values
can indicate potential areas of concern and help identify failing parts within the
structure at specific times during the seismic event. (Li, 1996)

44
6. Conclusion

In this study, earthquake hazard analysis was conducted with a focus on the
Çayırova district, specifically the Özgürlük neighborhood. Initially, a comprehensive
street survey was conducted, resulting in a building inventory consisting of 968
structures. The analysis revealed that the majority of buildings had 2, 5, or 7 floors.
Subsequently, the prevalence of structural deficiencies such as short columns, vertical
irregularities, weak floors, and heavy overhangs was determined for all buildings. The
findings indicated that heavy overhangs and weak floors were the most common issues
observed among the surveyed buildings.

Following the street survey, earthquake hazard analysis was performed using the
ELER program for these buildings. The results demonstrated that a significant portion
of the buildings in the region remained largely undamaged, with an average of 60.51%
reported as undamaged. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that 19.62% of the buildings
sustained slight damage, 12.84% experienced moderate damage, and 7.03% suffered
severe damage.

To further advance the project, certain assumptions were made to establish

analytical models for the 2, 5, and 7-story buildings in order to conduct structural
analyses. Soil class ZC, concrete class C16, longitudinal reinforcement class s420, and
transverse reinforcement class s220 were adopted as acceptance criteria. Floor plans
and beam reinforcement diagrams were subsequently developed for the
aforementioned buildings. The next step entailed analyzing the buildings according to
their designated types.

Initially, pushover analysis was performed, enabling the determination of

deformation patterns and pushover curves, which in turn facilitated the calculation of
target displacements. The analysis results indicated that the displacements occurring
in the structures were smaller than the target displacements, signifying that the
buildings exhibited rigid behavior. Subsequent to the pushover analysis, a time history
analysis was conducted using three different 2, 5, and 7-story buildings, subjecting
them to the effects of nine different past earthquakes, each analyzed three times.

45
Maximum displacement values were obtained from these analyses, yielding 1.51 cm
for a two-story building, 3.5 cm for a five-story building, and 4.52 cm for a seven-
story building.

Finally, a fragility curve was generated based on this analysis; however, it should
be noted that this fragility curve represents only a partial depiction, as it was derived
from the results of a single analysis.

Overall, this research conducted earthquake hazard analysis for the Çayırova
district, Özgürlük neighborhood, providing valuable insights into the structural
conditions of the surveyed buildings. The findings indicated the prevalence of certain
deficiencies, particularly heavy overhangs and weak floors, while also revealing the
buildings' response to seismic events through pushover and time history analyses.
Nonetheless, further studies involving multiple analyses are required to establish a
comprehensive and reliable fragility curve for the assessed buildings.

46
References

Akkar, S., Sucuoğlu, H., & Yakut, A. (2005). Displacement-based fragility functions
for low-and mid-rise ordinary concrete buildings. Earthquake Spectra (s. 901-927.).
içinde
CSI, S. 2. (2006). Analysis Reference Manual. Berkeley (CA, USA): Computers and
Structures.
Erberik, M. A. (2008). Fragility-based assessment of typical mid-rise and low-rise RC
buildings in Turkey. E. Structures içinde, Engineering Structures (s. 30(5),
1360-1374.).
Erdem, R., Demir, A., Bağcı, M., & Kantar, E. (2010). A comparative assessment of
existing buildings by Turkish Earthquake Code, ATC-40, FEMA-356, FEMA-
440. 9th international congress on advances in civil engineering. Trabzon:
Karadeniz Technical University.
H K, C., K K, V., & S P, D. (2017). Comparison of Force-Based Design Method and
Performance-Based Plastic Design Method for Seismic Design of Steel
Concentric Braced Frames. SIEICON. Indian: International Journal of
Advance Engineering and Research Development.
Krawinkler, H., & Seneviratna, G. D. (1998). Pros and cons of a pushover analysis of
seismic performance evaluation. . Engineering Structures, 20(4-6), 452–464.
Li, Y. (1996). Non-linear time history and Pushover analyses for seismic design and
evaluation. PhD Thesis. Austin, USA: University of Texas.

47