Human Anatomy and Physiology ⇒ Even if compressed, it will go back or
Skeletal System spring back to its original place
Functions
1. Supports surrounding tissues
● Muscles...
2. Protects vital organs and soft tissues
● Example thoracic, lungs and heart
● Brain
3. Stores mineral salts
- When contracted muscles, bones will move,
producing body movement
4. Manufactures blood cells
- Blood cell production happens in the bone
- Bones are filled with red bone marrow
- Red bone marrow responsible for producing
blood cells and platelets also
5. Stores mineral salts
- Calcium and phosphorus, particularly
- They are stores in your bones
Skeletal System
● Cartilage
o Connective tissue
o Environment in which bone
develops in fetus
▪ Endochondral ossification
o Found at ends at bones and in
joints
▪ Shock absorber
● Ligaments
o Bones to bones attachment
● Tendons
o Muscles to bones attachment
⇒ All connective tissues
⇒ The ECM of your tendons and ligaments
contain large amount of collagen fibers,
like ropes and cables. They support
bones from excessive movements
⇒ The ECM of cartilage contains collagen
and proteoglycans
⇒ Excellent shock absorbers, especially
cartilage
⇒ Most of the minerals of the bone is
formed by calcium phosphate crystals,
called hydroxyapatite
Histology of the Bone
● Two types of bone: compact and
cancellous (spongy)
o Compact
▪ nasa labas ng bone
▪ mostly solid matrix
o Spongy
▪ parang sponge sa loob
▪ consist of lacy networks
of bones
▪ only spongy has the bone
marrow
Haversian System
⇒ Repeating units, patterns
⇒ Repetitive units are called osteon
⇒ Each osteon has haversian system
⇒ Center is the Haversian Canals
* Bone has blood supply, cartilage does not
have, they are avascular *
Cancellous bone
● Trabeculae: meshwork of bone
Bone Marrow
● Red marrow
o Blood forming cells
o It is the only site of blood
formations in adults
o It consists of blood cells, and
precursors of blood cells
o Hematopoiesis, formation of red,
white blood cells and blood
platelets
o Children have more red marrow
than adults, as they age, red
 marrows are replaced by yellow o Where tendons and ligaments
marrows attach to bones
● Yellow marrow ● Endosteum
o Fat storage o Lines the bones inside, the
o Shaft of long bone internal surfaces of all cavities
within bones
Bone Matrix
● Organic material (35%) Growth and Bone Formation
o Collagen and proteoglycans ● A three-month fetal skeleton
● Inorganic material (65%) o Cartilage
o Calcium phosphate crystals o Ossification and growth begin
called hydroxyapatite ● Longitudinal growth continues until 15
years of age for girls, 16 years of age for
Bone Cells boys
● Osteoblasts ● Bone maturation until 21 years of age
o Bone-forming cells
o Ossification or osteogenesis, ● Bone develops in two processes
formation of bone by osteoblasts o Intramembranous ossification
● Osteocytes ▪ Within the connective
o Maintaining the bone matrix tissue membrane
● Osteoclast o Endochondral ossification
o Bone-destroying cells ▪ Inside the cartilage
o Break down bones to perform
reabsorption Maintaining Bone
● Endocrine system control
Structure of a Long Bone ● CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
● Diaphysis o Maintained by three hormones
o Central shaft o Parathyroid hormones, vitamin D
● Epiphysis (skin and diet), calcitonin
o End part of the bone o Parathyroid hormones and
o Epiphyseal plate or growth plate, vitamin D are secreted when
separates your epiphysis from blood calcium is low in the body
diaphysis o Calcitonin secreted when blood
o Growth in length - young bones, calcium is high in the body
epiphysis plates are open. Adult
bones, closed. Growth in Bone Width
o Cartilage-like, epiphyseal plates ● Appositional Growth
ossify, it will become epiphyseal o Happens within the periosteum
lines
● Metaphysis Factors affecting bone growth
o Flared portion ● Vitamin D
● Periosteum ● Vitamin C
o Outer surface ● Growth hormones
o Protects the bone outside
 o When abnormally high, there o Single unit, buong head kasama
exists gigantism, When ang mandible
abnormally low, dwarfism ● Cranium
● Thyroid hormone o Buong head except the mandible
● Sex hormones ● Calvaria
o Babae ang unang tumatangkad o Top of the skull
o Growth happens mostly in o Skullcap
puberty stage
The Cranial Bones
Bone Repair and Remodeling ● Frontal bone (1)
● Bone when damaged, can be repaired. ● Parietal bone (2)
Cartilage does not regenerate because ● Occipital bone (1)
avascular. ● Temporal bone (2)
● Four major steps ● Sphenoid bone (1)
1. Hematoma formation o Butterfly-shaped bone, very
▪ Blood vessels clotting irregular in shape
2. Callus formation o Anchors all the cranial bones
▪ At some point, fibrous together
connective tissue will be ● Ethmoid bone (1)
present in between the o Lightest cranial bone
two bone fragments
3. Callus ossification *Temporal = upper ears*
▪ If the osteoblasts enter *Sphenoid = kapag binaliktad head, makikita
the callus, and they enter butterfly shape*
the spongy bone *Ethmoid bone = in between the nasal and the
4. Bone remodeling orbits
▪ Spongy bone will slowly
be remodeled. Then, the Sutures - seams that connects the cranial bones
repair is complete. together
a. Coronal Suture - frontal and parietal bones
Classification Based on Shape b. Sagittal Suture - both parietal bones
● Long bones c. Lambdoid Suture - back, connects both
● Short bones parietal and occipital
● Flat bones d. Squamous Suture - temporal and parietal
● Irregular bones bones
● Sesamoid bones
*During childbirth, cranial bones still have
Two Parts of the Skeleton spaces because the head needs to move. When
1. Axial skeleton matured, spaces will fuse together and sutures
2. Appendicular skeleton are formed. *

AXS | Skull or Cranium Auditory Ossicles (6)

● Skull ● Tiniest bones in the body
● 3 on the left, 3 on the right
 ● They excite hearing receptors
o Malleus (Hammer) Functions of vertebral column
o Incus (Anvil) ● Protects the spinal cord, meron yang
o Stapes (Stirrup) canal
▪ Smallest among the 3 ● When vertebral is damaged, tendency
paralyzed (sensory and/or motor)
Facial Bones/Viscerocranium
● Nasal bones (2) Sacrum and Coccyx
● Palatine bones (2) ● In developing embryos, sacrum is not
● Maxillary bones (2) yet fused
● Zygomatic bones (2)
● Lacrimal bones (2) The thorax
● Nasal conchae (2) ● This is important because it protects
● Mandible your heart and your lungs
● Vomer ● Sternum has three parts
● 12 pairs of ribs
The Orbits and Nasal Cavity ● 12 thoracic vertebrates
● Orbits ● Ribs are attached to thoracic vertebrates
o Eye socket
o Encloses and protects the eye Ribs
● Nasal cavity ● Also called costae
o Nose framework ● 12 pairs
o Divided into left and right o True ribs (7)
o False ribs (3)
Hyoid Bone o Floating ribs (2)
● Unpaired u-shaped bone ● True ribs because, 1-7 they are directly
● Not part to the skull, because no direct attached to the sternum
attachment in skull ● False ribs, 8-10, coastal cartilages are
● Suspend/float attached to number 7
● Important for the attachment of tongue ● 11-12, floating because they are floating
muscles, and neck muscles that elevates at the back
the voice box/larynx when swallowing ● There are costal cartilages because they
allow ribs to expand during inhalation,
Vertebral column allows slight movement
● 26 vertebral bones
● Developing embryo = 33/34, Sternum
hindi pa naka-fuse ang ibang ● Has three main parts
bones o Manubrium
● Sacral and Coccygeal = o Body
Sacrococcygeal o Xiphoid process
● Lumbar and sacral = Lumbosacral ● Called like a sword
● Primary curve, thoracic curve o Manubrium (sword handle)
● Secondary curve, cervical and o Body (sword body)
lumbar curve o Xiphoid process (sword tip)
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Upper Extremities
*Radius katapat ni thumb*
*Ulna katapat ni pinky finger*
Pectoral Girdle or Shoulder girdle
● Located posteriorly
Forearm
● Head of radius, attached to ulna,
capable to pivot (pronate, supinate)
Wrist and Hand
● 8 carpal bones arranged in two rows
o PROXIMAL: Some lovers try
position
o DISTAL: that they can’t handle
● Metacarpals
o Numbered starting from thumb
Lower Extremities
Pelvic girdle
● Place where lower limbs are attached to
the body
● Pelvis includes pelvic girdle and coccyx
● Sacrum and coccyx form the part of
pelvis
● Ilium, most superior
● Ischium, inferior and posterior
● Pubis, inferior and anterior
o Three are joined by acetabalum
● Symphysis pubis, cartilage in middle
Thigh and Knee
*Femur, mas mahaba leeg kesa kay humerus*
Patella
- Largest sesamoid bone in the body
- Somewhat brown
- Hindi siya naka-articulate sa bone,
nakasuspend sa ligament
Leg
*Only tibia articulated in femur*
● Fibula attached to tibia
Foot
● (7) tarsal bones = 14 in the body
Three major arches
1. Medial Longitudinal Arch
● Medially, big toe to heel
2. Lateral Longitudinal Arch
● Little toes to heel
3. Transverse Arch
● Gitna
- Important to balance the weight in the
body
- When there’s no arch, flatfooted
JOINTS AND MOVEMENT
Introduction
● Joint/Articulation: union between two
or more bones
● Can be mobile or immobile
● Many of joints exhibits limited
movements only
● Others are completely/almost
completely mobile/immobile
● Examples: Sutures between skull bones
● Knee or elbow joint (movable)
Classification of Joints
● Functional
o Based on the degrees of
movements
o Synarthroses (Fibrous),
Amphiarthroses (cartilaginous),
Diarthroses (synovial)
● Structural
o Type of material that holds the
bones together
o Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial

Synarthroses (Fibrous)
● Fibrous joints that consist of two bones
that are united by a fibrous tissue
● Exhibits no movements, if there is, very
little
● Suture: in between the bones of skull
● Syndesmosis: separated by a distance,
little distance (radius and ulna)
● Gomphosis: conical type, pegs fitted in
sockets
Amphiarthroses (cartilaginous)
● Unites bone by means of cartilage
● There is movement, but very slight only
● Symphysis: pubic symphysis
● Synchondrosis: growth plate between
diaphysis and epiphyses, cartilage
between the sternum and the ribs
Diarthroses (synovial)
● Free movable joints
● They can moooove, not minimal but full
motion
● They contain fluids in the cavity that
articulates the bone
● Capsule composition: synovial fluids for
smoother movements, for movement
and weight bearing
o Almost all joints in appendicular
Movements at Synovial Joints
● Flexion/extension
o Common opposing movements
o Literally nagbebend ka
o Nag-eextend/straighten ka
o Flexion: bended
o Extension: straightened
o Hyperextension: abnormal
extension
o Neck flexion, head looking down
o Next extension, head looking
forward/up
o Trunk flexion, trunk extension
o Cervical lateral flexion
o Trunk lateral flexion
o Flexion is to bend, extension is to
straighten
● Dorsiflexion/plantar flexion
o Standing on your toes = plantar
flexion
o Towards the tibia = dorsiflexion
o Walking on your heel =
dorsiflexion
● Abduction/adduction
o Abduction = movement away
from the median plane
o Adduction = towards the median
plane
● Rotation
o Turning the structure into a long
axis
o Shaking of your head
● Circumduction
o Occurs usually in freely movable
joints
o Usually, nangyayari sa ball and
socket type of joints
o Circling your shoulders =
circumduction
● Supination/pronation
o 90 degree elbow, when palm
facing above = supination
o When palm facing down =
pronation
● Eversion/inversion
o Foot
o Plantar facing medially =
inversion
o Plantar surface facing laterally =
eversion
● Protaction/rectraction
o Gliding anteriorly = protraction
o Gliding posteriorly = retraction
● Opposition/reposition
o Unique movement of your
thumb and little finger
 o Tip of thumb and little finger are intervertebral discs, hindi
both towards each other = sobrang glide
opposition
o Return = reposition Bursae
● Elevation/depression ● They are located in the joints, or the
o Movement of structure in synovial membrane
superior direction = elevation ● Closed sacs that prevent friction
o Movement of structure in between tissues
interior direction = depression ● In between the structures to avoid
rubbing together, when they rub,
Types of Synovial Joints masakit dahil nagsnsnap
● Ball-and-socket ● Friction can damage your structures
o Consist of the head and the o Subcutaneous = in between the
socket skin and the bones
o Wide-range motion, kaya niya o Subfascial = in between the
lahat muscles (fascial means muscles)
● Hinge o Subtendinous = in between the
o Permits movement in one plane tendons and bony projections
only ● Sometimes, can be inflamed caused by
o Flexion/extension only too much friction, often result from
o Knee/Elbow abrasions...inflamed called bursitis
o Knees: modified hinge, kaya niya
magrotate ng konti *when there is itis, means inflammation*
● Pivot
o Rotation in one single axis
o Atlas and axis of the cervical
spine = “no” joint
● Condyloid (ellipsoidal)
o Elongated ball-and-socket type
o Shape of bones, limit range of
motion
o Two types of movements:
flexion/extension, radial
deviation/ulnar deviation
● Saddle
o Motion in two planes
o Opposition/reposition
o Abduction/adduction
o Usually the thumb
● Plane
o Gliding motion lang usually
o Two flat surfaces
o Vertebral columns, in between
the vertebrates there are