PRELIMINARIES ETHICS

By jajazielili
Ethics
> Latin word of Ethics is “Ethos” and “mos/ moris/mores” is
where “Ethos” is derived from.

> Originally, ethics is a pattern of behaviour that is made

by both human being and society in particular.

> Ethics is about matters about what is acceptable and

unacceptable in human behaviour. The things that we should
pursue and the bad things that we should avoid.
Morality and ETHICS OTHER REFERENCE: https://jlsb.science-line.com/attachments/article/48/J.%20Life%20Sci.%20Biomed.%206(3)%2066-70,%202016.pdf

> Morality’s latin word is “Moralitas” which means manner, character

and proper behavior.)
> Morality is the moral beliefs, views, and attitudes of given
individuals, societies, and groups.
> Ethics is systematic reflections on moral views and standards (values
and norms) and how one should assess actions, institutions, and
character traits.
Morality vs ethics
> Morality is about what individuals or groups consider
right and wrong based on their personal or cultural beliefs.

> Ethics is a systematic way to think about and analyze

what's right and wrong, providing a structured framework for
making moral judgments and decisions.
Branches of ethics
> Normative Ethics: The largest branch. Figuring out what’s morally right or wrong for individuals. Think of
it as answering the question, “What should I do to be a good person?” - Philosophers like Socrates and John
Stuart Mill are included in this branch, because they often ask how it is morally right or wrong decision.

> Meta-Ethics: This doesn’t tell us what is right or wrong, but rather, it explores how we even decide on it,
like, “What does it mean for something to be good or bad?”

> Applied Ethics: This is where we take moral theories and use them in real-life dilemmas. For example, “is it
okay to have an abortion?” Its ethics in action.

> Moral Ethics: This branch asks how individuals develop their morality.

>Descriptive Ethics: Instead of telling what is right or wrong, it observes and studies how real people
actually behave in ethical situation. It’s describing what people do, noty what they should do.
Law, religion and culture (law and judge roy)
> LAW - It is supposed the law is one’s guide to ethical behavior. In the
Philippines, Filipinos are constrained to obey the laws of the land as
stated in country’s criminal and civil codes. The term positive law
refers to the different rules and regulations that are posited or put
forward by an authority figure that require compliance.

> Judge Roy Moore and Ten Commandments: The passage begins with the case
of Judge Roy Moore displaying the Ten Commandments in his courtroom,
which led to a legal dispute regarding the separation of church and
state.
Law, religion and culture (under religion)
religion
> Religion and Morality Connection: It emphasizes that in the United
States, there is a strong belief in the connection between religion and
morality, with many considering moral guidance to be closely tied to
religious beliefs.

> Divine Command Theory: The passage introduces the Divine Command
Theory, which posits that what is morally right is determined by God's
commands. It highlights the dilemma presented by Socrates regarding this
theory.
Law, religion and culture (under religion/culture)
> Religion and Moral Issues: The text discusses how religious views often
influence positions on moral issues, but it also suggests that these views can
vary based on interpretation, cultural context, and evolving religious
perspectives.

culture
> Cultural Relativism: Cultural relativism is introduced as a way to approach
the understanding of different cultural practices without imposing one's own
values. It stresses the importance of respecting diverse cultural norms.
Cultural Relativism holds that the norms of a culture reign supreme within
the bounds of the culture itself.
Law, religion and culture (under religion/culture)
> Challenges to Moral Judgment: The passage raises questions about the
moral judgment of cultural practices, especially when they clash with
international norms or human rights.

> Role of Culture: It underscores that culture encompasses beliefs,

behaviors, and practices shared by groups of people, and it can have a
significant impact on how individuals perceive and interact with the
world.
ETHNOCENTRISM
Is when people believe that their own way of doing things
and their own culture is the best and should be the standard
for everyone else. It’s like thinking that the food you eat,
the way you dress and your customs are the right way to do.
To avoid ethnocentrism, it’s important to understand and
respect other’ culture.
Senses of the self (SUBJECTIVISM, PSYCHOLOGICAL/ eTHICAL EGOISM
SUBJECTIVISM
> Subjectivism: Morality derives from individual’s thoughts
and feelings. Rejects the existence of objective moral
standards. The recognition that the individual thinking
person (the subject) is at the heart of all moral
valuations. Challenges the justification of punishment for
wrongdoing
> ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM: The basic thought of Ethical
Subjectivism is the idea that our moral opinions are based
on our feelings and nothing more. On this view, there is
no such thing as “objective” right and wrong.

AYN RAND’S OBJECTIVISM or altruism means that putting other’s interest before you.
Senses of the self (SUBJECTIVISM, PSYCHOLOGICAL/ eTHICAL EGOISM

EGOISM
> Psychological egoism: Claims that all human actions are
motivated only by self- interest. “Human beings are
naturally self-centered, so all our action are always
already motivated by self-interest.” The ego or self has its
desires and interest, and all our actions are geared toward
satisfying these interests.
> Ethical Egoism: Tells us that we should make our own needs
og our own interests which means that we should do things if
only it benefits us.

Prisoner's dilemma shows pursuing self-interest doesn't always yield the best outcome.
The 7 steps of moral reasoning model for ethical decision making
1. GATHER THE FACTS: Essential first step prior to any ethical analysis
and reflection on the case.Ethical dilemmas can be resolved simply by
clarifying the facts of the case in question.Thus one is asking not
only “What do we know?” but also “ What do we need to know?” in order
to make an intelligent ethical decision.
2. DETERMINE THE ETHICAL ISSUES:Determine the ethical issues that arise
because when different interests or values clash. These conflicts
between interests are what create ethical dilemmas.
3. WHAT ETHICAL PRINCIPLES HAVE A BEARING ON THE CASE: it's important
to identify the moral principles at the core of the conflicting
positions. Some principles may carry more weight than others,
depending on the context and the values of the individuals involved.
These principles can come from various sources, such as religious
texts, laws, natural moral law, and an individual's or organization's
mission and purpose.
The 7 steps of moral reasoning model for ethical decision making
3. LIST ALTERNATIVES: Resolving an ethical dilemma that involves with
various alternative courses of action. In general, the more alternatives
that are listed, the better the chance that your list include high
quality ones. It can give you a very creative alternatives that you had
not considered before.

4. COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH THE PRINCIPLES: At this point, the task
is one of the eliminating alternatives according to the moral principle
that is relevant to the case. Its purpose is to see if there is a clear
decision that can be made without further contemplation.
The 7 steps of moral reasoning model for ethical decision making
5. WEIGH CONSEQUENCES: If number 5 did not clear the decision the you might as
well weigh both of the positive and negative consequences that each of your
alternatives is in order.

Some positive outcomes or consequences can be more harmful or damaging than

others. In other words, not all good results are equally good, and not all bad
results are equally bad.

6. MAKE A DECISION:

Sometimes, when we have to make a choice in a tricky situation, we can't keep

thinking about it forever. We have to decide at some point. But here's the
thing: in tough situations like this, there are usually no super easy or
completely perfect answers. Most of the time, we pick the option that causes
the fewest problems or troubles, even though it might still have some issues.
It's like trying to choose the best path when all the paths have some bumps
along the way.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s moral development theory
Kohlberg presumes that there are six stages of moral development that
people go through in much the same way as infants learned first to roll
over, to sit, to crawl, to stand and finally to walk.

He emphasizes’ that everyone goes through each stage in the same order
but not everyone goes through “all” the stages of moral development.

A person at one stage can understand the reasoning of any stage below him
but cannot understand more that one stage above.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s moral development theory
Pre-Conventional Moral Development

> Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment

Especially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing this type of reasoning.

At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute.

*Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment

*Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is not punished

*Obeys superior authority and allows that authority to make the rules, especially if that authority

has the power to inflict pain

*Is responsive to rules that will affect his/her physical well-being

Reference: https://www.nwosu.edu/uploads//academics/social-sciences/bjcc/cbrp-training/moral-dev-1.pdf
Lawrence Kohlberg’s moral development theory
> Stage 2: An Instrument exchange
Is characterized by a view that right behavior means acting in one’s own
best interests. Reciprocity is possible, but only if it
serves one's own interests.
*Is motivated by vengeance or “an eye for an eye” philosophy
*Will do a favor only to get a favor
Lawrence Kohlberg’s moral development theory
Conventional Moral Development

> Stage 3: Mutual and interpersonal conformity

It sees what is right is living up according to the expectations by people that are close to them,

like the family, community. Being good and having good behavior means having good motives and

interpersonal feelings such as empathy, love, trust, concern.

*Finds peer approval very important

*Begins to put himself/herself in another’s shoes and think from another perspective

> Stage 4: Law and Social Order

Is characterized by abiding the law and respecting authority and performing one’s duty so that social order is
maintained.

*Respects authority and obeys it without question

Lawrence Kohlberg’s moral development theory
Post-Conventional Moral Development

> Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights

Is characterized by thinking about a society in a very theoretical way, such as the rules of law are important for
maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.

*Believes in consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in majority rule

*Respects the rights of the minority especially the rights of the individual

> Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle

Is characterized by an attitude of respect for universal principle and the demands of individual conscience.

*Believes that there are high moral principles than those represented by social rules and

customs

*Believes that the dignity of humanity is sacred and that all humans have value
ETHICAL DILEMMA
> also known as a moral dilemmas, are situations in
which there is a choice to be made between two options,
neither of which resolves the situation in an ethically
acceptable fashion. Ethical dilemmas assume that the
chooser will abide by societal norms, such as codes of
law or religious teachings, in order to make the choice
ethically impossible.
ETHICAL DILEMMA and its ethical reasoning
• There are three philosophical approaches to ethical
reasoning:

1. Utilitarian ethics

2. Deontological ethics

3. Virtue ethics
ETHICAL DILEMMA and its ethical reasoning
Utilinarianism
• the greatest good for the greatest number of people
• Theory says that only consequences that matter are
happiness and
unhappiness, pleasure and pain
• Also called consequentialist or teleological
ETHICAL DILEMMA and its ethical reasoning
Deontological Ethics
In this, actions are judged to be ethical or unethical.
• It focuses on “Duty for duty’s sake”.
• This theory is proposed by Immanuel Kant.
ETHICAL DILEMMA and its ethical reasoning
Virtue Ethics
It is also called “Ontological theory” comes from ‘ontos’- being
(to be
/ought to be).
• This theory says that morally right action is to be guided by the
virtues (honesty, integrity, courage, bravery and so on).
HUMAN ACT AND ACT OF MAN
Human Act:

Involves conscious choice and intention.

Reflects an individual's free will and moral responsibility.

Subject to moral judgment.

Characteristics:

It involves conscious choice and decision-making.It reflects an individual's free will

and moral responsibility.Moral judgments are applied to human acts, as they are deliberate and intentional

Example: Donating to a charity, telling the truth, or helping a friend in need are human acts

because they are done consciously and voluntarily.

HUMAN ACT AND ACT OF MAN
Act of Man:

Occurs without full awareness, intention, or conscious choice.

Often automatic or instinctual.

Typically not subject to moral judgment.

Characteristics:

It is often automatic, instinctual, or driven by external factors.

Act of man actions do not involve moral deliberation, as they lack conscious intent.

These actions are typically not subject to moral judgment, as they are not chosen.

Example: Reflexes, sneezing, or involuntary physical reactions are acts of man because they

happen automatically without conscious decision-making.

HUMAN ACT AND ACT OF MAN
Importance in Ethics:

Understanding the distinction between human acts and acts of man is crucial
in ethical analysis. It helps determine moral responsibility, as moral
judgments are generally applied to actions that involve deliberate choices
and intentions (human acts). In contrast, acts of man, being automatic and
unintentional, are usually not subject to moral evaluation. Ethical
assessments and considerations depend on whether an action is a product of
conscious decision-making or an involuntary response.
Thank you and goodluck!

By jajazielili