General Biology 2: Module 1

DIVISION OF NAVOTAS CITY
General Biology 2
1st or 2nd Semester
S.Y. 2021-2022
NAVOTAS CITY PHILIPPINES
General Biology 2 for Senior High School
Alternative Delivery Mode
1st / 2nd Semester
Second Edition, 2021
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Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio
Development Team of the Module

Writers: Kim Darren D. Vidal, Jose Victor D. Gulmatico and Joseph Gabriel G. Cruz
Editors: Joseph Gabriel G. Cruz and Kim Darren D. Vidal
Reviewer: Russell P. Samson
Illustrator: Kim Darren D. Vidal and Jose Victor D. Gulmatico
Layout Artist: Joseph Gabriel G. Cruz
Management Team: Alejandro G. Ibañez, OIC- Schools Division Superintendent
Isabel S. Sibayan, OIC- Asst. Schools Division Superintendent
Loida O. Balasa, Chief, Curriculum Implementation Division
Russell P. Samson, EPS in Science
Grace R. Nieves, EPS In-Charge of LRMS
Lorena J. Mutas, ADM Coordinator
Vergel Junior C. Eusebio, PDO II LRMS
Inilimbag sa Pilipinas ng ________________________
Department of Education – Navotas City

Office Address: BES Compound M. Naval St. Sipac-Almacen Navotas City
____________________________________________
Telefax: 02-8332-77-64
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Navotas.city@deped.gov.ph
Table of Contents
Quarter 1 or Quarter 3
What I Know ................................................................................1
Module 1......................................................................................3
Module 2......................................................................................10
Module 3......................................................................................19
Module 4......................................................................................25
Module 5......................................................................................33
Module 6......................................................................................37
Assessment .................................................................................43
What I Know ...............................................................................47
Module 7......................................................................................48
Module 8......................................................................................55
Module 9......................................................................................64
Module 10 ....................................................................................74
Module 11 ....................................................................................79
Module 12 ....................................................................................85
Assessment ..................................................................................89
Answer Key ..................................................................................91
References ..................................................................................96
Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. Recalling earth’s entire geological history, Which of the following statements is

true about when the dinosaurs went extinct?
A. Shortly after the formation of Earth

B. In the first billion years of Earth’s history
C. In the most recent 2% of the history of Earth
D. Before the first fish formed
2. Relative to the percent of time dominating the surface of Earth which organisms
have the longest reign?
A. Dinosaurs B. Plants C. Prokaryotes D. Eukaryotes
3. Based on fossil evidence and absolute dating, Approximately how old is planet
Earth?
A. 6,000 C. 4,600,000,000
B. 46,000,000 D. There is no way to know
4. Which of the following refers to the The remnant of an organ that had a function
in an early ancestor?
A. vestigial structure. C. homologous structure.

B. analogous structure. D. fossil structure.
5. What is the process in which humans breed organisms for certain traits?
A. natural selection
B. inheritance of acquired characteristics
C. artificial selection
D. descent without modification
6. Evolution is often described as "the theme that ties together all aspects of biology."
Why is this so?
A. explains how organisms become adapted to their environment.

B. explains why all organisms have characteristics in common.
C. explains why distantly related organisms sometimes resemble one another.
D. all of the above are appropriate answers.
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7. Which is an example of a macroevolutionary event?
A. the changing frequency of light to dark moths when the Industrial revolution
increased smoke in the environment.
B. the mass extinction of dinosaurs.
C. an isolated population of fruit flies grows really large.
D. a great reduction in population size of salmon due to over fishing.
8. What are the bases that makes up DNA?
A. Guanine, Adenine, Cytosine, Thymine

B. Guanine, Adenine, Cytosol, Threonine
C. Guanine, Adenosine, Cytosine, Thymine
D. Guanine, Adenosine, Cytosine, Threonine
9. Which of these is accounted in traditional classification of organisms?
A. Extinct organisms C. DNA similarities

B. RNA copies D. General similarities in appearance
10. Which of the following will be generated in analysis of derived characters?
A. Family tree of external appearance C. Cladogram

B. Family tree of DNA structure D. Traditional classification system
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MODULE 1
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
enumerate the processes involved in genetic engineering and tackle the applications
of recombinant DNA. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different
learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of
students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course.
But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the module
you are now using.
The module is divided into two lessons, namely:
● Lesson 1.1 – Genetic Engineering
● Lesson 1.2 – Applications of Recombinant DNA
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Outline the processes involved in genetic engineering
2. Discuss the applications of recombinant DNA
Lesson
GENETIC ENGINEERING
1.1
What Is Biotechnology?
By 2007, the human genome has been fully sequenced. The ability to sequence
DNA has been reliant on technological advancements.
The modification of organisms or their genetic components to produce useful

goods is known as biotechnology.
For biotechnology, a variety of skills and procedures have been developed:

• Creation of genetically modified organisms, or genetic engineering
• Protein expression and analysis
• DNA amplification
• DNA fingerprinting
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Creation of Genetically Modified Organisms (Genetic Engineering)
Genetic engineering, or the direct manipulation of genes for practical goals,

relies heavily on recombinant DNA methods. Nucleotide sequences from two separate
sources, usually two species, are joined in vitro into the same DNA molecule in
recombinant DNA. Scientists produce gene-sized fragments of DNA in identical
duplicates, a process known as DNA cloning, to work directly with specific genes to
be merged. In the laboratory, bacteria and their plasmids can be used to clone DNA
fragments. Plasmids are tiny circular DNA molecules that replicate independently
from the bacterial chromosome in bacteria. A cloning vector, which is a DNA molecule
that can transfer foreign DNA into a host cell and replicate there, is the original
plasmid. Foreign DNA is put into a plasmid, which is then inserted into a bacterial
cell as a recombinant plasmid. Cloning of the plasmid, which includes the foreign
DNA, occurs during reproduction in the bacterial cell. As a result, numerous copies
of a single gene are produced.
Lifted from Campbell Biology 11th Ed.
How is Recombinant DNA made?

Restriction enzymes from bacteria
cleave DNA molecules at restriction sites,
which are defined as certain DNA sequences.
A restriction enzyme produces many cuts,
resulting in restriction fragments. The most
useful restriction enzymes cut DNA in a
staggered pattern, resulting in fragments with
"sticky ends" that bind to complementary
sticky ends of other fragments. DNA ligase is
an enzyme that binds restriction fragments
together and secures the connections.
Reproductive Cloning of Mammals

Dolly, a lamb cloned from an adult
sheep by nuclear transplantation from a
differentiated mammary cell, was born in
1997, according to Scottish researchers.
Dolly's premature death in 2003, along with
her arthritis, prompted speculation that her
cells were not as healthy as those of a normal Lifted from Campbell Biology 11th Ed.
sheep, probably due to insufficient
reprogramming of the original nucleus
transplant.
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Lifted from https://images.slideplayer.com/26/8714239/slides/slide_24.jpg
Stem Cells of Animals
A stem cell is an unspecialized cell that can multiply forever and differentiate
into one or more types of specialized cells. Embryonic stem cells are stem cells that
can develop into any cell type and are obtained from early embryos at the blastocyst
stage. Adult stem cells replace non-reproducing specialized cells in the body. The
aim of stem cell research is to supply cells for the repair of damaged or diseased
organs.
5
Read the text below and accomplish the task afterwards.
Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen pioneered the technique of DNA cloning allowing
genes to be transferred from another biological species easily. Their work also gave
rise to the development of different recombinant proteins with therapeutic
applications like insulin and growth hormone. The former was cloned using
Escherichia coli in 1978. With this breakthrough, the first licensed drug produced
using recombinant DNA technology was human insulin, developed by Genentech,
licensed and marketed by Eli Lilly in 1982.
Scientists were able to identify and isolate the gene fragment or the gene of
interest, in this case, the gene that is responsible for producing insulin. Moreover,
they were able to isolate the bacterial DNA of E. coli. The plasmid and DNA
fragment were cut using a restriction enzyme. This DNA fragment was inserted
into the plasmid using a DNA ligase. When the DNA fragment was then placed
into the bacterial DNA, it was then introduced to the host cell (E. coli) and was
then amplified for the selection of transformed host cells.
Source: Cohen, S. N. (2013). DNA cloning: a personal view after 40 years. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 110(39), 15521-15529.
Based on what you have just read, what ate the steps involved in genetic engineering?
1. _____________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________
Lesson APPLICATIONS OF
1.2 GENETIC ENGINEERING
1. Medical Applications
Diagnosis of Diseases. The identification of human genes in which mutation has
a role in genetic illnesses is one advantage of DNA technology. Scientists can use
PCR with primers corresponding to cloned disease genes to identify many human
genetic illnesses, then sequence the amplified result to look for the disease-causing
mutation. Genetic markers associated to the disease-causing allele can also be used
to screen for genetic diseases. SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) are important
genetic markers. These are single base-pair locations with population variation. SNPs
cause DNA fragments to have various lengths when a restriction enzyme is used,
which is known as restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP).
Human Gene Therapy. The altering of a patient's genes is known as gene
therapy. Gene therapy has a lot of promise for curing diseases caused by a single
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faulty gene. Genes are delivered into certain types of cells, such as bone marrow,
using vectors. Gene therapy poses ethical concerns, such as whether or not human
germ-line cells should be treated to rectify a genetic abnormality in future
generations.
Pharmaceutical Products. The discovery of new pharmaceuticals to treat
diseases relies heavily on advances in DNA technology and genetic research.
• Synthesis of Small Molecules for Use as Drugs
Imatinib is a tiny chemical that prevents the overexpression of a leukemia-
causing receptor. Protein-based pharmaceuticals can be mass-produced on a
vast scale.
• Protein Production in Cell Cultures
In cultured host cells, a protein can be designed to secrete itself as it is
produced. Insulin, human growth hormones, and vaccinations can all
benefit from this.
• Protein Production by “Pharm” Animals and Plants
Genes from one species are inserted into the genome of another animal to
create transgenic animals. Transgenic animals are pharmaceutical "factories,"
producing vast quantities of ordinarily rare medicament compounds. Plants
called "pharma" are being created to produce human proteins for medical
purpose.
2. Forensic Evidence and Genetic Profiles

Analysis of tissue or bodily fluids can reveal an individual's unique DNA sequence,
or genetic profile. Genetic profiles can be used to identify human remains and give
evidence in criminal and paternity proceedings. Southern blotting can be used to
assess genetic profiles utilizing RFLP analysis. The use of genetic markers known as
short tandem repeats (STRs), which are differences in the number of repeats of
specific DNA sequences, is much more sensitive. To amplify and then identify STRs
of various lengths, PCR and gel electrophoresis are utilized. It's extremely unlikely
that two persons who aren't identical twins share the same STR markers.
3. Environmental Cleanup
Microorganisms' metabolism can be altered through genetic engineering. Some
genetically modified bacteria can harvest minerals from the environment or
breakdown potentially harmful trash. To replace fossil fuels, biofuels employ crops
including corn, soybeans, and cassava.
4. Agricultural Applications
Agricultural productivity and food quality are being improved using genetic
engineering.
Animal Husbandry. The selective breeding process is sped up through
genetic engineering of transgenic animals. Beneficial genes can be passed down from
one variety to the next.
Genetic Engineering in Plants. A variety of crop plants have been genetically
modified to produce desirable features, according to agricultural specialists. For
delivering new genes into plant cells, the Ti plasmid is the most often employed
vector. Many valuable genes have been transferred through genetic engineering in
plants, including those for herbicide resistance, insect resistance, salt tolerance, and
better nutritional value of crops.
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Watch the video on ‘Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) - Myths and Truths’ at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M_ztZGbLEJ0, and answer the question.
What are the counter arguments for the viewpoints concerning GM foods
below?
*Fill in the blanks using the words below. Some can be used more than once.
Seeds biodegradable uncontrolled

nutritional content plant diseases crop performance
Allergenic chemically farmed nutrients
fossil fuel food supply environment
greenhouse gases mutations safety studies
allocation of resources herbicides
Pro-GM foods Counter Arguments

arguments
Increase crop yields GM crops do not increase intrinsic yield. Some GM
herbicides kill natural (1) and organisms in
the soil, leading to (2) .
Lower cost for farmers Farmers have to pay more for GM (3) and
(4) .
Reduce use of GE in fact leads to increasing use of herbicides /
herbicides / pesticide pesticide. Some GM herbicides (e.g. ‘Roundup’
herbicide) are not (5) as claimed, and even are
‘dangerous for the environment’
Genetic Engineering It is a lab-based technique where a foreign gene is
(GE) is a safe and inserted into the DNA of the plant.
beneficial process, and This is an (6) process, because the site of
it is an extension of insertion is random and may potentially damage the
natural plant plant’s genetic makeup.
propagation The (7) that occur during the genetic engineering
process can lead to many unexpected changes, such as:
➢ poor (8)
➢ alteration in the food’s (9)
➢ toxic & (10) effects
➢ unforeseen harm to the (11) .
GE is a climate change GE does nothing to solve the growing global problem.
solution GM crops are as energy-hungry as any other
(12) crops because they are largely dependent
on herbicides made with (13) . Furthermore,
they depend on nitrogen fertilizer which emits
(14) .
GMOs are energy- Research reveals that even though the no-till method
friendly because of the did reduce farm operations, large amounts of energy are
‘no-till method’, which still consumed due to the production of (15)
reduces the number of used on GM crops.
tractor passes
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GE helps eliminate GE will not help eliminate world hunger. It does not
world hunger protect the security of our (16) . There are no
GE crops available that increase intrinsic yield.
World hunger is actually an issue of (17) .
GMOs are safe There are no conclusive (18) on GMOs, as
independent researchers are prohibited to use GE crops
for their studies.
Watch the video on ‘How Are Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) Created?’
at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2G-yUuiqIZ0, and answer the question.
1. What are the advantages of GM foods (e.g. GM papaya)? Watch the video on ‘10
Worrying Facts About Genetically Modified Food’ at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OB_0OLKGMpQ, and answer the question.
2. What are the disadvantages of GM foods?
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MODULE 2
trace the history of life on Earth and enumerate some mechanisms that produce
alterations in populations. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary
level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the
course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with
the module you are now using.
● Lesson 2.1 – History of Life on Earth
● Lesson 2.2 – Mechanisms That Change the Populations
1. Describe general features of the history of life on Earth, including generally
accepted dates and sequence of the geologic time scale and; characteristics of
major groups of organisms present during these time periods
2. Explain the mechanisms that produce change in populations from generation
to generation (e.g., artificial selection, natural selection, genetic drift,
mutation, recombination)
Lesson
HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH
2.1
Conditions on Early Earth made the Origin of Life Possible
On early Earth, chemical and physical processes may have formed very primitive
cells in a series of stages:
1. Small organic compounds are synthesized abiotically.
2. These tiny molecules are joined together to form macromolecules.
3. Molecules are packaged into protocells.
4. Self-replicating molecules arose from the origins of self-replicating molecules.
Synthesis of Organic Compounds on Early Earth
Earth, like the rest of the solar system, formed around 4.6 billion years ago.
Before 4.2 to 3.9 billion years ago, the Earth was likely bombarded by rocks and ice,
which evaporated water and prevented seas from forming. Water vapor and
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chemicals generated by volcanic eruptions are likely to have been present in Earth's
early atmosphere (nitrogen, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia,
hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide).
In the early twentieth century, A. J. Oparin and I. Oparin The early

atmosphere, according to B. S. Haldane, was a decreasing environment. Stanley
Miller and Harold Urey conducted lab experiments in 1953 that demonstrated the
possibility of abiotic synthesis of organic compounds in a reducing environment.
However, the evidence for a reduction in the early atmosphere is still lacking. The
first organic chemicals may have been produced near volcanoes or deep-sea vents,
rather than in the atmosphere. Miller-Urey tests show that organic molecules might
have originated in a variety of environments.
Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules
Simple chemicals have been used to create RNA monomers spontaneously.

When little organic molecules are concentrated on hot sand, clay, or rock, they
polymerize.
Protocells
Life's key features of replication and metabolism may have co-evolved.

Protocells could have been membrane-like fluid-filled vesicles. Lipids and other
organic compounds can form vesicles with a lipid bilayer in the presence of water.
The Fossil Record
The fossil record illustrates shifts in

Earth's life history. Sedimentary rocks are the
richest source of fossils because they are
deposited in layers called strata. Few people
have been discovered, and even fewer have
been petrified. The fossil record is skewed in
favor of species that have been extinct for a
long time: it has been around for a long time;
were numerous and broad and there were
some hardest parts.
Types of Fossils Lifted from Campbell Biology 11th Ed.
Fossils are evidence of organisms that lived in

the past. They can be actual remains like bones, teeth, shells, leaves, seeds, spores
or traces of past. In addition, these are activities such as animal burrows, nests and
dinosaur footprints or even the ripples created on a prehistoric shore. Medusa effect
is an exceptional preservation, fine details such as original color and individual
muscle fibers are retained, features often visible in electron microscopes.
Types Description Examples

Molds Impression made in a shells
substrate = negative image of
an organism
Casts When a mold is filled in bones and teeth
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Petrified Organic material is converted petrified trees; coal balls
into stone (fossilized plants and
their tissues, in round
ball shape)
Original remains Preserved wholly (frozen in wooly mammoth and
ice, trapped in tar pits, dried/ amber from basaltic sea
desiccated inside caves in region.
arid regions or encased in
amber/ fossilized resin)
Carbon film Carbon impression in leaf impression on the
sedimentary rocks rock
Trace/ Ichnofossils Record the movements and trackways, toothmarks,
behaviors of the organism gizzard rocks, coprolites
(fossilized dungs),
burrows and nests
Six Ways of Fossilization
1. Unaltered preservation - Small organism or part trapped in amber, hardened plant

sap
2. Permineralization/ Petrification - The organic contents of bone and wood are
replaced with silica, calcite or pyrite, forming a rock-like fossil.
3. Replacement - hard parts are dissolved and replaced by other minerals, like calcite,
silica, pyrite, or iron
4. Carbonization or Coalification - The other elements are removed and only the
carbon remained.
5. Recrystallization - Hard parts are converted to more stable minerals or small
crystals turn into larger crystals
6. Authigenic preservation - Molds and casts are formed after most of the organism
have been destroyed or dissolved
How Rocks and Fossils Are Dated
Knowing the age of a fossil can help a scientist establish its position in the
geologic time scale and find its relationship with the other fossils. There are two ways
to measure the age of a fossil: relative dating and absolute dating.
Relative Dating. This type of age-determining manner is based upon the

study of layer of rocks. It does not tell the exact age: only compare fossils as older or
younger, depends on their position in rock layer . Fossils in the uppermost rock
layer/ strata are younger while those in the lowermost deposition are oldest.
▪ Law of Superposition: if a layer of rock is undisturbed, the fossils found on

upper layers are younger than those found in lower layers of rocks. However,
because the Earth is active, rocks move and may disturb the layer making
this process not highly accurate.
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Source: https://clarkscience8.weebly.com/uploads/2/6/3/7/2637711/law-of-superposition.jpg?1009
▪ Law of Original Horizontality: Deposition of rocks happen horizontally-

tilting, folding, or breaking happened recently.
Source: https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-dKHUSesd49Y/UyDGUk1q7yI/AAAAAAAAAXI/JvAVUFu0eZY/w1200-h630-p-k-
no-nu/horizontalstrata.gif
▪ Law of Cross-cutting relationships: If an igneous intrusion or a fault cut

through existing rocks, the intrusion/fault is YOUNGER than the rock it cuts
through.
Source: http://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/geol100/images/24/crosscutting.jpg
Absolute Dating. This type of age-determining manner determines the actual age
of the fossil. Through radiometric dating, using radioactive isotopes carbon-14 and
potassium-40. Considers the half-life or the time it takes for half of the atoms of the
radioactive element to decay. The decay products of radioactive isotopes are stable
atoms.
Key events in life’s history include the origins of single-celled and multi-celled
organisms and the colonization of land
The Archaean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic eons are represented in the

geologic record. Multicellular eukaryotic life is included in the Phanerozoic. Paleozoic,
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Mesozoic, and Cenozoic are the three eras of the Phanerozoic. Extinction events in
the fossil record correspond to major borders between geological divisions.
Source: https://bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch25/25_T01-GeologicRecord-L.jpg
Mass Extinctions
Most species that have ever existed are now extinct, according to the fossil
record. Changes in a species' environment can lead to extinction. At times, the pace
of extinction has skyrocketed, resulting in a mass extinction. Disruptive global
environmental changes are the cause of mass extinction.
Each of the five big extinction events resulted in the extinction of more than
half of the Earth's species.
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1. Ordovician-Silurian Extinction: 440 million years ago (species made
extinct: 85%)
The first mass extinction on Earth happened during a time when animals like
corals and shelled brachiopods dominated the world's shallow waters but had not
yet made their way onto land. After first appearing approximately 3.7 billion years
ago, life was beginning to spread and diversity. However, some 440 million years ago,
a climate shift led sea temperatures to rise, resulting in the extinction of the bulk of
marine life. A quick beginning of mass glaciation enveloped the southern
supercontinent, Gondwana, near the end of the Ordovician epoch. Glaciation on this
magnitude trapped large amounts of the world's water and substantially dropped
global sea levels, robbing many species of their essential habitats, damaging food
chains, and reducing reproductive success.
2. Late Devonian extinction: ~ 365 million years ago (species made extinct:
75%)
The Devonian epoch, also known as the "age of fish," saw the emergence and
collapse of many prehistoric marine species. Although creatures had begun to
emerge on land by this period, the majority of life still swam in the waters. That is,
until vascular plants like trees and flowers triggered a second global extinction.
Plants unwittingly modified the ground they lived on by changing rock and rubble
into soil as they developed roots. This nutrient-rich soil eventually found its way into
the world's oceans, generating massive algae blooms. These blooms effectively
created massive "dead zones," which are areas where algae deplete oxygen in the
water, killing marine life and disrupting marine food networks. Species that couldn't
adjust to the lower oxygen levels and lack of food perished. Dunkleosteus, a 33-foot-
long (10-meter) armored fish, was one of the sea monsters that was wiped off of the
world's oceans. This terrifying predator wore a helmet made of bone plates that
wrapped its entire head and gave it a fang-like cusp on its jaw.
3. Permian-Triassic extinction: ~ 253 million years ago (species made extinct:

96% marine life; 70% terrestrial life)
This extinction event, known as the "Great Dying," is the largest to have ever
occurred on Earth. It wiped out 90 percent of all species on the globe and destroyed
land-based reptiles, insects, and amphibians. A period of intense volcanism was
responsible for this disastrous occurrence. At the conclusion of the Permian epoch,
explosive volcanoes erupted in what is now known as Siberia. This resulted in a
massive amount of carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere, resulting in a
greenhouse effect that warmed the earth. Weather patterns shifted as a result, sea
levels rose, and acid rain pelted the land. Increased carbon dioxide levels dissolved
into the water in the ocean, killing marine life and depriving them of oxygen-rich
water. At the time, the world was made up of only one supercontinent, Pangaea,
which some scientists say contributed to a lack of movement in the world's oceans,
resulting in a worldwide pool of stagnant water that only served to increase carbon
dioxide levels. The amount of oxygen in the ocean has also decreased as sea
temperatures have risen. Corals were among the worst-affected marine life forms,
and it took 14 million years for the ocean reefs to recover their former splendor.
4. Triassic-Jurassic extinction: ~ 201 million years ago (species made extinct:

80%)
The Triassic period saw the emergence of new and diverse living forms,
including dinosaurs, which began to populate the planet. Sadly, a number of
volcanoes erupted at the same period. Although the cause of the fourth mass
extinction is unknown, experts believe it was caused by extensive volcanic activity in
an area of the world now covered by the Atlantic Ocean. Volcanoes spewed massive
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volumes of carbon dioxide, similar to the Permian extinction, causing climatic change
and destroying life on Earth. Sea levels climbed and acidified as global temperatures
soared, ice melted, and sea levels rose. Many marine and land species perished as a
result, including enormous prehistoric crocodiles and flying pterosaurs. Alternative
explanations for the mass extinction include rising carbon dioxide levels releasing
trapped methane from permafrost, which would have resulted in a similar chain of
events.
5. K-Pg extinction: ~ 66 million years ago (species made extinct: 75%)

The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, also known as "the day the dinosaurs
died," is the most well-known of all major extinction events. The extinction is also
known as the K-T extinction, and scientists refer to it as the "K-Pg extinction" since
the letter "C" stands for the Cambrian, a prior geological age. The letter "K" comes
from the word "Kreide," which means "Cretaceous" in German. An asteroid over 8
miles (13 kilometers) broad collided with Earth at about 45,000 mph (72,000 km/h),
crashing near what is now Yucatán, Mexico. The Chicxulub crater, which is 110
miles (180 kilometers) wide and 12 miles (19 kilometers) deep, was created as a result
of this. The impact would have burnt all of the area within 900 miles (1,450
kilometers) and put an end to the dinosaurs' 180 million-year rule on Earth.
Following the hit, the sky was blackened for months as debris and dust were blasted
into the heavens. Plants were unable to absorb sunlight as a result, and as a result,
they died in droves, destroying the dinosaurs' food chains. Global temperatures
plummeted as a result, sending the planet into an extended frigid winter. According
to scientists, the majority of extinctions on Earth at the time would have occurred
within months of the impact. Many animals that could fly, burrow, or dive to the
deepest depths of the oceans, on the other hand, survived. For example, modern-day
birds are the sole real offspring of dinosaurs, with over 10,000 species considered to
have descended from impact survivors.
Stratigraphy is the oldest method that archaeologists use to date artifacts. It is based
on the Law of Superposition which states that as long as layers of soil are
undisturbed the oldest layer will be on the bottom and the most recent will be located
on the top. Below is a Stratigraphy Map showing the different layers of soil deposit,
layers A-G. Within these layers different artifacts were found, numbered 1-9.
Answer the following questions keeping in mind the Law of Superposition.
Artifacts:
1. Piece of a glass bottle

2. Face from a ceramic doll
3. Arrowhead
4. Clay pottery sherd
5. Charred fish bones
6. Stone scrapper
7. Sharpened deer bone
8. Mastadon bone fragment
9. Spear point
Illustration by the writer
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Questions:
1. Which is older: the arrowhead or the spear point?
2. If G is a well, who do you think dug it?
3. Is layer B older or more recent than layer D?
4. Were there humans living here when layer E was being formed? Support your
answer. What about layer B?
5. Name an animal that lived here when layer D was being formed.
6. Layer F is a garbage pit. What layer were the people who dug it living in?
What artifacts might have belonged to the person who dug it?
7. How might the mastodon have been killed? Who do you think might have
killed it? Support your answers.
8. Which is older: the clay pottery sherd or the sharpened deer bone?
9. Which was deposited more recently: the fish bones or level D?
Lesson MECHANISMS THAT CHANGE

2.2 THE POPULATION
THE HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele and genotype frequencies

remain stable in a population over generations if certain conditions are met:
• The population is very large.
• Mating is random.
• There is no immigration or emigration.
• There are no mutations.
• Natural selection is not occurring.
When all these conditions are met, the population is said to be in Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium. If the allele or genotype frequencies do change over time, then scientists
assume that 1 or more of the conditions is not being met and the population may be
evolving. It allows scientists to estimate the allele and genotype frequencies in a
population.
If a population includes only 2 alleles for a given trait, the proportion of dominant
alleles (p) plus the proportion of recessive alleles (q) is equal to 1 (i.e., 100% of the
population). Squaring both sides of the equation p + q = 1 produces the equation:
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1. Here p2 is the number of individuals with a homozygous dominant
genotype, 2pq is the number of individuals with a heterozygous genotype, and q2 is
the number of individuals with a homozygous recessive genotype.
Moreover, this principle was popularized by Godfrey Harold Hardy, an English

Mathematician and Wilhelm Weinberg, a German Obstetrician-gynecologist.
Home Experiment: Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Materials:
▪ 4 big packs of white chocolate Knick Knacks
17
▪ 4 big packs of dark chocolate Knick Knacks
▪ Plates or napkins
▪ Large bowl (for food)
▪ Student Data Sheet
Preparation:
1. Pour the contents of all 4 bags of Knick Knacks into a large bowl—the lake.
2. Depending on class size, you may wish to divide your class into pairs or allow
them to work individually.
3. Give each student or pair a copy of the Student Data Sheet, if desired, and a
plate or napkin; have them wash their hands before beginning.
4. Explain that dark ones are homozygous recessive individuals (gg) and that white
ones display the dominant phenotype and therefore may be either homozygous
dominant (GG) or heterozygous (Gg).
Activity 1 (Procedures):
1. Remove 10 pieces from the lake and place them on the plate or napkin. In order
to ensure random choice, have students close their eyes.
2. Students record the number of white and dark ones in Table 1 as Generation 1.
3. Close your eyes and to select and eat 3 of their 10 pieces at random.
4. Return to the lake, close their eyes, and randomly select 3 new pieces to replace
those that were eaten.
5. Record their new count of white and dark pieces in Table 1 as Generation 2.
6. Repeat steps 3–5 until they have data for 5 generations.
7. After data have been collected, use the Hardy-Weinberg equation to
calculate p, q, p2, q2, and 2pq for each generation.
Activity 2 (Procedures):
1. Remove 10 pieces from the lake and place them on the plate or napkin. In order
to ensure random choice, close your eyes.
2. Record the number of white and dark pieces in Table 1 as Generation 1.
3. Close your eyes and to select and eat 3 of their 10 pieces at random.
4. Return to the lake, close your eyes, and randomly select 3 new pieces to replace
those that were eaten.
5. Record their new count of white and dark pieces in Table 1 as Generation 2.
6. Repeat steps 3–5 until they have data for 5 generations
7. After data have been collected, use the Hardy-Weinberg equation to
calculate p, q, p2, q2, and 2pq for each generation.
Watch this additional video tutorial on Hardy-Weinberg equation for further

understanding.
https://youtu.be/7S4WMwesMts
18
MODULE 3
understand Evolution and the Development of Evolutionary thought. The scope of
this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language
used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them
can be changed to correspond with the module you are now using.
● Lesson 3.1 – Evolution
● Lesson 3.2 – The Development of Evolutionary Thought
1. Show patterns of descent with modification from common ancestors to
produce the organismal diversity observed today
2. Trace the development of evolutionary thought
Lesson
EVOLUTION
3.1
What is Evolution?
It is literally “unfolding” or “unravelling, an interpretation of how organisms

came to be what they are now. In the early times, evolution is synonymous to
development of an embryo and nowadays, it is a general term for multiple other
concepts like stellar evolution, or even evolution of magma. More specifically,
Organic evolution is the change in living things through time, and if taking from
the concepts in genetics, “change in genetic frequency through time” since evolution
works through a change in the gene pool that progresses with time.
Charles Darwin himself, used the phrase “Descent with modification” rather than the
term “Evolution”. In layman’s terms, evolution, in the broadest sense is not more
than an observation that present organisms simply do not look alike their
predecessors.
The discovery of the primary mechanism of evolution was the work of two
English naturalists, Charles Robert Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.
Their model was called Natural Selection and was analogous to "artificial
selection" (e.g., domestication). Darwin and Wallace's observations are the following:
19
Variability: There is variation in all populations. No two members of a
population are totally identical. Some sources of variation include age and sexual
differences; the results of factors that happened during the lifetime (differences of
nutrition, disease, accident, etc.); individual difference in inherited traits; etc. The
idea that individual variation was significant was a blow to previous models of
Nature. Earlier natural historians believed in perfect types, and thought variation
was degeneration from those types. Darwin and Wallace documented that the
variation is the reality, and the "perfect types" were just myths.
Heritability: Some (but not all) variation is inherited. The Causal mechanism
of inheritance is unknown in Darwin's time and the Discovery by Gregor Mendel
of genetics came later, and discovery of DNA came later still. Each little instruction
is called a gene: a piece of code that helps the cell to build a protein Most genes have
slightly different versions called alleles that produce different end products. It is
these alleles (one copy for each gene per parent) that is passed on to offspring.
Different combinations of alleles result in different traits being expressed (that is,
different phenotypes). Mutations are new variations in heritable traits, caused by
miscopied DNA (duplication of parts of genes; miswritten code; etc.). Some mutations
may be deleterious (they result in harm to the organism) and still Many mutations
may be neutral. A small number of mutations may wind up being beneficial (the
variation they produce allow it to do better somehow in the world)
Superfecundity: Organisms produced far more offspring than can possibly
survive, which elated another previously held belief: that Nature was perfect and
everything had its place.
Thus, IF some variation gives the individual a slight advantage (bigger,

stronger, smaller, smarter, less tasty, whatever) at surviving; and IF that variation is
heritable; THEN there is a somewhat better than average chance that organisms with
that variation will survive to bear the next generation. Over the long expanse of
geologic time, the accumulation of these variations will change the population from
one form to another: the origin of species.
Hence, Natural Selection is the differential survival and reproduction of

variants in a population resulting in a net change in phenotype of the
descendants.
Another way of thinking about this is paleontologist's Leigh Van Valen's

observation: Natural Selection is the Control of Ecology on Development.
If Evolution can be summarized as "no one is identical to their parents", then Natural
Selection can be summarized as "no one is identical to their siblings, either; plus, life's
hard!"
Key points of Natural Selection:
• Does NOT happen to individuals, only to populations (lineages)

• Analogous to "artificial selection" (domestication), but operates:
o On all traits rather than a few (humans can keep alive crops, farm animals, or
pets that might otherwise die in the wild; obviously, wild plants and animals
don't have that help!)
o Over vast amounts of geologic time, rather than just a few generations
• Does NOT require simple things evolving into complex: sometimes a simplified
mutation of a structure might be advantageous than the ancestral complex one
(hence, vestigial organs)
20
• Cannot evolve towards something with a goal in mind; only favors variations that
are advantageous at the time of selection
• Darwin and Wallace observed that some individuals might be better "fit" to the
"circumstances of life" which would now call the called an "environment" or
"ecosystem", but also that environments change over time, so that there is no
absolute measure of "fitness" as such
• Thus, unlike popular idea, evolutionary fitness is NOT being the biggest, strongest,
fastest, etc. It is being better suited to the environment in some fashion relative
to other members of your population.
• Thus, in evolution, the best measure of Fitness = Reproductive Success
From Darwin and Wallace, the beginning of modern evolutionary theory has five major
components:
• Evolution is descent with modification: that is, the anatomical traits and
other features of populations change over time from generation to generation
• These modifications occur relatively slowly on average: small incremental
changes added up over many generations
• Populations may diverge into two or more distinct lineages (which may or may
not produce their own descendant branches)
• All species share a common ancestry: thus, the shape of the history of lineages
can be seen as a Tree of Life
• Much (although not all) evolutionary change is due to natural selection, which
is the sole process for producing adaptations
Create a semantic web of the concept of Evolution by Charles Darwin and Alfred
Wallace.
EVOLUTION
21
Lesson HISTORY OF EVOLUTIONARY
3.2 THOUGHT
Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, is credited with establishing the foundations

of evolutionary theory. Aristotle coined the term "Scala" to describe a natural order.
All forms of life were linked in a "chain of being" in "Naturae", and species, according
to Aristotle, are unchanging and represent a divine order.
Carl Linnaeus: father of modern taxonomy
Linnaeus recognized that individuals within a group had distinct

personalities. Interbreeding is possible between species, although Individuals from
various species were unable to breed with one another. Linnaeus believed in the
'balance of nature,' with each species having its own set of rules. Species that have
a role in the divine design. Species exist not to change or to become extinct Linnaeus
later accepted that new species had been discovered. could be created by
hybridization (crossing various species).
George Louis Leclerc, Compte de Buffon
Buffon was a French mathematician and naturalist who influenced Lamarck

and Darwin. Buffon believed that biological diversity could be accounted for by
material processes operating in nature. He believed the Linnaean hierarchy reflected
common descent,with change over time.
His process:
• new species form when animals migrate
• new environments then cause changes to the species
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: a mechanism of evolutionary change
Lamarck was a French naturalist He believed that organisms progress from

simple through more complicated forms. Simple forms of life were seen as constantly
originating through spontaneous generation
Lamarck suggested a mechanism (2 ‘laws’) for evolutionary change:
1. Use or disuse of a structure leads to its development or diminishment (within
the lifespan of an individual)
2. These acquired characters could then be passed on to offspring.
Thomas Malthus: Principle of Overproduction
Malthus was an English clergyman, demographer and political economist who

had a major influence on both Darwin and Wallace.
He wrote an essay on the Principle of Population in 1797:
• Most organisms (including humans) produce more offspring than can possibly
survive
22
• Even when resources are plentiful, populations tend to continue growing until
they outstrip their food supply
• Once resources become scarce, populations experience a struggle for existence,
in which (for humans) poverty, disease and famine ensue.
Charles Lyell: Geologist and Supporter of Darwin
Lyell was an English geologist and contemporary of Charles Darwin and Alfred
Russell Wallace. Both were heavily influenced by Lyell’s “Principles of Geology”. Lyell
visited Mount Etna in Sicily. He saw the crater had been built up by numerous small
eruptions, and understood that geological events were always changing the shape of
the Earth. Lyell also observed fossil mollusks, similar to modern species, and in
noting the number of layers in sedimentary rock, he inferred that the Earth must be
very old.
Charles Darwin
Darwin recognized several critical facts:

• Variability exists within species
• Variant traits may be inherited (Darwin didn’t know how)
• Malthus’s Principle of Overproduction implies that many individuals must
• die or fail to reproduce.
Individuals slightly better suited to their environment must be more likely to

survive. Therefore, some variants will be preserved over time more than others. The
composition of populations must change over time, Evolution by natural selection.
All species are related through common

ancestry = the tree of life connects living and
extinct species. Evolution happens through
the action of natural selection.
As natural selection acts on

geographically isolated populations, they
become increasingly different from each
other. This leads to the formation of first
varieties within a species, then separate
species, then genera, etc., in an ever-branching process.
Alfred Russell Wallace
Wallace was a working naturalist. In 1858, sent a letter to Darwin describing

his independent discovery of natural selection.
Like Darwin, Wallace traveled around the world observing, biodiversity and
biogeography. Like Darwin, he’d read Lyell and Malthus, and eventually realized
that: “[the] self-acting process [of natural selection] would necessarily improve the
race, because in every generation the inferior would inevitably be killed off and the
superior would remain - that is, the fittest would survive.”
23
Create a table that summarizes the contribution of the scientists for Evolutionary
Thought
Scientist/Proponent Brief Description of contribution to evolutionary thought
Write a 300-word persuasive essay that aims to enlighten people that the concept of
Evolution is not against Christian or any other religious values.
24
MODULE 4
master the Evidence of Evolution. The scope of this module permits it to be used in
many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse
vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard
sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to
correspond with the textbook you are now using.
• Lesson 4.1 – Evidence of Evolution
• Lesson 4.2 – Evolutionary Relationships

1. Explain evidence of evolution (e.g., biogeography, fossil record, DNA/protein
sequences, homology, and embryology)
2. Infer evolutionary relationships among organisms using the evidence of
evolution
Lesson
Evidence of Evolution
4.1
In biology, evolution is a major unifying principle. According to Theodosius

Dobzhansky, "Nothing in biology makes sense unless it is viewed through the lens
of evolution.
But, exactly, what aspects of biology that would make more sense when viewed
through the perspective of evolution? To put it another way, what are the signs or
traces that evolution has occurred in the past and continues to do so today?
Evolution happens on large and small scales
Broadly speaking, evolution is a change in the genetic makeup (and often, the
heritable features) of a population over time. Biologists sometimes define two types
of evolution based on scale:
25
• Macroevolution, which refers to large-scale changes that occur over extended
time periods, such as the formation of new species and groups.
• Microevolution, which refers to small-scale changes that affect just one or a
few genes and happen in populations over shorter timescales.
Microevolution and macroevolution aren't really two different processes. They're

the same process - Evolution - occurring on different timescales. Microevolutionary
processes occurring over thousands or millions of years can add up to largescale
changes that define new species or groups.
The Evidence for Evolution
Anatomy and embryology

Darwin thought of evolution as "descent with modification," a process in which
species change and give rise to new species over many generations. He proposed that
the evolutionary history of life forms a branching tree with many levels, in which all
species can be traced back to an ancient common ancestor.
Image credit: "Darwin's tree of life, 1859," by Charles Darwin (public domain).
More closely related groups of species have more recent common ancestors in
this tree model, and each group will tend to share characteristics that were present
in its most recent common ancestor. This concept can be used to "work backwards"
and determine how organisms are connected based on their similar characteristics.
Homologous features
If two or more species share a unique physical feature, such as a complex
bone structure or a body plan, they may all have inherited this feature from a
common ancestor. Physical features shared due to evolutionary history (a common
ancestor) are said to be homologous.
26
Image credit: "Understanding evolution: Figure 7," by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 4.0 .
Some homologous structures can be seen only in embryos. During early

development, all vertebrate embryos (including humans) have gill slits and a tail.
Later in development, the developmental patterns of these species diverge (which is
why your embryonic tail has become your tailbone and your gill slits have become
your jaw and inner ear). Homologous embryonic structures reflect that vertebrates'
developmental programs are variations on a similar plan that existed in their last
common ancestor.
Sometimes, organisms have structures that are homologous to important

structures in other organisms but that have lost their major ancestral function.
These structures, which are often reduced in size, are known as vestigial structures.
Examples of vestigial structures include the tailbone of humans (a vestigial tail), the
hind leg bones of whales, and the underdeveloped legs found in some snakes.
Analogous features
To make things a little more interesting and complicated, not all physical
features that look alike are marks of common ancestry. Instead, some physical
similarities are analogous: they evolved independently in different organisms
because the organisms lived in similar environments or experienced similar selective
pressures. This process is called convergent evolution.
For example, two distantly related species that live in the Arctic, the arctic fox
and the ptarmigan (a bird), both undergo seasonal changes of color from dark to
snowy white. This shared feature doesn't reflect common ancestry - i.e., it's unlikely
that the last common ancestor of the fox and ptarmigan changed color with the
seasons4• Instead, this feature was favored separately in both species due to similar
selective pressures. That is, the genetically determined ability to switch to light
coloration in winter helped both foxes and ptarmigans survive and reproduce in a
place with snowy winters and sharp-eyed predators.
27
Image credit: "Understandingevolution: Figure 6," by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 4.0.
Determining relationships from similar features
In general, biologists don't draw conclusions about how species are related on the
basis of any single feature they think is homologous. Instead, they study a large
collection of features (often, both physical features and DNA sequences) and draw
conclusions about relatedness based on these features as a group.
Molecular biology
Like structural homologies, similarities between biological molecules can

reflect shared evolutionary ancestry. At the most basic level, all living organisms
share:
• The same genetic material (DNA)
• The same, or highly similar, genetic codes
• The same basic process of gene expression (transcription and
translation)
• The same molecular building blocks, such as amino acids
These shared features suggest that all living things are descended from a
common ancestor, and that this ancestor had DNA as its genetic material, used the
genetic code, and expressed its genes by transcription and translation. Present-day
organisms all share these features because they were "inherited" from the ancestor
(and because any big changes in this basic machinery would have broken the basic
functionality of cells).
Although they're great for establishing the common origins of life, features like
having DNA or carrying out transcription and translation are not so useful for
figuring out how related particular organisms are. If we want to determine which
organisms in a group are most closely related, we need to use different types of
molecular features, such as the nucleotide sequences of genes.
Homologous genes
Biologists often compare the sequences of related genes found in different
species (often called homologous or orthologous genes) to figure out how those
28
species are evolutionarily related to one another. The basic idea behind this approach
is that two species have the "same" gene because they inherited it from a common
ancestor. For instance, humans, cows, chickens, and chimpanzees all have a gene
that encodes the hormone insulin, because this gene was already present in their
last common ancestor.
Biogeography
The geographic distribution of organisms on Earth follows patterns that are
best explained by evolution, in combination with the movement of tectonic plates
over geological time. For example, broad groupings of organisms that had already
evolved before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea (about 200 million years
ago) tend to be distributed worldwide. In contrast, broad groupings that evolved after
the breakup tend to appear uniquely in smaller regions of Earth. For instance, there
are unique groups of plants and animals on northern and southern continents that
can be traced to the split of Pangaea into two supercontinents (Laurasia in the north,
Gondwana in the south). The evolution of unique species on islands is another
example of how evolution and geography intersect. For instance, most of the mammal
species in Australia are marsupials (carry young in a pouch), while most mammal
species elsewhere in the world are placental (nourish young through a placenta).
Australia's marsupial species are very diverse and fill a wide range of ecological roles,
because Australia was isolated by water for millions of years, these species were able
to evolve without competition from (or exchange with) mammal species elsewhere in
the world.
Fossil record
Fossils are the preserved remains of previously living organisms or their
traces, dating from the distant past. The fossil record is not, alas, complete or
unbroken: most organisms never fossilize, and even the organisms that do fossilize
are rarely found by humans. Nonetheless, the fossils that humans have collected
offer unique insights into evolution over long timescales
Fossils document the existence of now-extinct species, showing that different
organisms have lived on Earth during different periods of the planet's history.
How can the age of fossils be determined? First, fossils are often contained in
rocks that build up in layers called strata. The strata provide a sort of timeline, with
layers near the top being newer and layers near the bottom being older. Fossils found
in different strata at the same site can be ordered by their positions, and "reference"
strata with unique features can be used to compare the ages of fossils across
locations. In addition, scientists can roughly date fossils using radiometric dati ng,
a process that measures the radioactive decay of certain elements.
29
Study the image to the left and complete the table below
Animal Comparison Comparison

to human to human
arm in arm in
Form Function
WHALE
CAT
BAT
Image credit: "Understanding BIRD

evolution: Figure 7," by OpenStax
College, Biology, CC BY 4.0 .
CROCODILE
EXPLAIN THIS IN NOT MORE THAN 5 SENTENCES. Charles Darwin published his
book On the Origin of Species in 1859. Of the different types of evidence that you
have examined, which do you think he relied upon the most, and why?
Lesson
Evolutionary Relationships
4.2
With the discovery of evolution by natural selection, biologists from Darwin

and Wallace's time onward have documented many different patterns and processes
in evolution. Sometimes they refer to "microevolution" (changes within an species)
and "macroevolution" (patterns on the larger scale; changes from one species to
another, or between different lineages of ancestors and descendants). It is important
to remember that "micro-" vs "macro-" is just a matter of scale and perception: at the
30
level of individuals and populations, there is just variability, heritability, and super
fecundity.
The most important pattern: the Tree of Life. Darwin and Wallace
demonstrated the reality of Divergence through Time and Common Ancestry:
• Divergence from common ancestors
o Two (or more) distinct variations in an ancestral population convey
their own advantage against the rest of the population
o Over time, these two (or more) variations will become more distinct from
each other
o If they diverge enough, they will no longer be able to mate with each
other: will be different species
o Divergence can also occur (perhaps more commonly!) if an ancestral
population is divided into two or more by changes in geography:
because natural selection works by chance survivals, it is unlikely that
exactly the same variations of the ancestral population will survival in
the two or more separated populations. Over time, if the populations
meet again, the accumulation of variations may be significant enough
that they are distinct species.
• Common Ancestry
o Closely related species are close because their common ancestor
diverged relatively recently in Earth history
o Other species are more distantly related because of divergences of
THEIR common ancestors even farther back in time
o No separate origins for different groups; instead, patterns of common
ancestry and diverging descendants
Thus, the basic pattern of the history of living things is a Tree of Life, where
the trunk and stems are lineages of ancestors, the branching points representing
divergences between lineages, and the tips of the branches living species (or extinct
species that died without descendants).
Other important patterns and processes:

• Sexual Selection, a variation of Natural Selection recognized by Darwin,
where the variation is "being more sexy" (and thus have better than average
chance of breeding, and thus passing on "sexiness", compared to other
members of the population [increased reproductive success]). Explains many
extravagant display structures and behaviors (such as peacock tails, bird
song, lion manes, etc.)
• Correlated Progression: Ancestor and descendants form a lineage (historical
line). Sometimes a particular life habit favors the slight increase in multiple
different traits (e.g., longer and longer legs, more compact body, more efficient
heart and respiration for fast running; longer and longer necks, longer legs,
better cropping teeth and/or grasping tongue for browsing in trees; more and
more streamlined body profile, more paddle like legs, more dorsal nostrils, etc.
in swimmers; etc.) Traits that go against the general trend will be selected
against; traits that go with the general trend will be selected for. (For many
people, this series of trends in adaptations represents the totality of evolution)
• Adaptive Radiation: If a population evolves some significant new adaptation,
or colonizes a region without competitors, or is present when competitors die
off, many different variations from that common ancestral population might
survive (fill new or unoccupied "niches" (ways of life) in environment). Over a
geologically short period time, a common ancestor can radiate into many very
different descendant lineages.
31
o Niche Partitioning: during an adaptive radiation, the early members
of the divergence will (naturally) still be relatively similar to each other
(and to their common ancestor) in terms of size, shape, behavior, etc.
Over time, those variations in each lineage that are least like their
relatives will more likely survive, because they will have less
competition. Consequently, the different species will "partition" (divide
up) the niches and the resources.
• Convergence: Some adaptations are mechanically advantageous and easy to
produce developmentally. Different lineages of organisms can independently
develop some of the same features, even though ancestors were quite different
(i.e., streamlining in sharks, tunas, ichthyosaurs & dolphins).
• Co-evolution: Selection of one species due to activity of an interactor leads to
counter-selection in response of the first species
o For example, plant species develop traits (shapes, colors, tastes of
nectar) that favor a select few numbers of pollinators, thereby
promoting greater chance of getting their own pollen rather than some
other plant's
o Or, in the Galápagos: drier islands have fewer small plants, so tortoises
preferentially feed on Opuntia cacti. Cacti on these islands have evolved
taller woody trunks, and in response the tortoises have evolved a
"saddle-backed" shell that allows them to reach higher than dome-
backed ancestors.
Extinction: The termination of a lineage. (If a species "dies out" by evolving
into another species, this is more properly called a pseudoextinction). Extinctions
occur throughout Earth History. What is more remarkable is Mass Extinction: the
geologically sudden disappearance of many diverse groups of organisms, which are
not immediately replaced by ecological equivalents. Some mass extinction events
seem to correlate with asteroid impacts; many with major volcanic episodes; others
with glaciation.
What mechanism of evolution is

applied in this diagram? Explain your
answer.
Illustration by the writer
Let’s Analyze.
Please answer the following questions with not more than 5 sentences.
1. If Humans’ ancestors are from monkeys, why do we still have monkeys today?
2. What makes Evolution a “descent with modification?
32
MODULE 5
explain how structural and developmental characteristics and Relatedness of
DNA sequences are used in classifying living things. The scope of this module
permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language used
recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read
them can be changed to correspond with the module you are now using.
The module has one lesson, namely:

• Lesson 5 – DNA Sequencing and Taxonomy

1. Explain how the structural and developmental characteristics and
relatedness of DNA sequences are used in classifying living things.
Lesson
DNA Sequencing and Taxonomy
5
Molecular Biology (DNA/Protein Sequences)
Molecular biology is the study of structure, function, and make-up of the

molecular building blocks of life. It focuses on the interaction between the various
system of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis
and how these interactions are regulated. The youngest of the biosciences, molecular
biology is closely interrelated with the fields of biochemistry, genetics, and cell
biology.
Molecular biology traces its origin to the 1930s, when scientist focused on
explaining the phenomena of life by studying the macromolecules that generate life.
The chief discoveries of molecular biology took place in a period of only about 25
years, starting in 1940, when George Beadle and Edward Tatum established the
existence of a precise relationship between genes and protein (they shared the Nobel
33
Prize in Medicine in 1958). Another 15 years were required before new and more
sophisticated technologies, united today under the name genetic engineering, would
permit the isolation and characterization of genes.
The truly fundamental discovery during the first 25 years of molecular biology
took place in 1953, when James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double
helical structure of DNA molecule (for which they shared the Nobel Prized in Medicine
in 1962). And 30 years later, Kary Mullis jump-started the field of genetic engineering
when he invented the Polymerase Chain Reaction, an elegantly simple “biological
copy machine” that rapidly can produce many copies of specific piece of DNA in the
lab. Mullis and Michael Smith shared the 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for devising
this technological milestone in molecular biology. DNA sequencing has many
applications for understanding cancers, inherited genetic diseases, effects of the
environment on our genome, and even understanding biodiversity of our planet.
The discovery of the mechanism of heredity has proven to be a breakthrough

in modern science. Another important advance came in understanding how
molecules conduct metabolism, or how they process the energy needed to sustain
life. The techniques of genetic engineering enable molecular biologist to study higher
plants and animals, opening possibility of manipulating plant and animal genes to
achieve greater agricultural productivity. Such techniques also opened the way for
the development of gene therapy. An ambitious international effort in molecular
biology began in 1990 with the initiation of the now completed Human Genome
Project (HGP). Its goal was to discover all the estimated 20,000 to 25,000 human
genes and make them accessible for further biological study. Another project goal
was to determine the complete sequence of the three billion DNA subunits (bases in
the human genome). As part of HGP, parallel studies were carried out on selected
model organism such as the bacterium of E. coli and the mouse to help develop the
technology and interpret human gene function.
34
Act. 1 : How DNA control the work of a cell?
Below are two partial sequences of DNA bases (1 strand of DNA). Sequence 1 is from
human and sequence 2 is from cow. In both human and cows, this sequence is part
of a set of instruction for controlling body function. In this case the sequence
contains the gene to make the protein insulin. Insulin is necessary for the uptake of
sugar from the blood. Without insulin, a person cannot use digest sugars the same
way others can and will have a disease called diabetes.
Directions:
1. Using the DNA sequence, make a complimentary RNA strand from the human
and the cow. Write the RNA directly below the DNA strand (remember to
substitute U’s for T’s in RNA)
2. Use the genetic code to determine the codon.
Q1. Comparing the human gene to cow gene, how many of the codons are the same?
Q2. How many amino acids in the sequence are the same?
Q3. Could 2 humans or 2 cows with differences in their DNA sequences for insulin,
still make the same insulin proteins. How?
35
Cytochrome c is part of the electron transport chain down which electrons are
passed to oxygen during cellular respiration. Cytochrome c is found in the
mitochondria of every aerobic eukaryote - animal, plant, and protist which is used
to study evolutionary relationships of different organisms.
Act. 1 Is there Similarity?
Directions: Compare and contrast the amino acid sequence of different organisms
to human. List your answer on the table below.
Identify Pig Chicken Dogfish Drosophila Wheat Yeast

the
amino
acid
different
from
Human
Total
Number
of amino
acid
Q1. Based on amino acid sequence, which organism is closely related to

human?
Q2. How does amino acid sequencing identify relationship and classification of
different organisms?
36
MODULE 6
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you trace
the history of cell theory and describe cell structure and functions. The scope of this
module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language
• Lesson 6 – Taxonomy and Biosystematics
1. Identify the unique/ distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to

other taxa;
2. Describe species diversity and cladistics, including the types of evidence and
procedures that can be used to establish evolutionary relationships.
3.
Lesson
Taxonomy and Biosystematics
6
Taxonomy and Phylogenetics
• Taxonomy – is the discipline of identifying, naming and classifying organisms,

whether living or extinct. A group of organisms at a particular level in a
classification system is called a taxon (plural, taxa).
• Systematics is the study of evolutionary relationships, which are depicted on
branching evolutionary trees, called phylogenies.
37
History of Classification
Aristotle Carolus Linnaeus
• He also divided animals into • a Swedish botanist: developed the

“bloodless” and “red-blooded” still surviving binomial
which is very similar to today’s nomenclature system, where
invertebrates and vertebrates. organisms are named with two
• Their habitat (land, water, air). Latin (or latinized) words.
• Plants were divided according to • the Linnaean system survived for
their sizes as herbs, shrubs, and two reasons:
trees. ▪ It allowed for a
classification system based
on evolutionary
relationships, which was
developed only in the
succeeding centuries.
▪ It provided a common name
for a particular organism
when identified by
scientists of different
nationalities.
Lifted from Campbell Biology 11th Ed
Evolution and Classification
• The theory of evolution can be summarized in three words: descent with

modification. The theory further implies that we all came from a common
unicellular ancestor. Through the course of time, the common ancestor
produced offspring with modifications. The modifications accumulated and
produced the vast diversity of species we observe today.
• This “tree branching” of evolution is the basis for classifying organisms into
their respective taxonomic categories, with each branch specifying a particular
differentiated trait.
• The seven taxonomic categories in are nested within one another and each
category serves as a “filter” for narrowing down organisms who share
particular traits, or more accurately, share the same ancestry.
38
• The taxonomic system is hierarchical, with taxa at a lower level grouped into
a smaller number of taxa in the next higher level. Just as species are grouped
into genera, genera with similar characteristics are grouped into families, and
similar families are placed into the same order. Orders with common
properties are placed into the same class, and classes with similar
characteristics into the same phylum (plural, phyla). Finally, the phyla are
assigned to one of several great groups, the kingdoms.
History of Kingdom System
Carl Woese
▪ The three-domain system was first introduced by Carl Woese in 1990. This
classification system also is known as the Six Kingdoms and Three Domains
39
Classification because it divides the life forms into three domains and six
kingdoms.
▪ The three-domains of Carl Woese’s Classification system include archaea,

bacteria, eukaryote, and six kingdoms are Archaebacteria (ancient bacteria),
Eubacteria (true bacteria), Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia.
▪ This classification system divides the life based on the differences in the 16S
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) structure and as well as the cell’s membrane lipid
structure and its sensitivity to antibiotics. The main difference from earlier
classification systems is the splitting of archaea from bacteria.
FIVE KINGDOM SYSTEM
Monera is a biological kingdom that is made up of prokaryotes (particularly

bacteria). It is composed of single-celled organisms that lack a true nucleus. Based
on previous classifications, kingdom Monera includes organisms known as Archaea
(Archaebacteria) in addition to blue-green algae and Schizopyta (bacteria).
https://openstax.org/details/books/Biology 2e - OpenStax
40
Today three-domain system and six kingdom system of classification is
adopted.
Phylogenetic Trees
With such information, one can

reconstruct an evolutionary
history of the molecule and thus of
their respective owners. This
requires
• using the genetic code to

determine the minimum
number of nucleotide
substitutions in the DNA of
the gene needed to derive
one protein from another
• a powerful computer
program to search for the
shortest paths linking the https://openstax.org/details/books/Biology 2e - OpenStax
molecules together
The result is a phylogenetic

tree. This one (the work of Walter
M. Fitch and Emanuel
Margoliash) shows the
relationship between 20 species
of eukaryotes. The numbers
represent the minimum number
of nucleotide substitutions in the
gene for cytochrome c needed to
produce these 20 proteins from a
series of hypothetical ancestral
https://openstax.org/details/books/Biology 2e - OpenStax genes at the various branching
points (nodes).
The tree corresponds quite well to what we have long believed to be the
evolutionary relationships among the vertebrates. But there are some anomalies. It
indicates, for example, that the primates (humans and monkeys) split off before the
split separating the kangaroo, a marsupial, from the other placental mammals. This
is certainly wrong. But sequence analysis of other proteins can resolve such
discrepancies.
Cytochrome c is an ancient molecule, and it has evolved very slowly. Even

after more than 2 billion years, one-third of its amino acids are unchanged. This
conservatism is a great help in working out the evolutionary relationships between
distantly related creatures like fish and humans.
But what of humans and the great apes? Their cytochrome c molecules are
identical and can tell us nothing about evolutionary relationships. However, some
proteins have evolved much more rapidly than cytochrome c, and these can be used
to decipher recent evolutionary events. During blood clotting, short peptides are cut
41
from fibrinogen converting it into insoluble fibrin. Once removed,
these fibrinopeptides have no further function. They have been pretty much free
from the rigors of natural selection and have, consequently, diverged rapidly during
evolution. So, they provide data useful in sorting out the twigs of phylogenetic trees
of mammals, for example.
Act. 1 Taxo-Table
Directions: Fill in the table below of the missing details about classification of the
given organisms.
Organism Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Lion
Earthworm
Paramecium
Directions: Look for the words related to taxonomy and biosystematics

G A A M I N O A C I D A I S K
E B L Q V Z D I N S Z B J E I
N C M R W A E J O T A C K Q N
E V O L U T I O N U E D L U G
G D N S X B F K P V A E M E D
H E O T Y C G L Q W H F N N O
I T A X O N O M Y X C G O C M
J F P U C Y T O C H R O M E Q
P H Y L U M H M R Y A H P S R
K C L A S S I F I C A T I O N
42
Choose the letter of the correct answer
1. Which of the following can visualize 100,000 years in the geologic history of
Earth?
A. Immensely long C. Half of Earth's history

B. A drop in the bucket D. A significant amount of time
C.
2. Which of the following shows why understanding geologic time is significant?
A. Understand humans’ impact on our environment

B. Understand the evolution of organisms over time
C. Understand the possibility for life on other planets
D. Understand the process of evolution
3. Which organism first dominated Earth?
A. Dinosaurs B. Insects C. Plants D. Bacteria
4. How can we describe the evolutionary theory proposed by Charles Darwin?
A. Change in populations through time as a result of mutations

B. The spontaneous generation of new organisms
C. The passing on of genes from one generation to the next
D. Change in populations through time as a response to environmental change
5. Which of the following refers to an alternation in the arrangement of nucleotides

in a chromosome, possibly resulting in either a structural or physiological change
in the organism?
A. Genetic drift C. Mutation

B. Gene flow D. Natural selection
6. Which will be a most likely initial effect of a sudden major climatic change?
A. A rapid increase in adaptive radiation

B. A rapid increase in extinction rates
C. A sharp increase in numbers of species
D. An increase in mutation rates
7. Marine mammals have many structural characteristics in common with fishes.

Which of the following statements best explains this phenomenon?
A. Fish and mammals are closely related

B. Fish evolved structures similar to those already existing in mammals
C. Marine mammals evolved directly from the fishes
D. Marine mammals adapted to an environment similar to that of the fishes
43
8. Which of these are involve in genetic engineering?
I. read a DNA sequence

II. editing a DNA sequence
III. reinserting DNA to living organisms
A. I only B. II only C. I and II D. I, II, and III
9. What is an advantage of producing transgenic plants?
A. It improves quality of food C. It produces cloning

B. It produces more pesticides D. It also studies human genes
10. What is the main reason for the competition for food, space, and resources
among members of a certain species?
A. They belong to common descendant C. Instinct of organisms

B. Artificial selection of mankind D. Struggle for existence
46
Choose the letter of the correct answer
1. Which of the following is NOT a pattern found on pathogens that the immune
system recognizes as foreign?
A. Single stranded RNA C. Presence of lipopolysaccharide
B. Presence of N-formyl methionine D. Double stranded DNA
2. Which of the following is not a structure for gas exchange in plants?

A. Stomates C. Aerial root hairs
B. Lenticels D. Flowers
3. When you hold your breath, which of the following gas changes in the blood
first leads to the urge to breathe?
A. Rising oxygen C. Rising carbon dioxide
B. Falling oxygen D. Falling carbon dioxide
4. In humans, where can we locate the gland that secretes the hormone that
determines the basal rate of metabolism and normal growth?
A. in the brain C. in front of the trachea
B. in bones D. in the pelvis
5. A reflex action is a pathway that typically involves several neurons. Which of the
following best describes a reflex?
A. an action that has to be learned
B. an action that involves conscious thought
C. an action that is repeated
D. an involuntary response to a stimulus
6. Which of the following is NOT a digestive function?

A. filtration C. mechanical processing
B. absorption D. ingestion
7. Which of the following macromolecules are INCORRECTLY matched with the

enzyme that digests them?
A. Lipids: salivary lipase, pancreatic lipase, enterolipase
B. Proteins: trypsin, pepsin, dipeptidase, carboxypeptidase
C. Carbohydrates: maltase, dextrinase, salivary amylase
D. Vitamins: pancreatic nuclease, pancreatic ribonuclease
47
8. If the environment gets colder, why does our body shiver?
A. To lower the body temperature C. To increase body temperature
B. To get frostbite D. To avoid fever
9. How is homeostasis maintained in the human body?

A. Through Negative feedback loop C. Through Brain loop
B. Through Positive feedback loop D. Through Heart loop
10. How would you describe the lack of water in the blood?
A. Dehydration B. Hydration C. Nutrition D. Malnutrition
47
MODULE 7
compare and contrast the manners of reproduction and development of plants and
animals. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning
situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students.
The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order
in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the module you are now
using.
● Lesson 7.1 – Reproduction

● Lesson 7.2 – Development
1. Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals:

reproduction and development.
Lesson
REPRODUCTION
7.1
The creation of offspring is referred to as reproduction. There are two types of

reproduction: sexual and asexual. When an organism reproduces sexually, it
integrates the genetic information from each of its parents to create a genetically
distinct organism. One parent copies itself to produce a genetically identical offspring
in asexual reproduction.
Both Asexual and Sexual Reproduction Occur in the Animal Kingdom
The formation of an offspring by fusing a male gamete (sperm) and a female

gamete (egg) to form a zygote is known as sexual reproduction. The development of
progeny without the union of egg and sperm is known as asexual reproduction.
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction in Animals
48
Fission is the separation of a parent into two or more individuals of about the
same size. On the other hand, new individuals emerge from the outgrowths of
existing ones in budding. Fragmentation is the breaking of the body into fragments,
some of which develop into adults and others which do not. Fragmentation must be
accompanied with regeneration, or the regrowth of bodily components that have been
lost. The formation of a new human from an unfertilized egg is known as
parthenogenesis.
Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction
The Evolutionary Mysteries of Sexual Reproduction in Animals

The "twofold cost" of sexual reproduction is that sexual females have half as
many daughters as asexual females. Regardless, nearly every eukaryotic creature
reproduces sexually.
Genetic recombination occurs as a result of sexual reproduction, which has
potential benefits: a rise in offspring variety, resulting in increased parental
reproductive success in changing conditions. An rise in the adaption rate. A
population's genes are shuffled and bad genes are eliminated.
For many animals, finding a partner for sexual reproduction may be

problematic. Hermaphroditism, in which each person has both male and female
reproductive systems, is one option. Some hermaphrodites can self-fertilize, and two
hermaphrodites can mate.
Fertilization, or the joining of egg and sperm, is a fundamental aspect of sexual

reproduction. External fertilization occurs when a female's eggs are fertilized by
sperm from the outside world. Internal fertilization happens when sperm are
implanted in or near the female reproductive system and fertilization takes place
within it. Internal fertilization necessitates social connections and copulatory organs
that are compatible. Environmental cues, pheromones, and/or courtship behavior
are routinely used to mediate fertilization timing.
49
Asexual and Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Flowers, double fertilization, and fruits are unique features of the angiosperm life cycle
The alternation of a multicellular haploid (n) generation and a multicellular

diploid (2n) generation characterizes plant lifecycles. By meiosis, diploid sporophytes
(2n) create spores (n), which develop into haploid gametophytes (n). By mitosis,
gametophytes create haploid gametes (n); fertilization of gametes results in a
sporophyte. The sporophyte, or huge plant, is the dominant generation in
angiosperms. The gametophytes have shrunk in size and are completely reliant on
the sporophyte for nutrition. The angiosperm life cycle is defined by “three Fs”:
flowers, double fertilization, and fruits.
Angiosperm Life Cycle
Source: http://hiscience.pbworks.com/f/1421438290/AngiospermCycle.gif
Double Fertilization. A pollen grain develops a pollen tube that spreads

between the cells of the style toward the ovary after landing on a receptive stigma.
The pollen tube releases two sperm into the embryo sac, resulting in double
fertilization. Plant Fertilization endosperm is formed when one sperm fertilizes the
egg and the other sperm joins with the polar nuclei, resulting in triploid food-storing
endosperm (3n).
50
Double Fertilization in Angiosperms
Source: https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-
4c5fc9fe8851eb35ca9ac90977466364
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Fragmentation is a common method of asexual reproduction in which a parent
plant is divided into fragments that mature into entire plants. In some species, the
root system of the parent plant produces adventitious shoots that develop into
distinct shoot systems. Asexual seed generation from a diploid cell is known as
apomixis.
Vegetative reproduction is another name for asexual reproduction. In a steady

environment, asexual reproduction can be beneficial to a successful plant. A clone
of plants, on the other hand, is subject to local extinction if the environment changes.
Clones from Cutting. Asexual reproduction occurs when plant fragments called
cuttings are used to replicate asexually. When a stem is cut, a callus arises, which is
a mass of proliferating undifferentiated cells that creates adventitious root.
Grafting. Grafting a twig or bud onto a plant of a closely related species or
variation is possible. The root system is provided by the stock. The stock is grafted
using the scion.
Test-Tube Cloning and Related Techniques. In vitro procedures have been used
by plant scientists to generate and clone new plant varieties. In response to plant
hormones, a callus of undifferentiated cells can grow branches and roots.
51
Sort the following phrases into the relevant column using what you know
about asexual and sexual reproduction. If the term has anything to do with asexual
reproduction, put it in the left-hand column. If the term has anything to do with
sexual reproduction, put it in the right-hand column. Put the term in both columns
if it has to do with both types of reproduction.
Terms: DNA, male and female, one parent, unique, spores, uniform, traits, egg
and sperm.
Asexual Sexual
52
Lesson
7.2
DEVELOPMENT
Animal Development
An animal's life cycle includes numerous
stages of development. Metamorphosis and gamete
creation, as well as embryonic development, are all
included. Despite the fact that animals have varied
body designs, they share many basic developmental
mechanisms and use the same set of regulating
genes. Biologists investigate development using
model organisms, which are chosen for their ease of
study in the laboratory.
The process of a single sperm cell uniting Developmental events in the life
with a single egg cell to generate a zygote is known cycle of a frog
as fertilization. Cleavage is a rapid, repeated cycles Lifted from Campbell Biology 11th Ed.
of mitotic cell division in which the embryo's overall
size does not change. Following cleavage, the developing embryo is referred to as a
blastula. The remarkable rearrangement (moving) of cells in the blastula to generate
the embryonic tissue layers is known as gastrulation. These tissue layers will
eventually give rise to the adult animal's tissues and organs. Organogenesis is the
process of cell division and differentiation that leads to the creation of organs and
tissues. Gastrulation and organogenesis, the last two steps, collectively contribute to
morphogenesis, or the biological processes that determine an organism's shape and
body organization.
Plant Development
Embryo development frequently comes before endosperm development.
Endosperm stores nutrients that can be utilized by the seedling in most monocots
and some eudicots. The food reserves of the endosperm are exported to the
cotyledons in other eudicots. The fertilized egg is split into a basal cell and a terminal
cell during the zygote's first mitotic cycle. A multicellular suspensor is produced by
the basal cell, which binds the embryo to the parent plant. The terminal cell is
responsible for the majority of the embryo's development. The embryo elongates as
the cotyledons develop. Because the dried seed has a low water potential, germination
is dependent on imbibition, or water uptake. The radicle (embryonic root) is the first
to develop. The shoot tip then penetrates the soil surface. A hook forms in the
hypocotyl of many eudicots, and growth pushes the hook above ground. The hook
straightens and pulls the cotyledons up, causing the tip to shoot skyward. The
coleoptile pushes up through the earth in monocots like maize and other grasses.
53
Talk to a doctor. Find out how twinning occurs. Look for any twins in your
neighborhood, or among your friends. Find out if the twins are identical or non-
identical. Also find out why identical twins are always of the same sex? If you know
of any story about twins, write it in your own words.
Select a common houseplant like the spider plant (scientific name:

Chlorophytum comosum). Use a bit of stem, a piece of root, a leaf (with no stem), a
leaf with some stem, and the tip of a leaf for vegetative propagation. Place a toothpick
on each side of the plant's stem (or in the case of the leaf, put the toothpick right
through it). Then, in a cup of water, place the plant part with the toothpick positioned
so that a piece of the plant part is not completely submerged and that it has access
to light and air. To keep the water from becoming stagnant, change it every few days.
Answer the following questions:
1. Which portions of the plant were able to produce new plants?
2. What is the relationship between the DNA of the new plants and the DNA of the
parent plant?
3. Why might plants in the wild benefit from this strategy?
4. How might gardeners go about populating their gardens using this method?
Adopted from
https://tb2cdn.schoolwebmasters.com/accnt_345659/site_367483/Documents/Rep
roduction-7th-Grade.pdf
54
MODULE 8
compare and contrast the mechanisms by which plants and animals use for
circulation, gas exchange and immunity. The scope of this module permits it to be
used in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse
correspond with the textbook you are now using.
The module has two lessons, namely:
• Lesson 8.1 –Circulation and Gas Exchange

• Lesson 8.2 – Immune System

circulation, gas exchange and immune system
Lesson CIRCULATION & GAS

8.1 EXCHANGE
The time it takes for diffusion to occur is related to the square of the distance.
It's only useful over short distances. Cells in small and/or thin animals can exchange
materials with the surrounding media directly. Most animals have a fluid-filled
circulatory system that allows cells to exchange resources with the environment.
General Properties of Circulatory System in Animals
A circulatory system consists of a circulatory fluid, a network of

interconnecting vessels, and the heart, a muscle pump. The circulatory system links
the fluid that surrounds cells to the organs that exchange gases, absorb nutrients,
and eliminate waste. The number of circuits in the circulatory system can be open
or closed, and the number of circuits in the body can vary.
55
Blood bathes the organs directly in
an open circulatory system in insects, other
arthropods, and most mollusks. There is no
differentiation between blood and
interstitial fluid in an open circulatory
system, and this general bodily fluid is
referred to as hemolymph. In contrary, blood
is confined to arteries in a closed circulatory
system and is different from the interstitial
fluid. Transporting circulatory fluids to
tissues and cells is more efficient in closed Types of Circulatory System
systems. Closed circulatory systems are Source: https://lh3.ggpht.com/-E_CZiP8ZX-
Y/URy3YTJZDpI/AAAAAAAAEFc/FawPDPGfxw8
seen in annelids, cephalopods, and /Open%252520and%252520Closed%252520circ
vertebrates. ulatory%252520system_thumb%25255B7%2525
5D.gif?imgmax=800
Organization of Vertebrate Circulatory
Systems
The cardiovascular system is a closed

circulatory system found in humans and other
vertebrates. Arteries, veins, and capillaries are
the three primary types of blood vessels. In
these veins, blood only flows in one direction.
Arteries branch out into arterioles, which
transport blood from the heart to capillaries.
Chemical exchange between the blood and the
interstitial fluid occurs at capillary beds, which
are networks of capillaries. Venules join
together to form veins, which carry blood from
capillaries back to the heart. The direction of
blood flow distinguishes arteriesaa and veins,
not the amount of oxygen they contain. The Single and Double Circulation
hearts of vertebrates have two or more Lifted from Campbell Biology 11th Ed.
chambers. An atrium takes in blood and pumps
it out through a ventricle.
Single Circulation. Bony fishes, rays, and sharks have a two-chambered heart
with single circulation. Blood exiting the heart travels via two capillary beds before
returning to the heart in single circulation.
Double Circulation. Amphibians, reptiles, and mammals all have two

circulatory systems. The right and left sides of the heart pump oxygen-poor and
oxygen-rich blood independently.
56
Oxygen-depleted blood passes through
the pulmonary circuit in reptiles and mammals
to be picked up by the lungs. Oxygen-deficient
blood passes through a pulmocutaneous circuit
in amphibians to pick up oxygen through the
lungs and skin. The systemic circuit receives
oxygen from oxygen-rich blood. In the organs,
double circulation maintains a higher blood
pressure than single circulation. A four-
chambered heart with two atria and two
ventricles is found in mammals and birds. Only
oxygen-rich blood is pumped and received by
the left side of the heart, while oxygen-poor
blood is pumped and received by the right side.
Endotherms, such as mammals and birds,
require more oxygen than ectotherms.
Mammalian Cardiovascular System
Lifted from Campbell Biology 11th Ed. Transport Mechanism in Plants
Diffusion allows water, macronutrients, and

micronutrients to be absorbed through the root system. The surface area for
conveyance is increased by root hairs. Water molecules pass via the epidermis,
cortex, endodermis, and pericycle on their way to the xylem arteries, which transport
them upward. Photosynthesis products, water, and other molecules are transported
up and down the plant body by phloem cells. Phloem tissues are surrounded by
partner cells that support and nourish them. On how chemicals can flow up and
down the plant body, there are two major hypotheses. These are xylem sap ascent
and pressure or bulk flow.
Ascent of Xylem Sap. Water molecules

streaming upwards via xylem vessels cause a "push"
from below, which causes xylem sap to rise. It can also
be defined as a "pull" from above caused by a
combination of transpiration (water evaporation from
the plant body) and hydrogen bonding between water
molecules.
Ascent of Xylem Sap

Source:
https://www.api.simply.science/images/content/biol
ogy/plant_form_and_function/transport_in_plants/con
ceptmap/Xylem1.gif
57
Pressure or Bulk Flow. The presence of a source cell and
a sink cell in the plant is maintained by pressure flow
or bulk flow. Photosynthesis takes place in a "source"
cell, whereas nutrients are needed in a "sink" cell.
Source cells are unmistakably leaf cells. Sucrose and
other compounds build up in the source, then flow
down (or up) to where they are needed due to their high
concentration. Sink cells are found in the growing
sections of plants, such as buds, flowers, fruits, and
root tips. Phloem tissues transport materials down and
up in this manner. Water can easily transfer from
xylem to phloem tissues because xylem is near to
phloem tissues. The functions of phloem and xylem
cells combine to carry materials up and down the plant Bulk Flow
body. Source:
https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/files/20
18/04/Figure_30_05_07.jpg
Gas Exchange in Animals
The intake of molecular oxygen from the

environment and the emission of carbon
dioxide into the environment are referred to
as gas exchange. It's commonly referred to as
respiration or respiratory exchange, although
it's not to be confused with cellular
respiration. Aerobic cellular respiration and
the extraction of ATP from food require oxygen
in tissues. To keep the physiological pH of
tissues from becoming too acidic, carbon
dioxide must be released. Plants, on the other
hand, can use the carbon dioxide that is
generated as a by-product of cellular
respiration for photosynthesis. Gas Exchange in Humans
Source: https://sequencewiz.org/wp-
content/uploads/2020/08/Gas-exchange-in-human-body-
1024x853.png
The area of an animal's body where

gases are exchanged with the environment is known as the respiratory surface or
organ. It must be moist, large enough, and sheltered from desiccation to allow for
gas exchange. The diffusion of gases along pressure gradients is essential in
respiratory systems. It is possible to calculate partial pressures for each gas in the
atmosphere; for example, the partial pressure of oxygen is 160 mm Hg. According to
Fick's Law, the amount of gas diffusion over a membrane is proportional to the
surface area and the partial pressure difference between the two sides, but inversely
related to the membrane thickness.
Surface-to-volume ratio. The surface area of an animal expands at a slower rate

than its volume, making gas diffusion into the interior more challenging. Flatworms,
for example, must have a body architecture that maintains internal cells close to the
surface, or a method to transfer gases inward.
58
Ventilation. The movement of the respiratory medium (air or water) over the
respiratory surface is referred to as this. Gill covers (operculum) are moved by bony
fish to allow water carrying oxygen to flow across the gill. The muscles of the thorax
are used to expand and contract the chest cavity and to transfer air in and out of the
lungs in humans.
Respiratory Pigments or Proteins. Animals have respiratory pigments that bind

and transport gases as part of their gas exchange adaptations. Hemoglobin is the
respiratory pigment of vertebrates, while hemocyanin is the pigment of invertebrates
(such as arthropods and mollusks). Hemoglobin serves to increase the ability of blood
to carry enough oxygen and carbon dioxide in dissolved form to meet the body's
needs.
Gas Exchange in Plants
Stomata and lenticels in plants are

responsible for gas exchange. Stomata
(singular, stoma) are microscopic pores
in the epidermis that control
transpiration and gas exchange with the
air. When photosynthesis occurs
throughout the day, the oxygen
generated from the process is used for
respiration. The structure of stomata in
the leaf epidermis is depicted in the
Stomata featuring guard cells
diagram below.
Source: https://i2.wp.com/www.differencebetween.com/wp-
content/uploads/2018/01/Difference-Between-Stomata-and-Lenticels-fig-
Lenticels are gaseous exchange

apertures found on the exterior surfaces of
thick woody stems and even pericarp (fruit
coverings) in plants. Plants' woody stems
are primarily made up of dead tissue that
provides mechanical support, and the cells
in this area do not breathe. Lenticels are
depicted in the diagram below. By diffusion
via their cell membranes, roots execute
direct gaseous exchange with the help of
Lenticels
root hairs. Plants vary from animals in that
Source:
each portion of the plant, whether it is the https://i.pinimg.com/originals/c5/50/a5/c550a5024fa278291229a7fad9f68cba
stem, leaf, or root, has its own mechanism

of gaseous exchange, and gases are not carried from one part of the plant to another.
59
Label the missing anatomical parts.
1 6
7
2
8
3
9
10
5
60
Lesson
8.2
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Innate Immune Response
Skin, mucous membranes, and secretions are examples of barrier defenses.

The skin, along with other ectodermal derivatives, is the first line of protection
against infection in humans and most vertebrates. The body reacts to an invading
disease, such as a virus (or bacterium, or any foreign thing), by secreting mucus.
Antimicrobial agents can even be found in saliva. Phagocytic cells, natural killer cells,
antimicrobial proteins (interferons; complement system), and the inflammatory
response are all part of the innate immune response's internal defenses (that involves
histamines, mast cells and cytokines).
Adaptive Immune Response

Humoral Response. The production and secretion of antibodies or
immunoglobulins against specific antigens (any foreign body/structure- pollen,
bacteria, virus, dust). Antibodies are produced by cells that secrete them in the
bloodstream or display them in the surface of some cells, ready to face and combat
any antigen.
Cell mediated response- occurs when cytotoxic cells defend the body against
infection. The development of B and T cells, memory cells and plasma cells are
important aspects of cell mediated immune mechanism.
Antibody
Antibody is a protein made by our immune system that binds to a specific
target. Typically, these targets are pathogen components. Antigen is a substance or
component of a pathogen that activates the immune system. This response usually
results in the development of a specialized "antibody" for the target.
61
Two Aspects of Adaptive Response: Humeral and Cellular
1. Humeral Response. This due to the production of antibodies by B-cells.
• B cells are white blood cells that develop and mature in the bone marrow.
• B cells are activated when they encounter antigen in the lymph nodes.
• Activated B cells produce antibodies, proteins that recognize and bind to
specific parts of the pathogen, called antigens. Each B cell produces only one
antibody which recognizes only one kind of antigen (specificity)
Antibodies are of five major types; IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE.
• IgM is the first antibody produced. It coats the pathogen and promotes
endocytosis by macrophages.
• IgG is a major antibody produced. It activates the other parts of the immune
response and leads to neutralization and destruction of pathogen.
• IgA is the important antibody for the mucosal immune response. It prevents
pathogens from crossing the epithelium and entering the blood stream.
• IgE activates mast cells and leads to the production of histamine, which is
why it is also associated with allergic reactions.
• IgD. (The role of this antibody is still unclear at this point.)
Antibodies work best against pathogens that can survive outside of the cell, such
as bacteria, fungus, and certain worms.
2. Cellular Response. The adaptive immune system is due to the production of T cells.
• T cells are white blood cells that are produced in the bone marrow and
mature in the thymus.
• T cells are activated when they encounter antigens in the lymph nodes.
• However, unlike B cells, T cells need to recognize an antigen in the
context of self-molecules called major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
molecules.
There are 3 major types of T cells: cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells and
regulatory T cells
• Cytotoxic T cells recognize virus-infected cells and kill them.

• Helper T cells secrete proteins that help other immune cells (B cells,
macrophages, etc.) survive and perform their function.
• Regulatory T cells control the immune response by turning it off. This
prevents the immune system from harming the body.
Answer the following questions correctly.

1. What type of cell produces antibodies?
2. Where are B cells produced?
3. The antibody involved in allergy is ______.
4. What will happen if a person cannot produce antibodies?
62
Access the Department of Health’s Know Your Vaccine site page here
https://doh.gov.ph/vaccines/know-your-vaccines. Then accomplish the tasks
below.
1. Name the vaccines against COVID-19 that used the following as their
technology platform:
a. mRNA
b. non-replicating viral vector
c. inactivated virus
d. protein subunit
2. Is there any direct influence on the efficacy of the vaccine whether it used
mRNA, viral vector etc. as its technology platform? Explain your answer.
3. What happens when people get vaccinated by the following vaccines? How
does a person get antibodies upon vaccination of the specific vaccines below?
a. Oxford-AstraZeneca
b. Bharat BioTech
c. Moderna
63
MODULE 9
discover the Chemical and Nervous Signaling of Living Things. The scope of this
module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language

• Lesson 9.1 – Hormone Control of Organisms
• Lesson 9.2 – The Nerve Signaling of Organisms

1. Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals:, chemical
and nervous control, immune systems, and sensory and motor mechanisms
Lesson
Hormonal Control of Organisms
9.1
Animals must continually adapt to changes in their environment in order to

survive. The nervous and endocrine systems both work together to bring about this
adaptation. In general, the nervous system reacts quickly to short-term changes by
sending electrical impulses along nerves, whereas the endocrine system induces
longer-term adaptations by releasing chemical messengers known as hormones in
the body. In general, the endocrine system is made up of a collection of diverse
structures and origins of forms capable of internal secretion, or the release of
physiologically active chemicals (hormones) into the bloodstream.
64
Evolution of Hormonal Control
The neurosecretory type of endocrine

system appears to be the most primitive, in
which the nervous system either secretes
neurohormones (hormones that act on or
are secreted by nervous tissue) directly
into the circulation or stores them in
neurohemal organs (neurons whose
endings directly contact blood vessels,
allowing neurohormones to be secreted
into the circulation) from which they are
released in large amounts as needed. True
endocrine glands originated as
independent, hormone-secreting
structures later in the animal kingdom's
evolutionary history. Some of the cells in
these endocrine glands are descended
from nerve cells that moved from the
neurological system to various parts of the
SOURCE:https://www.macmillanhighered.com/BrainHon
body during evolution. Only arthropods (where ey/Resource/6716/digital_first_content/trunk/test/hillis2
these glands are found) have been described as e/asset/img_ch35/c35_fig14.jpg
having separate endocrine glands.
Millions of years of evolution have resulted in the human endocrine system. It should
come as no surprise that the human endocrine system's endocrine glands and
accompanying hormones have parallels in the endocrine systems of more primitive
species. The emergence of the hypothalamic-pituitary-target organ axis, as well as
many other endocrine glands, throughout the evolution of fishes that preceded the
origin of terrestrial vertebrates, may be documented by investigating these species.
Hormones
Hormones were once thought to be chemical molecules created by ductless

glands and discharged into the bloodstream to effect tissue far away from the gland,
but it's now known that hormones can also be produced by single cells.
Kinds of Hormones according to Glands

1. epicrine - hormones pass through gap junctions of adjacent cells without
entering extracellular fluid
2. neurocrine - hormones pass through synaptic clefts between neurons as do
neurotransmitters; hormones can also be synthesized in a neuron (e.g.
oxytocin) and secreted directly into the blood from the axon
3. paracrine - hormones diffuse through interstitial fluid (e.g. prostaglandins)
4. endocrine - hormones are delivered via the bloodstream (e.g. growth hormone)
5. exocrine - chemical substance is secreted to exterior of the body (e.g.
pheromones) or into the digestive tract (e.g. somatostatin)
Biochemical Classification of Hormones

Hormones are biochemically categorized as amines, peptides, steroids, or
prostaglandins.
a. amines – thyroid hormones, adrenal catecholamines
b. peptides – growth hormone, prolactin, luteinizing hormone
65
c. steroids – estradiol, testosterone, cortisol, progesterone
d. prostaglandins – PGF2
Hormones in Plants
Gravity, light, touch, and seasonal variations are all sensed by plants. It can
be observed how a house plant bends toward a bright window, for example. Plants
can detect the source of light and grow toward it. Plants, according to scientists, can
respond to "stimuli," or something that causes a response (typically in the
environment). Light, for example, is the stimulus, and the plant's movement toward
it is the "reaction." Hormones are chemical messengers that aid organisms, including
plants, in responding to stimuli in their surroundings. Plant cells must be able to
interact with one another in order to respond to their surroundings.
Types of Plant Hormones
Five different types of plant hormones are involved in the main responses of plants,
and they each have different functions
Hormone Function
Ethylene Fruit ripening and abscission
Gibberellins Break the dormancy of seeds and buds; promote growth
Cytokinins Promote cell division; prevent senescence
Abscisic Acid Close the stomata; maintain dormancy
Auxins Involved in tropisms and apical dominance
66
Complete the table below
Lesson
Nervous Control
9.2
The NERVOUS SYSTEM--A coordinating and integrating mechanism that

aids a vertebrate organism's adaptability to its surroundings. The nervous
system is made up of assemblages of cells that are specialized by their shape and
function to act as the body's main coordinating organ. The ability to sense the
environment, move and react to stimuli, and generate and control all of the
organism's behavior is all based on nervous tissue.
When specific structures (receptors) in an organism are

stimulated by an environmental stimulus, the organism
responds. Nerves transmit excitations to effectors, which
operate to adjust the organism to changing environmental
conditions. The neurological system of vertebrates is made up
of the brain, brainstem, spinal cord, cranial and peripheral
nerves, and ganglia. The central nervous system is made up of
the brain and spinal cord, whereas the peripheral nervous
system is made up of the nerves and ganglia that exit the brain
and spinal cord.
67
Comparative morphology
The brain of all vertebrates, including humans, consists of three basic

divisions: prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon The indication is
that these divisions of the vertebrate brain have evolved along several functional lines
and perform very different functions
The basic microscopic anatomy of nerve tissue is largely similar in all

vertebrates, although variations do exist. Irritability is a characteristic of nervous
tissue. It's also distinguished by its conductivity, which carries the ensuing
stimulation to other nervous system structures. Nervous tissue has the ability to
sense environmental energies both internal and external to the organism through
specialized receptors; to conduct the resulting nerve impulses as coded input to
centers in the nervous system; to process this input within these centers; to generate
sensations and psychological expressions; and to produce active responses such as
muscle contractions or gland secretions. In effect, nervous tissue reacts to
environmental stimuli and regulates many bodily processes so as to maintain
functional integrity of an organism. It is within the morphological, physiological, and
chemical matrices of nervous tissue that the substrates for memory, behavior, and
personality reside.
68
THE NEURON
Each neuron consists of a cell body (soma), one to several

cytoplasmic processes called dendrites, and one process
called an axon, and has the specialized capacity to react to
stimuli, to transmit the resulting excitation rapidly to other
parts of the cell, and to influence other neurons, muscles, or
glandular cells. Cell bodies vary from roughly 7 to more than
70 micrometers in diameter; each comprises a nucleus and
various cytoplasmic components, including Nissl
(chromophil) granules, mitochondria, and neurofibrils. New
cytoplasm, particularly protein, is constantly synthesized in
the cell body and flows down the cell processes. The length
of the dendrites varies from a fraction of a millimeter to a few
millimeters. An axon can be as short as a millimeter or as
long as several feet. A synapse is the point where two
neurons come into contact with each other and where one
neuron's influences are communicated to the other.
A typical vertebrate neuron. (Credit: C. K. Weichert)
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The portion of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord in
vertebrates. The division of the vertebrate nervous system comprising the brain and
spinal cord is known as the central nervous system. In general, the central nervous
system is responsible for the processing of information that is received from various
parts of the vertebrate body; it receives information from sensory neurons and
responds via motor neurons (the sensory and motor neurons are components of the
peripheral nervous system). The brain is enclosed in the skull, and the spinal cord
is enclosed within the spinal canal of the vertebral column. The brain and spinal
cord are intimately covered by membranes called meninges and are bathed in an
extracellular fluid called cerebrospinal fluid. Approximately 90% of the cells of the
central nervous system are glial cells. These cells support (both physically and
metabolically) the other 10% of the cells, which are the nerve cells or neurons.
Although the glial cells are much more numerous than neurons, the glial cells are
also much smaller and do not directly participate in the propagation and integration
of information.
69
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord make up the
Peripheral nervous system. The communication network between the CNS and the
body parts is formed by these nerves. The somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system are two subsystems of the peripheral nervous system.
The somatic nervous system is made up of nerves that run from the brain to the skin
and muscles, and it plays a role in conscious behaviors. Nerves that connect the CNS
to visceral organs like the heart, stomach, and intestines make up the autonomic
nervous system. It transmits information for unconscious activities.
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The autonomic nervous system is a component of the peripheral nervous
system that regulates involuntary physiologic processes including heart rate, blood
pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal. It contains three anatomically
distinct divisions: sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric.
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous

system (PNS) contain both afferent and efferent fibers that provide sensory input and
motor output, respectively, to the central nervous system (CNS). Generally, the SNS
and PNS motor pathways consist of a two-neuron series: a preganglionic neuron with
a cell body in the CNS and a postganglionic neuron with a cell body in the periphery
that innervates target tissues. The enteric nervous system (ENS) is an extensive, web-
like structure that is capable of function independently of the remainder of the
nervous system. It contains over 100 million neurons of over 15 morphologies,
greater than the sum of all other peripheral ganglia, and is chiefly responsible for the
regulation of digestive processes
70
Sensory Processes
A sensory activation occurs when a physical or chemical stimulus is processed

into a neural signal (sensory transduction) by a sensory receptor. Perception is an
individual interpretation of a sensation and is a brain function. Humans have special
senses: olfaction, gustation, equilibrium, and hearing, plus the general senses of
somatosensation.
Sensory receptors are either specialized cells associated with sensory neurons or the
specialized ends of sensory neurons that are a part of the peripheral nervous system,
and they are used to receive information about the environment (internal or external).
Each sensory receptor is modified for the type of stimulus it detects. For example,
neither gustatory receptors nor auditory receptors are sensitive to light. Each sensory
receptor is responsive to stimuli within a specific region in space, which is known as
that receptor’s receptive field. The most fundamental function of a sensory system is
the translation of a sensory signal to an electrical signal in the nervous system.
Somatosensation
Somatosensation includes all sensation received from the skin and mucous
membranes, as well as from the limbs and joints. Somatosensation occurs all over
the exterior of the body and at some interior locations as well, and a variety of
receptor types, embedded in the skin and mucous membranes, play a role.
There are several types of specialized sensory receptors. Rapidly adapting free
nerve endings detect nociception, hot and cold, and light touch. Slowly adapting,
encapsulated Merkel’s disks are found in fingertips and lips, and respond to light
touch. Meissner’s corpuscles, found in glabrous skin, are rapidly adapting,
encapsulated receptors that detect touch, low-frequency vibration, and flutter.
Ruffini endings are slowly adapting, encapsulated receptors that detect skin stretch,
joint activity, and warmth. Hair receptors are rapidly adapting nerve endings
wrapped around the base of hair follicles that detect hair movement and skin
deflection. Finally, Pacinian corpuscles are encapsulated, rapidly adapting receptors
that detect transient pressure and high-frequency vibration.
Taste and Smell
There are five primary tastes in humans: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami.
Each taste has its own receptor type that responds only to that taste. Tastants enter
the body and are dissolved in saliva. Taste cells are located within taste buds, which
are found on three of the four types of papillae in the mouth.
Regarding olfaction, there are many thousands of odorants, but humans

detect only about 10,000. Like taste receptors, olfactory receptors are each
responsive to only one odorant. Odorants dissolve in nasal mucosa, where they excite
their corresponding olfactory sensory cells. When these cells detect an odorant, they
send their signals to the main olfactory bulb and then to other locations in the brain,
including the olfactory cortex.
Hearing and Vestibular Sensation
Audition is important for territory defense, predation, predator defense, and

communal exchanges. The vestibular system, which is not auditory, detects linear
71
acceleration and angular acceleration and deceleration. Both the auditory system
and vestibular system use hair cells as their receptors.
Auditory stimuli are sound waves. The sound wave energy reaches the outer
ear (pinna, canal, tympanum), and vibrations of the tympanum send the energy to
the middle ear. The middle ear bones shift and the stapes transfers mechanical
energy to the oval window of the fluid-filled inner ear cochlea. Once in the cochlea,
the energy causes the basilar membrane to flex, thereby bending the stereocilia on
receptor hair cells. This activates the receptors, which send their auditory neural
signals to the brain.
The vestibular system has five parts that work together to provide the sense
of direction, thus helping to maintain balance. The utricle and saccule measure head
orientation: their calcium carbonate crystals shift when the head is tilted, thereby
activating hair cells. The semicircular canals work similarly, such that when the head
is turned, the fluid in the canals bends stereocilia on hair cells. The vestibular hair
cells also send signals to the thalamus and to somatosensory cortex, but also to the
cerebellum, the structure above the brainstem that plays a large role in timing and
coordination of movement.
Vision
Vision is the only photo responsive sense. Visible light travels in waves and is
a very small slice of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. Light waves differ based
on their frequency (wavelength = hue) and amplitude (intensity = brightness).
In the vertebrate retina, there are two types of light receptors (photoreceptors):
cones and rods. Cones, which are the source of color vision, exist in three forms—L,
M, and S—and they are differentially sensitive to different wavelengths. Cones are
located in the retina, along with the dim-light, achromatic receptors (rods). Cones
are found in the fovea, the central region of the retina, whereas rods are found in the
peripheral regions of the retina.
Visual signals travel from the eye over the axons of retinal ganglion cells,
which make up the optic nerves. Ganglion cells come in several versions. Some
ganglion cell axons carry information on form, movement, depth, and brightness,
while other axons carry information on color and fine detail. Visual information is
sent to the superior colliculi in the midbrain, where coordination of eye movements
and integration of auditory information takes place. Visual information is also sent
to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus, which plays a role in the
circadian cycle.
72
Label the parts of the Neuron
below
Axon
Myelin sheath
Cell body
Dendrites
Muscle fibers
Medical professionals are very familiar with the 12 cranial nerves responsible for
both sense and motility of the face and neck. Research on the cranial nerves and
memorize their locations on your face.
73
MODULE 10
master the concept in Nutrition and Body Fluid Regulation. The scope of this module
permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language used
recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow
the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be
changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
• Lesson 10– Nutrition among organisms

reproduction, development, nutrition, gas exchange, transport/circulation,
regulation of body fluids, chemical and nervous control, immune systems, and
sensory and motor mechanisms
Lesson
Nutrition among organisms
10
Animals get their sustenance by eating other organisms. Animals can be

divided into three groups based on their diet: herbivores (plant eaters), carnivores
(meat eaters), and omnivores (those who eat both plants and animals) (omnivores).
Food contains nutrients and macromolecules that are not immediately available to
the cells. Within the animal body, a multitude of mechanisms change food in order
to make nutrients and organic molecules accessible for cellular function. Animals'
digestive systems have developed to fit their diverse dietary needs as their form and
function have become more complex.
Different sorts of digestive systems have evolved in animals to aid in the
digesting of the various nutrients they consume. The most basic example is a
gastrovascular cavity, which is found in species with only one digestive entrance.
This type of digestion is used by Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Ctenophora (comb
jellies), and Cnidaria (coral, jelly fish, and sea anemones). A gastrovascular cavity is
a blind tube or cavity with only one opening, the "mouth," which also functions as a
"anus." Food enters the mouth and travels through a hollow, tubular cavity. Digestive
enzymes are secreted by cells within the cavity, which break down the food. The cells
lining the gastrovascular cavity consume the meal particles.
74
Invertebrate Digestive Systems
The alimentary canal is a more

complicated system, consisting of a
single tube with a mouth on one
end and an anus on the other.
Earthworms are an example of a
creature with a digestive system.
Food is ingested through the
mouth, then passed through the
esophagus and stored in an organ
called the crop, before being
churned and digested in the
gizzard. The food goes from the
gizzard to the gut, where the
nutrients are absorbed and the
waste is expelled as feces (castings)
through the anus.
Vertebrate Digestive Systems

To adapt to their dietary needs,
vertebrates have developed more complicated digestive systems. Some animals have
only one stomach, whereas others have multiple stomach chambers. Birds' digestive
systems have evolved to allow them to consume unmasticated food.
Monogastric: Single-chambered Stomach
Monogastric digestion is found in

humans and many other animals.
The mouth and the intake of food
start the digesting process.
Mastication (chewing) or physically
breaking down food into tiny pieces
requires the use of the teeth.
Salivary enzymes begin to
chemically break down food as well.
The esophagus connects the mouth
to the stomach and is a lengthy
tube. The muscles of the esophagus
drive the food into the stomach via
peristalsis, or wave-like smooth
muscle contractions. The stomach https://openstax.org/details/books/Biology 2e - OpenStax
is an extremely acidic
environment, with a pH of 1.5 to 2.5, in order to speed up the activity of
enzymes in the stomach.
75
Avian
The esophagus of birds has a

pouch called a crop that stores
food. Food flows from the crop to
the proventriculus, the first of two
stomachs, which contains digestive
acids that help break down food.
The food passes via the
proventriculus and into the
gizzard, which grinds the meal. To
facilitate the grinding process,
certain birds ingest stones or grit,
which are stored in the gizzard.
Birds do not have separate feces
and urine excretion holes. Instead,
the kidneys produce uric acid into
the large intestine, where it is
mixed with waste from the
digestion process. The cloaca is the https://openstax.org/details/books/Biology 2e - OpenStax
entrance via which the waste is
expelled.
Ruminants
Ruminant animals have four

stomachs, such as goats and
cows. The rumen and reticulum,
the first two stomachs, contain
prokaryotes and protists that can
digest cellulose fiber. The
ruminant regurgitates the cud
from the reticulum, chews it, and
swallows it into the omasum, a
third stomach that eliminates the
water. The cud next travels to the
abomasum, the fourth stomach,
where it is digested by ruminant https://openstax.org/details/books/Biology 2e - OpenStax
enzymes.
Nutrition and Energy Production
The nutrition of animals should be well-balanced and suit the body's

requirements. The primary components of food are carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
Some critical nutrients are required for cellular activity yet are unavailable to the
animal body. Vitamins, minerals, some fatty acids, and some amino acids are among
them. Food consumed in excess of what is required is stored as glycogen in the liver,
muscle cells, and fat cells. Obesity and major health concerns can result from excess
adipose storage. The metabolic processes produce ATP, which is the cell's energy
currency. In the body, excess carbohydrates and energy are stored as glycogen.
76
Digestive System Processes
Digestion begins with ingestion, where the food is taken in the mouth.
Digestion and absorption take place in a series of steps with special enzymes playing
important roles in digesting carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. Elimination
describes removal of undigested food contents and waste products from the body.
While most absorption occurs in the small intestines, the large intestine is
responsible for the final removal of water that remains after the absorptive process
of the small intestines. The cells that line the large intestine absorb some vitamins
as well as any leftover salts and water. The large intestine (colon) is also where feces
is formed.
Digestive System Regulation
The brain and the endocrine system control digestive processes. The brain controls
the responses of hunger and satiety. The endocrine system controls the release of
hormones and enzymes required for digestion of food in the digestive tract.
77
Trace the pathway of Digestion, from the mouth up to the anus, by creating a
flowchart.
Mouth Anus
78
MODULE 11
explain Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanism. The scope of this module permits it
to be used in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the
diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard
correspond with the module you are now using.

• Lesson 11 – Feedback Mechanism
1. Describe homeostasis;
2. Explain the importance of homeostasis for the normal body function;
3. Distinguished between positive-feedback and negative-feedback mechanism
Lesson Homeostasis and Feedback

11 Mechanism
Human anatomy and physiology are the study of the structure and function
of the human body. The human body has many intricate parts with coordinated
functions maintained by a complex system of checks and balances. The coordinated
function of all the parts of the human body allows us to detect stimuli, respond to
stimuli, and perform many other actions. Knowing human anatomy and physiology
also provides the basis for understanding diseases. The study of human anatomy
and physiology is important for students who plan to take a career in the health
sciences because health professionals need a comprehensive knowledge of structure
and function to perform their duties. Understanding anatomy and physiology
prepares us to evaluate the health condition and recommended treatments for
certain disease, ailment, and disorder.
79
Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms
• Homeostasis is the
tendency of biological
systems to maintain
relatively constant
conditions in the internal
environment while
continuously interacting
with and adjusting to
changes originating
within or outside the
system. It is the
maintenance of a
constant internal
environment in response
to changes in external and internal environment.
• The control processes that maintain these conditions are homeostatic

mechanisms.
• Stressors are changes in the internal and the external environment that
affect the normal conditions of the body.
How does homeostasis happen?
1. Structural: the animal or plant has physical features which help its survival in
an otherwise hostile environment.
2. Functional: the metabolism of the animal or plant can adjust to changes in
conditions as they are detected.
3. Behavioral: the actions and interactions of the individual, either alone or with
others, help it to survive in its environment.
80
Feedback Mechanisms
• Feedback occurs when

response to either a biotic
or abiotic factor has an
effect on the person (or
animal/mammal).
• Feedback Control Loop is a
highly complex and
integrated communication
control system or network.
Information is transmitted
in these loops by nervous
impulses or by specific
chemical messenger
called hormones which are https://openstax.org/details/books/Biology 2e - OpenStax
secreted in the blood.
Basic Components of Control Mechanisms
1. Receptor. This monitors change and sends message to the control center
in the form of a chemical signal or a nerve impulse.
2. Control center. This sets range of what the maintained balance in the body
should be. It evaluates the input it receives from the receptors and generates
command outputs when needed. output is also in the form of a nerve impulse
or chemical system.
3. Effector. This receives outputs from the control center and produces a
response or effect that changes the condition. nearly every body organ and
tissue can behave an effector.
Two Types of Feedback Mechanisms

1. Negative feedback is when the response diminishes the original stimulus. A
feedback loop in which the output of a system reduces the activity that causes that
output.
81
Example:
• Blood glucose concentrations rise after a sugary meal (the stimulus). The
hormone insulin is released, and it speeds up the transport of glucose out of
the blood and into selected tissues (the response). Blood glucose
concentrations decrease (thus decreasing the original stimulus).
2. Positive feedback is when the response enhances the original stimulus. A

feedback loop in which the output of a system is increased by the mechanism’s own
influence on the system that creates that output.
Example:
• A baby begins to suckle her mother's nipple and a few drops of milk are
released (the stimulus). This encourages the baby and releases a hormone in
the mother which further stimulates the release of milk (the response). The
hungry baby continues to suckle, stimulating more milk release until she
stops.
•
82
Directions: Fill in the box below of the correct answer from the given feedback
mechanism.
Act. 1 Maintaining homeostasis
Directions. Read the situation in the box. Fill-in the missing concept below to show
what occurs in the body to maintain temperature homeostasis.
muscles and blood 36.4°C to 37.2°C

You are outside on a very
vessels
cold day and your body muscles shiver to generate heat skin and nerve cells sense
temperature begins to and the constriction of the blood
the change in the body
drop below 36°C, falling vessels helps the body retain heat
temperature
outside the normal range.
Change or decrease in
hypothalam
the normal body
us
temperature
Normal range body temp:
_______________
Stimulus: (What is the stimulus in this Effector(s): _________________________

scenario?) (What is/are the effectors that can
respond?)
Sensor: (What is the sensor for Response: _________________________

temperature in the body?) (What is the response of the effectors
83
and how does this affect body
temperature?)
Integrating center: ____________________

(Which part of the body serves as the
integrating center for temperature?)
84
MODULE 12
understand Homeostasis in the Body. The scope of this module permits it to be used
in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse
correspond with the module you are now using.

Lesson 12 – Homeostasis in the body

1. Explain how various organ systems enable homeostasis;
2. Describe the homeostatic control of temperature regulation, osmotic balance
and glucose level regulation.
Lesson Organs in the body that maintain

12 Homeostasis
Homeostasis helps the body maintain a constant internal environment. The

endocrine and nervous systems help detect changes in either the internal or the
external environment and respond to those changes. Organ systems use feedback
mechanisms to maintain homeostasis. Considering this, how do human body
systems work together to maintain homeostasis?
Keeping the body's temperature constant requires that the endocrine system,
the nervous system, and the muscular system work together. Your body's organ
systems work together and maintain many types of homeostasis. These include
temperature, nutrient levels, oxygen, fluid levels, and pH.
Similarly, how do the brain and the other body systems work together to
maintain homeostasis? The circulatory system provides your brain with a constant
supply of oxygen-rich blood while your brain regulates your heart rate and blood
pressure. Meanwhile, your bones are busy making new blood cells. Working together,
these systems maintain internal stability and balance, otherwise known
as homeostasis.
85
All your body systems must work together to keep you healthy. Your bones
and muscles work together to support and move your body. Your
respiratory system takes in oxygen from the air. Your circulatory system carries
oxygen, water, and nutrients to cells throughout your body.
Homeostasis is the process by which the body regulates its internal
environment for chemical and biological processes to occur. Some of the more
important variables that the body needs to control include temperature, and the
levels of blood sugar, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Several organs are involved in
homeostasis, and these include the lungs, pancreas, kidneys, and skin.
Lungs and Respiration. Respiration is a process that uses glucose to create
energy. It is the most important reaction taking place within the human body.
Critical to the respiration process is the regulation of oxygen levels within the blood,
which is carried out by the lungs. In addition to energy, respiration creates carbon
dioxide from the broken-down glucose. The level of carbon dioxide in the
bloodstream is an indirect measure of blood oxygen levels. Special cells in the brain
detect the carbon dioxide level in the blood, and if it is too high, the brain sends
nerve impulses to stimulate the muscles that control breathing. The lungs then fill
with air faster, increasing the amount of oxygen in the bloodstream. If carbon
dioxide levels within the blood are low, the brain cells do not stimulate nerve cells,
reducing the rate of breathing.
Pancreas and Blood Glucose The regulation of blood-glucose levels is
essential for the survival of the human body. The pancreas, a small glandular organ
located close to the stomach, has several functions. One of the most important is
the regulation of blood-glucose levels. The pancreas contains special cells known
as the Islets of Langerhans that detect blood-glucose levels. If the blood-glucose
levels are too high, the cells release the hormone insulin to stimulate liver, muscle,
and fat cells to absorb glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen or starch.
When blood sugar levels are too low, the cells release another hormone called
glucagon. Glucagon acts on the liver, muscle and fat cells and stimulates them to
convert glycogen to glucose, releasing it into the blood.
86
Kidneys and Water Regulation. Kidneys regulate the amount of water
present in the human body. When the level of water in the bloodstream becomes
too low, the hypothalamus in the brain releases a large quantity of the chemical
anti-diuretic hormone, ADH. ADH travels through the blood and stimulates the
kidneys to open water channels within its tubule walls, allowing water to diffuse
back into nearby blood vessels and reducing the amount of water in urine. When
too much water is present in the blood, the hypothalamus releases smaller amounts
of ADH. This causes the kidneys to close water channels within the tubule walls,
increasing the amount of water in urine.
Skin and Sweat. The body's normal temperature is between 36.4°C to

37.2°C, which allows the body's biological enzymes to function at optimum level.
When the body temperature rises, the hypothalamus sends nerve signals to sweat-
producing cells in the skin. The body can sweat one to two liters of water per hour,
which helps to cool the body. The skin also has tiny muscles on its surface called
arrector pili. These muscles control the orientation of hairs on the skin. When the
body is too hot, the muscles relax and the hairs lay flat to release heat. When the
body is too cold, the arrector pili muscles contract, leading the hairs of the skin to
stand up and insulate the body.
Directions: Fill in the blanks with the correct term for the word box
Inject pancreas food sugar hormone

Blood insulin diabetes levels
Some people suffer from a disease called ____________. They do not produce enough
of a ______________ called ______________ from the organ in the body called
____________. Insulin controls the ___________ ____________ levels. Diabetics have to
be careful that they do not eat too much sweet ___________. They may also need to
______________ themselves with the hormone insulin to help control their blood sugar.
87
Maintaining Homeostasis
Directions: Fill in the columns of the appropriate answer from the given choices
below.
Hormone
Organ secreted/Response to Function
maintain homeostasis
Pancreas
Skin and blood vessel
Kidney
ADH trigger vasodilation/constriction of blood vessels Insulin

Regulate body temperature Regulate water balance
Regulate blood sugar level
88
Quarter 2 or Quarter 4.
Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. Which of the following respiratory systems is not closely associated with a blood
supply?
A. The lungs of a vertebrate

B. The tracheal system of an insect
C. The gills of a fish
D. The skin of an earthworm
2. With rare exceptions, the majority of oxygen is transported in the blood of

vertebrates
A. By binding to plasma proteins

B. By binding to hemoglobin in erythrocytes
C. As a component of large organic molecules that are broken down by the cells
D. As dissolved gas in the cytoplasm of erythrocytes
3. The driving force for diffusion of oxygen across the cells of a respiratory organ is:
A. The difference in partial pressure of oxygen in the environment and the blood.
B. The humidity.
C. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood.
D. The temperature
4. What is the main difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?
A. Endocrine glands are ductless and exocrine glands release secretions at the
body's surface or into ducts.
B. Endocrine glands release hormones, whereas exocrine glands release waste.
C. Endocrine glands are formed by epithelial tissue, but exocrine glands are
primarily connective tissue.
D. Endocrine glands are all interconnected, whereas exocrine glands act
completely independently.
5. Which of the following hormones are responsible for the "fight-or-flight" response?
A. Epinephrine and norepinephrine.

B. Insulin and glucagon.
C. Esrtogen and progesterone.
D. Thyroxin and melatonin.
89
6. Which of the following macronutrients are processed chemically in the mouth?
A. Fats
B. Lipids
C. Protein
D. Carbohydrates
7. Which of the following specifically is contained by the Central Nervous System?
A. autonomic & peripheral

B. brain & cranial nerves
C. spinal cord and spinal nerves
D. brain and spinal cord
8. Which system sends electrical signal that help control body’s responses to
internal and external changes?
A. Nervous
B. Reproductive
C. Endocrine
D. Integumentary
9. Which of the following are responses when body temperature rises?
A. Vasoconstriction, shivering
B. Vasodilation, shivering
C. Vasoconstriction, sweating
D. Vasodilation, sweating
10. What hormone is produced in the pancreas that raises blood sugar?
A. Insulin
B. Ketones
C. Glucagon
D. Glucose
90
91
What’s More (Lesson 5. Deer
2.1) 6.Layer A, Glass Bottle or What’s More (Lesson
1.Spear point Ceramic Doll 2.2)
2.People who live in the 7.By a spear, A Native Answers may vary
house American
3.More recent 8.Deer bone What I Can Do
4.Yes, because of the 9.Fish bones Answers may vary
spear point; No, there are
no artifacts or Yes, there
is nothing left from the
people.
Module 2
What’s More (Lesson What’s More (Lesson 10. allergenic
1.1) 1.2) 11. environment
1. Identify the gene of 1. nutrients 12. chemically farmed
interest 2. plant diseases 13. fossil fuel
2. Isolate the gene of 3. seeds 14. greenhouse gases
interest 4. herbicides 15. herbicides
3. Isolate the plasmid 5. biodegradable 16. food supply
4. Cut the DNA of 6. uncontrolled 17. allocation of
interest and the plasmid 7. mutations resources
with restriction enzymes 8. crop performance 18. safety studies
5. Combine the gene of 9. nutritional content
interest and to the
plasmid using DNA ligase
Module 1
What I know (Q1 ASSESSMENT (Q1 What I know Q2 or ASSESSMENT (Q2
or Q3) or Q3) Q4) or Q4)
1. C 6. D 1. B 6. B 1.D 6. A 1. B 6. D
2. C 7. B 2. B 7. D 2. D 7. D 2. B 7.D
3. C 8. A 3. D 8. D 3. C 8. C 3. A 8.A
4. A 9. D 4. D 9. A 4. C 9. A 4. A 9.D
5. C 10. C 5. C 10. D 5. D 10. A 5. A 10. C
92
What More What I Can Do
Act. 1 Identify Pig Chicken Dogfish Drosophila Wheat Yeast
1. 6 the amino Val Ile Val Leu Asn Ser
2. 7 acid Gln Val Val Val Pro Ala
different Ala Gln Gln Gln Asp Lys
3. They from Ala Arg Ala Ala
could still Human Asn Ala Ala Thr
make the Ala Lys Leu
same Thr Lys
insulin Ala Thr
Asp Arg
protein if Ala Glu
the Leu
sequences Total 3 3 5 6 10 11
coded for Number of
the same amino
acid
amino
acid as
those in
insulin
protein
Module 5
What’s More (Lesson 4.1) What’s more (Lesson 4.2)
ADAPTIVE RADIATION.
Explanations may vary
What I can do
Answers may vary
Module 4
What’s more (lesson 3.1) What’s More (lesson 3.2)
Sample only. Answers Answers May Vary
may
REPRODU
CTIVE
vary
FITNESS
NATURAL What I can do
SPECIATIO
SELECTIO
N
N Answers may vary
EVOLUT
ION
RADIATIVE
EVOLUTIO ENVIRON
N MENT
COEVOLU
TION
Module 3
93
What’s More (Lesson What’s More (Lesson What I Can Do
8.1) 8.2) Answers may vary
1. Aorta 1. B cells
2. Vena cava 2. In the bone marrow
3. Right atrium 3. IgE
4. Semi-lunar valve 4. This person becomes
5. Right ventricle very susceptible to
6. Pulmonary artery diseases. They cannot
7. Semi-lunar valve effectively combat
8. Pulmonary vein pathogens and can
9. Left atrium eventually die from
10. Left ventricle even the mildest
infections.
Module 8
What’s More (Lesson What’s More (Lesson
7.1) 7.2)
Asexual Sexual Answers may vary
DNA DNA
One parent Male and What I Can Do
Unique female Answers may vary
Spores Traits
Uniform Egg and
Traits sperm
Module 7
G A A M I N O A C I D A I S K
E B L Q V Z D I N S Z B J E I
N C M R W A E J O T A C K Q N
E V O L U T I O N U E D L U G
G D N S X B F K P V A E M E D
H E O T Y C G L Q W H F N N O
I T A X O N O M Y X C G O C M
J F P U C Y T O C H R O M E Q
P H Y L U M H M R Y A H P S R
K C L A S S I F I C A T I O N
What I can do
What’s More
Organi Kingdo Phylu Class Order Family Genus Specie
sm m m s
Lion Animali Chorda Mamm Carnivo Felidae Panther leo
a ta als ra a
Earthw Animali Annelid Clitellat Lumbri Lumbri Lumbric terrestri
orm a a a culida cidae us s
Parame Protista Cilioph Oligohy Penicul Parame Parame aurelia
cium ora menop ida ciidae cium
horea
Module 6
94
What More What I Can Do
Act. 1 Expressing feedback Normal range body temp: 36.4°C to
mechanism 37.2°C
Stimulus
Rise in body temperature Stimulus: Change or decrease in the
Receptor normal body temperature
Skin and brain sense change
Signal Sensor: skin and nerve cells sense the
Command from the brain change in the body temperature
Response
Skin makes sweat and blood vessels Integrating center: Hypothalamus
dilate
Effector(s): muscles and blood vessels
Response: Muscles shiver to generate
heat and the constriction of the blood
vessels helps the body retain heat.
Module 11
What’s more 10 What I can do
Answers may vary
Module 10
Module 9
95
What More
Act. 1 Paragraph What I Can Do
completion
Some people suffer from a Hormone
disease called diabetes. Organ secreted/Response to Function
They do not produce maintain homeostasis
enough of a hormone Pancreas insulin Regulate
called insulin from the blood sugar
organ in the body called level
pancreas. Insulin controls Skin and Trigger Regulate
the blood sugar levels. blood vasodilation/constriction body
Diabetics have to be vessel of blood vessels temperature
careful that they do not Kidney ADH Regulate
eat too much sweet food. water
They may also need to balance
inject themselves with the
hormone insulin to help
control their blood sugar
Module 12
References
Reece, J. B., & Campbell, N. A. (2011). Campbell biology. Boston: Benjamin

Cummings / Pearson.
Stages of Animal Development. Retrieved January 5, 2022

https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/growth-and-reproduction/animal-
development-i/
Plant Growth and Development. Retrieved from January 4, 2022

https://science.umd.edu/classroom/BSCI442/Lec17_Reprod_DevF08.pdf
Reproduction. Retrieved January 5, 2022

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/topics/resource-library-
reproduction/?q=&page=1&per_page=25
Asexual Reproduction. Retrieved January 6, 2022

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/hesc109.pdf
Respiration in Plants. Retrieved January 3, 2022

https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/cbse-biology-class-
10/section/1.7/primary/lesson/respiration-in-plants/
Gas Exchange. Retrieved January 3, 2022

https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/20-1-systems-of-gas-exchange/
Immune System. Retrieved January 5, 2022

http://sepa.duq.edu/data/EducationImgDocs/Immunology%20Module%20Teache
r_2011.pdf
Bioscience Topics. (2022). Molecular Biology, North Carolina, USA. Retrieved

January 7, 2022 from https://www.aboutbioscience.org/topics/molecular-
biology/
SlideShare. (2022). 6 Kingdoms and 3 Domain. USA. Retrieved January 6,
2022 from https://www.slideshare.net/mrtangextrahelp/06-6-kingdoms-
and-3-domains
SlideShare. (2022). Animal Systematics. USA. Retrieved January 7, 2022 from

https://www.slideshare.net/hamidicp/animal-systematics-lecture-1
Kimball, J. (2021). Taxonomy. California, USA. Retrieved January 8, 2022 from

https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Bo
ok%3A_Biology_(Kimball)/19%3A_The_Diversity_of_Life/19.01%3A_Eukaryotic
_Life/19.1.01%3A_Taxonomy
96
Department of Health Know Your Vaccine. Retrieved January 6, 2022
https://doh.gov.ph/vaccines/know-your-vaccines
Waxenbaum JA, Reddy V, Varacallo M. Anatomy, Autonomic Nervous System.

[Updated 2021 Jul 29]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls
Publishing; 2022 Jan
https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/nervous/organization/pns.html#:~:text=
The%20peripheral%20nervous%20system%20consists,and%20the%20autono
mic%20nervous%20system.
https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/nutrition-transport-and-
homeostasis/acquisition-of-nutrients-in-animals/
Homeostasis in the body. (2022). TreeHozz. USA. Retrieved January 31, 2022 from
https://treehozz.com/how-the-body-systems-work-together-to-maintain-
homeostasis
Feedback mechanism. (2022). Online Biology Notes. USA. Retrieved January 17,
2002 from https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/feedback-mechanism-
negative-feedback-and-positive-feedback/system
VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J. L., & Russo, A. F. (2017). Seeley's Anatomy & Physiology.
McGraw-Hill.
Feedback Mechanisms. (2022). SlideServe. USA. Retrieved February 8, 2022 from

https://www.slideserve.com/ishmael-tyson/feedback-mechanisms
First Aid for Diabetic Ketoacidosis. (2022). FIRST AID for free. USA. Retieved
February 8, 2022 from https://www.firstaidforfree.com/first-aid-for-
diabetic- ketoacidosis-dka/
Organ Systems Involved in Homeostasis. (2022). Sciencing. USA. Retrieved February

7, 2022 from https://sciencing.com/organ-systems-involved-homeostasis-
4920.html
97
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Development Team of the Module

Inilimbag sa Pilipinas ng ________________________

Department of Education – Navotas City

What I Know ................................................................................1

What I Know ...............................................................................47

Answer Key ..................................................................................91

1. Recalling earth’s entire geological history, Which of the following statements is

A. Shortly after the formation of Earth

A. Dinosaurs B. Plants C. Prokaryotes D. Eukaryotes

A. vestigial structure. C. homologous structure.

A. explains how organisms become adapted to their environment.

8. What are the bases that makes up DNA?

A. Guanine, Adenine, Cytosine, Thymine

9. Which of these is accounted in traditional classification of organisms?

A. Extinct organisms C. DNA similarities

10. Which of the following will be generated in analysis of derived characters?

A. Family tree of external appearance C. Cladogram

The modification of organisms or their genetic components to produce useful

For biotechnology, a variety of skills and procedures have been developed:

Genetic engineering, or the direct manipulation of genes for practical goals,

Lifted from Campbell Biology 11th Ed.

How is Recombinant DNA made?

Reproductive Cloning of Mammals

Stem Cells of Animals

Lifted from Campbell Biology 11th Ed.

2. Forensic Evidence and Genetic Profiles

Seeds biodegradable uncontrolled

Pro-GM foods Counter Arguments

Conditions on Early Earth made the Origin of Life Possible

Synthesis of Organic Compounds on Early Earth

In the early twentieth century, A. J. Oparin and I. Oparin The early

Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules

Simple chemicals have been used to create RNA monomers spontaneously.

Life's key features of replication and metabolism may have co-evolved.

The Fossil Record

The fossil record illustrates shifts in

Types of Fossils Lifted from Campbell Biology 11th Ed.

Fossils are evidence of organisms that lived in

Types Description Examples

Six Ways of Fossilization

1. Unaltered preservation - Small organism or part trapped in amber, hardened plant

How Rocks and Fossils Are Dated

Relative Dating. This type of age-determining manner is based upon the

▪ Law of Superposition: if a layer of rock is undisturbed, the fossils found on

▪ Law of Original Horizontality: Deposition of rocks happen horizontally-

▪ Law of Cross-cutting relationships: If an igneous intrusion or a fault cut

The Archaean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic eons are represented in the

3. Permian-Triassic extinction: ~ 253 million years ago (species made extinct:

4. Triassic-Jurassic extinction: ~ 201 million years ago (species made extinct:

5. K-Pg extinction: ~ 66 million years ago (species made extinct: 75%)

1. Piece of a glass bottle

Illustration by the writer

Lesson MECHANISMS THAT CHANGE

The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele and genotype frequencies

Moreover, this principle was popularized by Godfrey Harold Hardy, an English

Home Experiment: Hardy-Weinberg Principle

Watch this additional video tutorial on Hardy-Weinberg equation for further

It is literally “unfolding” or “unravelling, an interpretation of how organisms

Thus, IF some variation gives the individual a slight advantage (bigger,

Hence, Natural Selection is the differential survival and reproduction of

Another way of thinking about this is paleontologist's Leigh Van Valen's

Key points of Natural Selection: