Computer Hardware – Input and Output devices; Memory (or storage) devices; Central Processing

Unit. Input / Output devices: keyboard, mouse, light pen, barcode readers, scanners, MICR, OCR,
voice recognition and handwriting recognition systems; visual display terminals, printers, plotters
etc. Storage devices: Primary storage – RAM, ROM, EEROM, PROM, EPROM; Secondary storage –
direct access devices, serial access devices: hard disks, floppy disks, magnetic tape, CD-ROM, DVD;
Cache memory and Virtual memory. Central Processing Unit – Control Unit; Arithmetic and Logic
Unit; Decoders; Registers; Machine Instructions; Stored program concept; Program execution: Fetch-
Decode-Execute cycle; Arithmetic, logical and shift operations.

Input unit

Input is a process by which data and instructions are entered into a computer system from the
external world. Input Unit performs these tasks. It passes input information to the computer in
a computer compatible form. Input information may be programs or data, Keyboard, Punch
Card, Floppy Disk, Mouse, Joystick, Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) are some examples
of Input Devices. Computer works on binary codes.
Functions of the input unit:

(a) It takes instructions and data from the external world.

(b) It transforms the instructions and data into binary form.

(c) It sends the converted data and instructions to the computer system for processing.

Input devices:

A device that converts our information to a form which computer understands is known as an
Input Device. Some input devices are listed below:

(i) Keyboard terminal.

(ii) Pointing Devices.
(iii) Joystick.
(iv) Data Automation Devices
a) OMR
b) OCR
c) OBR
d) MICR
v) Scanners
i) Keyboard: The Keyboard is one of the most common input device for computer. Its structure is
similar to that of a traditional QWERTY typewriter and works also almost in the same way. But it has
certain advantages over the typewriter, such as,

(a) It has function keys (F1 to F12) which are programmable.

(b) Almost all the keys are dual function keys.

(c) It can create some special additional symbols called extended character set which are not
available in the typewriter keyboard.
The number of keys varies in different keyboards e.g. the windows '95 keyboard has 104/105 keys
but nowadays, keyboards with 111/112 keys or above are available. Some keyboards can be folded
right through the center to ensure less space while using it. This type of keyboards are called
Ergonomically Designed Keyboards.

(ii) Pointing Devices:

a) Mouse: The keyboard suffers from a lot of drawbacks at the time of using in the
windows environment. For this, the mouse is preferred as it is generally used in Graphical
User Interface (GUI) environment. The mouse is basically rectangular or oval shaped object,
which can be held by hand and made to roll on a flat surface with the help of a ball
underneath it. When in use, a small arrow-mark, known as mouse pointer, denoted by 
appears on the screen and it can be made to move in any direction as the mouse is rolled.

There can be two types of mouse; (a) Normal Mouse which remains connected with the
computer by means of a chord, and (b) Remote Controlled Mouse or Tail less Mouse which
is used by remote control.

b) Light Pen: This pen shaped device allowing natural movement on the screen. The
pen contains the light receptor and is activated by pressing the pen against the display
screen. Receptor is the scanning beam which helps in locating the pen’s position. Suitable
system software is provided to initiated necessary action when we locate an area on the
display surface with the help of the light pen.

(iii) Joystick: It has a lever-like structure, which can be rotated in any direction on a fixed flat base.
The movement of the lever controls the movement of an object on the screen. There may be one or
more buttons on the joystick, which are used to perform special functions. Generally, the joystick is
used for playing games in the computer. It finds another important use in the flight simulator
software, which is used, for training pilots.

(iv) Data Automation Devices:

a) Optical Mark Reader (OMR) : It is popularly used for evaluating objective-type answer
scripts in examinations. In the answer-scripts, filling up circular, square or oval areas marks
the answers with pencil marks. While evaluating the scripts with the aid of an OMR, light is
made incident on the script, some of which is reflected off by the highly reflective pencil
marks and are picked up by a sensor.

b) Optical Character Reader (OCR) : It is a special type of scanner which is popularly used
for scanning alphabetic, numeric and alpha-numeric symbols written using normal ink on
plain paper. This avoids data miss-entry and errors that may occur due to normal entry. It is
popularly used in banks for reading the current status of passbooks.

c) Optical Bar Code Reader (OBR) : It scans a set of vertical bars of different widths for
specific data and are used to read tags and merchandise in stores, Books, medical records etc.
These are available as hand held device.

d) Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR) : It is popularly used in banks for verifying
important documents like drafts, cheques, etc. At the bottom side of such documents, a set of
symbols is printed with magnetized ink. When inserted into the MICR, the MICR induces a
magnetic field over the document.

v) Scanners: Scanners facilitate capturing of information and storing them in graphic or textual
format for displaying on the graphical screen. Scanners consists of two components the first one to
illuminate the page so that optical image can be captured and the other to convert the optical image
into digital format for storing by computer. The graphic or textual image/matter can be seen and
processed directly by the computer.

voice recognition and handwriting recognition systems

Voice recognition, also known as “speech to text,” is an assistive technology. The main
mechanism is powered by machine learning. Almost 5.6 million people find it easier to
operate a smartphone with voice. The only hardware requirement of a voice recognition
system is a microphone to register human voices.

Some famous examples of voice recognition assistants are Apple’s Siri, Microsoft’s
Cortana, Google Home, and Amazon’s Echo and Amazon's Alexa.

The voice recognition system detects voice and extracts analog signals (the words we
speak) into digital signals (that computers interpret)..

Handwriting recognition (HWR), also known as handwritten text recognition (HTR), is the
ability of a computer to receive and interpret intelligible handwritten input from sources such
as paper documents, photographs, touch-screens and other devices. The image of the written
text may be sensed "off line" from a piece of paper by optical scanning (optical character
recognition) or intelligent word recognition. Alternatively, the movements of the pen tip may be
sensed "on line", for example by a pen-based computer screen surface, a generally easier task
as there are more clues available. A handwriting recognition system handles formatting, performs
correct segmentation into characters, and finds the most possible words.

visual display terminals

A visual display terminal, or video display terminal (VDT) is a computer screen. The VDT
displays the text and images generated by a computer. VDTs can be part of a computer, or
separate hardware devices tethered to a computer with a cable. These separate devices are
sometimes called computer monitors

Output Units

Output is a process by which the computer system outputs the results and information

to the external world. It sends information from inside the computer to the outside world. The
output may be displayed on the Video Display Screen or may be connected to some external system.
Input devices send information to the computer from outside world. Computer processes the
information and sends the result to the outside world. But we do not understand the binary
language of the computer. For this, an Output Device is necessary.

Output devices:
(i) Visual display unit (VDU) (ii) Printer

(iii) Plotter (iv) Magnetic disk drive

(v) Digital to analog converter (DAC).

(i) Visual display unit (VDU) or Soft copy Output Device: Here the output is shown on
monitor using dots of colors or lights. Each of these dots are individually called pixel or
Picture Element (PEL). These. dots, when concentrated on various parts of the screen,
produce an output. If the density of dots is high, then the output is clearer. This is called
resolution. Hence, higher the resolution, better is the output. This concept is used in case of
both monochrome and color monitors, which are essentially the two different types of soft
copy output device.
According to the display technology we can divide monitor into three types:
a) Cathode Ray Tube.
b) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).
c) Projection Display.
According to the colour we can divide monitor into two types:
a) Monochrome Monitor
b) Colour Monitor
 (a) Monochrome Monitor: As the name indicates, in this type of monitor, light of only one
colour is emitted from the screen. This colour, with all its shades of grey, is able to produce an
impression on the screen. The output here is generally shown on a dark background using a light
foreground.

(b) Colour Monitor: In case of colour monitor, virtually infinite number of colours are
produced to generate an output. Here, the monitor can originally generate the three primary
colours viz. red, green and blue; which are intermixed in various proportions to get a large
number of secondary colours. For obvious reasons, the color monitors are also known as
RGB screen.

(ii) Printers or Hard Copy Output Devices: Here the output is generated on paper by using either of
the output devices viz. PRINTERS or PLOTTERS.

(i) Printers: Here the output device is generally used to produce text material and other ordinary
graphics as output. Generally, the output generated by the printer can either be of single colour or
multicolor. The printers have two basis for classification:

(i) Classification based on whether the printer is of impact or non-impact type,

(ii) Classification based on speed of printing.

.(i) Classification based on impact or Non-impact:

The various types of printers based on impact and non-impact are:

(a) Impact Printer: In this type, the printer's head physically touches the paper surface to produce
the output. The head, always being in contact with the paper while printing, produces high friction
thus making it noisy. Moreover, the rigidity of the printer head limits the generation of multiple
colours. Graphical outputs are also of low quality in the case of impact printers.

(b) Non-impact Printers: In this type, the printer's head does not physically touch the paper to
produce the impression. Generally, in this case, a fine jet of ink is spread over the paper surface. Due
to no contact between the printer head and paper, the friction generated is very low, making it
virtually noiseless. Moreover, multi-coloured output is possible. Graphics output generated is also of
high quality here.

(ii) Classification based on speed of printing: Here the various types of printers are

classified as :
(a) Serial or Character Printer: It can print one character at a time. It is the slowest and the cheapest
form of printer. It's speed is measured in characters per second (CPS).
(b) Line Printer: It can print one line output at a time. It's speed is measured in lines per
minute (LPM).
(c) Page Printer: Here, the printer can generate one page of output at a time. It is the fastest but the
costliest of printers. Its speed is measured in pages per minute (PPM).

It may be mentioned here that, the printing quality of any printer depends on the number and
density of ink dots available on the output paper. This is measured in dots per inch (dpi). Higher dpi
means better quality output.

A comparative study of printers has been made in the following table:

IMPACT OR NON- SERIAL OR LINE OR

NAME OF PRINTER
IMPACT PAGE PRINTER

(1) DOT MATRIX PRINTER IMPACT SERIAL

(2) INKJET/DESKJET/BUBBLEJET PRINTER NON-IMPACT SERIAL

(3)LASER PRINTER NON-IMPACT PAGE

(4) DRUM PRINTER IMPACT LINE

(5) CHAIN PRINTER IMPACT LINE

(iii) Plotters

Plotters are another type of hard copy output device. It consists of a similar to the printer head. But
the head contains pen filled with liquid ink. A plotter has a flat surface on which the paper is kept.
There is an arm moving horizontally across the paper length. On this arm, the moves in a vertical
direction on the paper. Plotters are preferably used for plotting geographical maps, weather maps
and also for creating engineering drawing of Computer Aided Designs (CAD). Plotters can be of two
types; (i) FLAT-BED PLOTTER (ii) DRUM PLOTTER

Storage devices

Memory unit

Memory can be classified in three groups.

1.Primary Memory or Main Memory

1.RAM (Read Access Memory).

2.ROM (Read Only Memory).

2. Cache Memory (Pronounced as Cash Memory)
3.Secondary Memory or Auxiliary Memory.

1.Magnetic Tape

2. Magnetic Media or Disk.

a) Floppy Disk
b) Hard Disk.
c) Optical Media.

Primary Memory or Main Memory: Primary memory is a storage device which stores data and
program temporarily. It generally holds data and program till the power supply remains on. When
the supply is made off, the contents are removed from the memory.

Based on its working methodology, it can be classified as follows:

1. Random Access Memory (RAM) : It is that part of the primary memory which is used by the
computer for performing all jobs supplied by the user. Generally, all data stored here is
based on charge, and hence is power dependent. In this case, the user has both read and
writes permission. At power off condition, the RAM looses all its contents permanently.
Basically, RAM comes into use when the user uses the computer.
Based on its functioning, RAM is of two types:

(i) Static Random Access Memory (S-RAM) : It is faster and hence costlier. For this reason,
it is available in limited amount in the computer. .
(ii) Dynamic Random Access Memory (D-RAM): This part of RAM is Capacitor based and hence it
needs to be recharged at frequent intervals of time to retain the information.

Comparison between S-RAM and D-RAM has been shown in the following table:

SRAM DRAM
1 This memory is based on transistor 1.This memory is based on capacitor technology.
technology.

2. It does not require refreshing. 2. It requires refreshing periodically.

3. It consumes more power. 3. It requires less power.

4. It is expensive. 4. It is cheaper.

5. It is faster in action. 5. It is slower in action.

6. It has low storage density. 6. It has high storage density.

7. It has low storage capacity. 7. It has large storage capacity.
 2. Read Only Memory (ROM) : This part of the memory is circuit based and all the instructions
stored here uses logic gates rather than electric charge. This makes ROM non- volatile and
hence its contents are not erased due to power shutdown or due to human manipulation.
The contents of ROM remain unchanged throughout its life. Generally, the ROM stores
instructions necessary for ensuring proper working of the computer. These instructions are
never changed and are stored using hardware circuits. These instructions are called
Firmware. These are necessary whenever power is supplied to the computer, because these
instructions perform various functions to ensure that all the peripheral devices attached to
the computer are working properly.

Based on its functions, ROM’s are classified as follows:

(i) Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

(ii) Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)- This can also be of two types:

(a) Erasable Alterable Programmable Read Only Memory (EAPROM)

(b) Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

(iii) Ultra Violet Programmable Read Only Memory (UVPROM).

Cache Memory: This is a small fast memory placed between the processor and main memory. It is a
high-speed storage unit and much faster than real memory or main memory. Cache storage is
extremely expensive compared to main storage. The characteristics of cache memory compared to
main memory are as under:

(i) Access time is less

(ii) Access speed is more
(iii) Storage cost per bit is more
(iv) Storage capacity is less.

Virtual memory uses both the computer's software and hardware to work. It transfers processes
between the computer's RAM and hard disk by copying any files from the computer's RAM that
aren't currently in use and moving them to the hard disk. By moving unused files to the hard disk, a
computer frees up space in its RAM to perform current tasks, such as opening a new application. If
the computer later needs to use its RAM for a more urgent task, it can again swap files to make the
most of the available RAM.

Secondary Memory or Auxiliary Memory or Backing Store: It is the storage unit that stores data and
program permanently. It holds the current data and program even if the supply is withdrawn.
Types of Secondary Memory:

1. Magnetic Tape: Here the data is stored on thin plastic strips coated with a layer of magnetic
oxide. This strip is found in reels and data is stored by the presence or absence of magnetic
poles on the strip. Data in strips are available in two forms
(a) Cassette Tape (Tape Cartridge)

(b) Magnetic Tape (Spool Tape)

2. Magnetic Media: Here the data is stored on circular disks made either of flexible plastic or
rigid metallic material. Both sides of the disk have magnetic oxide coating for storing data. Data is
stored here magnetically using bits 1 and 0 in invisible concentric circles called 'tracks'.

Magnetic Media are of three types:

(a) Floppy Disk: Floppy disks are made of thin, flexible plastic material. Here a read and write head js
available for each surface and the head physically touches the surface for reading data. Floppy disks
are portable, quite cheap, but have less storage capacity. Floppy disks are basically of the following
types:

(i) Single Sided Single Density (SSSD)

(ii) Single Sided Double Density (SSDD)

(iii) Double Sided Single Density (DSSD)-Capacity : 720KB

(iv) Double Sided Double Density (DSDD)-Capacity : 1.44MB

(v) Double Sided Quadruple Density (DSQD)-Capacity : 2.88 MB

The most commonly used variety of floppy disk is DSDD having a capacity of 1.44 MB. (3.5" Micro
Floppy disk).

(b) Hard Disk: Hard disks are thin circular disks made of a rigid metallic material and coated
with magnetic oxide. A read and write head is available for each of its surfaces, but to avoid
friction, the head does not physically touch the surface of the hard disk. Because of their
extremely high capacity and high speed, hard disks are costlier. For protection, hard disk is
permanently housed inside the computer in protective metallic jacket, and for this, it is also
known as 'fixed disc'. Generally, hard disks have capacities in the range of gigabytes.
(c) Optical Media:
Compact Disk (CD)

Compact Disks have got extremely high capacity of data storage and works very fast. It has
got a long life, provided that it is used properly. Generally, compact disks are used to store
extremely important software. Here, data is stored optically on spiral tracks. At the time of
recording some information in the CD, laser beam of very high intensity is made incident on
the spinning disk, whereby small furrows deep marks are created on the disks surface. The
presence of such a furrow indicates bit 1 and its absence indicates bit o. On completion of
recording the full CD, a transparent protective polythene covering is applied on the recorded
surface and the CD is distributed in a protective box known as 'Jewel Box'. Generally the
capacity of a CD is 600 MB to 750 MB till date. Three types of CD are available. These are:

(a) CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read-Only Memory) : This is a pre-recorded disk and one can only read
from it as writing is not permissible. It is the cheapest form of CD.

(b) WORM (Write-Once, Read-Many) : This is a blank CD by default. Recording can be done on it, but
only once. Afterwards, the user can only read from it. This type of CD is costlier than CD-ROM.

(c) Erasable Optical Disk or Write-CD: In this type of CD, multiple read and write operations are
allowed. This is the costliest form of CD. It may be noted that a CD-drive is required for running each
of the above types of CD.

Central Processing Unit – Control Unit; Arithmetic and Logic Unit

Central processing unit (CPU)

1. CPU is the nerve center of the computer system.

2. It performs the central control functions.

3. All mathematical operations are controlled by CPU.

4. All logical and decision-making operations are controlled by CPU.

(a) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) :

CPU includes ALU, which performs all mathematical and logical operations. It performs
'addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. It controls AND, OR, NOT and other
logical operations.

(b) Control Unit (CU) :

Control unit is a special type electronic circuit. It controls all functioning of the computer. It
co-ordinates Input Unit, Output Unit and Memory Unit. It controls execution of instructions.
It helps the computer to understand the difference between Data and Instructions. It decodes
program instructions stored in Control Memory (CM). Each instruction .s read from CM into
a register. These registers are known as instruction registers (IR).

Registers; Machine Instructions; Stored program concept; Program execution: Fetch-Decode-Execute

cycle;

Decoders;

The combinational circuit that change the binary information into 2 N output lines is
known as Decoders. The binary information is passed in the form of N input lines.
The output lines define the 2 N-bit code for the binary information. In simple words,
the Decoder performs the reverse operation of the Encoder. At a time, only one
input line is activated for simplicity. The produced 2 N-bit output code is equivalent to
the binary information.

Registers :

Computer Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and
transfer data and instructions that the CPU needs immediately. The registers used by the
CPU are called processor registers. The function of a register is to store, accept, transfer,
and manipulate the data..
Machine Instructions: A machine instruction is a simple program instruction in binary form. It
comprises several bytes in memory that tells the processor how to perform one machine
operation. The microprocessor decodes and executes Types of machine instruction without
further processing. In each instruction, a specific task is performed on a data unit in a CPU
register or memory, such as a load, a jump, or an ALU operation. A CPU directly executes a
program made up of such instructions.

Stored program concept ;

The Von Neumann Architecture uses the stored program concept where instructions and
data are loaded from main memory into the processor to be executed.

: Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle

Control Unit – controls all parts of the computer system. It manages the four
basic operations of the Fetch Execute Cycle as follows:

1. Fetch – gets the next program command from the computer’s

memory
2. Decode – deciphers what the program is telling the computer to do
3. Execute – carries out the requested action
4. Store – saves the results to a Register or Memory
;

Arithmetic, logical and shift operations.

The table given below is the function table of the Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit.

Operation Function

F=A Transfer A

F=A+1 Increment A

F=A+B Addition

F=A+B+1 Add with carry

F = A + B’ Subtract with borrow

F = A + B’ + 1 Subtraction

F=A–1 Decrement A

F=A Transfer A

F=A∧B AND
F=A∨B OR

F=A⊕B XOR

F = A’ Complement A

F = shr A Shift right A into F

F = shl A Shift Left A into F