BSCR 2b

UNIVERSITY OF SAINT ANTHONY
(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)

Iriga City
COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION
Introduction
CONCEPT, NATURE, HISTORY OF LEGAL MEDICINE EVIDENCE
There is only one path to the mastery of legal medicine and that is, and
extensive practical experience acquired by a daily whole time application and study of
medical problems which are presented by crimes of large community like Metro-Manila.
Legal medicine is a branch of medicine that deals with application of medical

knowledge for the purpose of law and administration of justice. It is also part of medical
science which is employed by the legal authorities for the solution of legal problems.
Any physician who testifies in court in his professional capacity can be considered a
practitioner of legal medicine.
Medical Jurisprudence is that part of the law which is concerned with regulations
governing the professional practice of the Doctor of Medicine. The sights, duties and
obligations of the medical practitioner to his patient.
Technical Definitions
1. Law – is a Rule of Conduct, just and obligatory laid by legitimate powers for
common observance and benefit.
2. Forensic – it devotes anything belonging to the court of law or used in court of
legal proceedings or something fitted for legal or public argumentation.
3. Jurisprudence – is a practical science which investigates the nature, origin,
development and functions of law.
4. Principle of State Decisis – a principle that when the court has once laid down
a principle of law as applied to a certain state of facts, it will adhere to and apply
to all future cases where the facts are substantially the same.
5. Criminalistics – it is the application of medical and other basic sciences in
crime detection and investigation. It includes collection, identification and
preservation of evidence.
History of Legal Medicine
1858 – The first medical textbook printed including pertinent instruction related to
medico-legal practice and included in pre curriculum of College of Medicine University of
Santo Tomas.
1895 – Medico-legal laboratory was established in the city of Manila.
1908 — Legal Medicine was thought in all medical schools in the Philippines.
1919 — The Department of Legal Medicine and ethics of the University of the
Philippines was created under Dr. Sixto delos Angeles as the chief.
1945 — After the liberation of Manila, Criminal Investigation Laboratory Division Was
created with Dr. Mariano Lara a chief Medico-legal officer.
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The medico-legal system is used in the Philippines at present which is handled by

a medicolegal officer who is a registered physician duly qualified to practice medicine in
the Philippines. The National Bureau of Investigation and Philippines National Police
have their own medicolegal officers with their respective medico-legal officers. The
medico-legal officer is the one who investigates medico-legal cases of death, physical
injuries, rape and other sexual crimes.
Persons Authorized to Perform Autopsies
1. Medico-legal officers of law enforcement agencies like the NBI and PNP.
2. Medical staff of accredited hospitals
3. Health officers in remote or rural areas.
Medical Evidence
Evidence is a means, sanctioned by rules of court, of ascertaining in the judicial

proceedings the truth respecting the matter of fact. (Rules of court, Rule 128 section 1)
medical evidence if the means employed to prove a fact is medical in nature.
Type of Medical Evidence
1. Real, autoptic or object evidence — It is an evidence that made known or

addressed to the senses of the court. The probative value of real evidence is the
best and highest form of proof. Example. Human Skeletal remains may be
allowed inside the court room to show presence of Ante Mortem fractures.
2. Testimonial Evidence — form of evidence taken orally or in writing the
answers to questions profounded by the counsel and presiding officer of the
court. A medical witness can only testify on matters derived by his own
perception. Hearsay informations are as a rule not admissible in court.
Hearsay evidences are not knowledge of the witness but from mere repetition of what
he has heard. A witness can testify only to those facts which he knows of his own
knowledge. Exception to the non-admissibility of hearsay evidence is dying declaration.
Physicians are frequent recipients of the dying declaration in clinic and hospitals. To be
admissible the following factors should be considered:
1. That the declarant was conscious about his impending death.
2. That the declarant was in full possession of his mental faculties.
3. That the declarant must be with regards to his impending death.
A dying declaration cannot be used in civil action and is not admissible if the
patient recovers.
3. Experimental Evidence – a medical witness may be permitted to conduct

experiment on laboratory animals to prove his allegations on certain position he had
previously stated in full view of the court.
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4. Documentary Evidence – a written evidence presented to the court by the expect

witness about the subject matter in dispute.
Medical Documentary Evidence may be in the form of:
A. Medical certification or report
1. Physical Exam report
2. Autopsy report
3. Exhumation report
4. Death certificate
5. Birth certificate
B. Medical Expert Opinion – a physician on account of his training and expertise can
give his own opinion on a set of medical facts.
C. Deposition – is a written record of evidence given orally and transcribed in writing

in the form of question by the interrogation and the answers of his deponent and
signed by the latter.
5. Physical Evidence – These are articles and materials which are necessary in crime
investigation and detection, this will aid in establishing the identities of the criminal and
the circumstances surrounding the commission of the crime.
The following are types of physical evidence necessary for the conviction of the
perpetrators.
A. Corpus Delicti Evidence – it means the body of the crime or actual commission of
the crime charged, Examples. Body of the victim of murder, blood stained knife.
B. Associate Evidence – these are evidences which link the suspect to the
commission of the crime. Examples: Weapons used, finger and footprints, wearing
apparent.
C. Training Evidence – these are physical evidence which may help in locating the
whereabouts of the perpetrators of the crime. Examples. Ship manifest, airlines
manifest.
Evidence Necessary for Conviction
1. Direct Evidence – an evidence which proves the facts in dispute without the
aid of any inference or presumptions.
2. Circumstantial Evidence – it is a proof of fact or facts from which, taken
either singly or collectively maybe informed s necessary of probable
consequences.
3. Prima Facie Evidence – it is that evidence which suffixes for the proof of a
particular fact until contradicted by other evidences.
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4. Corroborative Evidences – it is an additional evidence of a different kind and

character, tending to prove the same point.
5. Expert Evidence – it is testimony of possessing, in regards to particular subject
on department of human activity, knowledge not usually acquired by other
person.
6. Relevant Evidence – it is an evidence having any value reason as tending to
prove any matter probable in an action.
7. Material Evidence – an evidence which refers to the direction to prove a facts
in issue as determine by the rules of substantive law.
8. Competent Evidence – it is an evidence which is not included by law in a
particular case.
9. Corpus Delicti – it means the body of the crime or actual commission of the
crime charge.
Methods of Preserving Evidence
1. Photography and Audio – Visual recording. Photography is the most useful

and reliable means of preserving evidence. Camera is easily available and
reproduction is easy.
2. Sketching – rough drawing of the scene or object is done if no scientific
apparatus to preserve evidence is available.
3. Description – it requires keen observation and perception in putting in words
the person or thing to be preserve.
4. Testimony from the witness or witnesses – a person who has the power to
transmit to others what he has perceived.
5. Special methods:
a) Embalming for human body
b) Refrigeration for blood
c) Staining for blood and semen
Proof beyond reasonable doubt
- In a criminal case, the defendant is entitled to an acquittal unless guilt is

shown beyond reasonable doubt.
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Medico Legal Investigation
Truth is necessary in the administration of justice attained by using medical

techniques. Although the results in medical techniques in deception detection are not
admissible as evidence in court, it may be useful for further investigation. the role of
physician in criminal investigation utilizing highly technical medical methods is to assist
in its operation and interpret the results.
Deception detection methods
It is a method of gathering information from the subject about the crime in

dispute employing the use of special medicines and other devices, drugs and other
substances. Their results are not admissible in court but useful for further investigation.
METHODS OF DECEPTION DETECTION
1. Use of polygraph test or lie detector test or Keeler’s test

Polygraph is an instrument that measures and records several physiological
responses such as blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration, and skin conductivity
while the subject is asked and answers a series of questions, on the basis that false
answer will produce distinctive measurements.
HISTORY
The idea that lying produces physical side effects has long been claimed. In
Africa, persons suspected of a crime were made to pass bird's egg to one another. If a
person broke the egg, then he or she was considered guilty, based on the idea that
their nervousness was to blame. In ancient China, the suspect held a handful of rice in
his mouth during the prosecutor's speech. Since salivation was believed to cease at
times of emotional anxiety, person was considered guilty if by the end of the speech the
rice was dry.
Early devices for lie detector include 1885 invention of Cesar Lombroso used to
measure changes in blood pressure for police cases.
In 1914, a device by Vittoro Benussi used to measure breathing and an

abandoned project by American William Marston which used blood pressure and
galvanic skin response to examine German prisoners of war.
In 1920, Dr. John Larson invented a device recording both blood pressures and
galvanic skin response. Further work of this device was done by Leonarde Keeler.
The first time the term "polygraph” was used in 1906 by James Mackenzie in his
invention the ink polygraph which was used for medical reasons.
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PROCEDURE
Today, polygraph examiners use two types of instrumentation: Analog and

computerized most examiners now use computerized instrumentation.
A typical polygraph test starts with a pre-test interview to gain some preliminary
information which will later be used for "Control Questions or CQ. Then the tester will
explain how the polygraph is supposed to work, emphasizing that it can detect lies and
that it is important to answer truthfully. Then a "stim test" is often conducted. The
subject is asked to deliberately lie and then the tester reports that he was able to
detect his lie. Then the actual test starts. Some of the questions asked are “Irrelevant”
or IR is your name Juan dela Cruz?) Others are "probable lie" control question's that
most people will lie about "Have you ever stolen money?" and the remainder are
relevant the "Relevant Questions" or RQ, that the tester is really interested in. The
different types of questions alternate. The test is passed if the psychological responses
during the probable lie control questions (CQ) are longer than these during relevant
questions (RO). If this is not the case, the tester attempt to elicit admissions during a
post-test interview for example "your situation will only get worse if we don't clear this
up". Criticisms have been given regarding the validity of the administration of the
Control Questions Test-CQT). The CQT may be vulnerable to be conducted in an
interrogation like fashion. This kind of interrogation style would elicit a nervous
response from the innocent and guilty suspects alike.
LIE DETECTOR OR POLYGRAPH TEST
A test used to record physiological changes associated with lying in a subject.

The polygraph machine will record the blood pressure, respiratory rate and the skin
resistance to electricity in a graphic paper.
The subject is made to sit comfortably and the blood pressure cuff,
pneumograph and electrodes connected to the machine will be placed in the subject.
When the machine is switched on, then questions will be asked that can only be
answered by Yes or No by the subject.
The machine measures changes in the rate and pattern of respiration although
the use of one or two rubber tubes placed about the chest. The inspiration and
expiration reflected in the movements of the stylus on the chart. Two electrodes placed
upon the fingers measures the galvanic skin resistance and a blood pressure and pulse
readings. These recordings are transferred to a chart revolving at 6 inches per minute.
Although the polygraph has been used extensively as an investigative aid in

assisting law enforcement agencies in reducing the number of suspects in a particular
offense. These are about 10% of the tests that are inconclusive because of drawbacks.
Some tests showed positive results and yet the subject is innocent and other tests gave
negative results to a really guilty subject. Despite the drawbacks and unreliable results,
it may not be admissible in court.
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1. Use of Drugs
a. Narco Synthesis or Narco Analysis – This is a deception detection
method uses anesthetic drugs like Sodium Pentothal or Sodium Amytal to
get information from the subject. The drug is injected intravenously until
inhibition is released then the interrogator ask questions. The tendency of
the subject is to reveal the secrets of the crime. The use of this method in
criminal investigation is not advisable because of the following reasons.
The administration of the drug is dangerous. If not properly administered
it may kill the subject, damage the brain and spinal cord. This method of
deception detection will give unreliable results and deprive the subject of
his own free will to speak.
b. Administration of truth Serum – Same as Narco Synthesis, in the test
Hyoscine Hydrobromide given hypodermically in repeated doses until a
state of delirium is induced. Statements taken from the subject while
under the influence of truth serum are involuntarily obtained hence they
are not admissible as evidence.
c. Use of alcoholic beverages – the information taken from the subject
while under the influence of alcohol may be admissible if the subject can
recall his statement when he was under the influence of alcohol when
confronted again.
Stimulus Association Test
In this test, the subject will be interviewed wherein a group of stimulus words,
objects or persons will be presented to the subject. He will then be instructed to answer
the questions as quickly as possible. The time interval between each relevant questions
and answers were noted down as well as the reaction of the subject to the stimulus
words, objects or persons related to the crime in dispute. The time interval and the
reaction of the subject will be studied by the interrogator. A person presumed to be
guilty will usually make a mistake or will have long time interval in answering question.
He may manifest the situation in answering critical questions and especially the weapon
used in the commission of the crime will be shown to him. There will also be
inconsistencies in his answers or responses to the stimuli.
2. Use of Hypnotism
Alternation of consciousness and concentration in which the subject

manifests a heightened state of suggestibility. The subject is under the control of
the hypnotist and therefore the information gathered is devoid the subject’s own
free will and making it not admissible in court.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF GUILT
A good investigator must be a good observer. The emotional factor is a basis in

which emotional tension may be manifested in a variety of signs and symptoms.
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1. Color Change
Blushing or red color of the face indicates anger or humiliation. Pallor of

the face is indicative of tension, fear and anxiety.
2. Sweating or perspiration accompanied by flushed face indicative of anger,

embarrassing or extreme nervousness. Cold clammy perspiration is a
manifestation of shock, fear and anxiety.
3. Dryness of the mouth because reflex inhibition of the salivary gland resulting to
continuous swallowing and licking of the lips.
It may be an indication of tension and nervousness but also guilt.
4. Excessive activity of Adam’s apple on account of inhibition of salivary gland there
is dryness of the throat making the subject to swallow. This cause frequent
upward and downward movements of the Adam apple.
5. Fidgeting
Subject constantly moving about in the chair, crossing, and uncrossing the
leg, tapping the table, rubbing the face, picking the nose and ears, biting the
fingernails and twisting the handkerchief of clothing.
6. Inability to look straight at the interrogator's Eyes.
The subject avoids looking at the Investigor's Eye for fear that his guilt
may be seen at his eyes.
7. Breathing
The holding of the breath is an inclination of tension especially when

critical question were asked and the followed by a sudden,. explosive, and longer
expiration.
8. Peculiar and Unusual Expression.
The "not feeling well" and not that I remember are sometimes the
remarks of the subject probably to avoid betraying himself in the interrogation.
9. Swearing to the truthfulness of his assertions.
A guilty subject unusually utters "I swear to God I am telling the truth"
10. Spotless Record
The subject may assert that he is a religious man and that it is not
possible for him to do anything.
Confession and Admission
A confession is an expressed acknowledgement by the accused in a criminal

case the truth of his guilt as to the crime charged
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A confession is different from admission. A confession is a declaration of the

accused that he had committed or participated in the commission of the crime and
therefore a statement of fact usually applied in criminal case which does not directly
involve an acknowledgement of guilt or criminal intent.
Kinds of Confession
A. Extra Judicial Confession
Confession made outside the court during preliminary Investigation.
1. Voluntary extra judicial confession - A confession voluntarily made

outside the court in his free will without using force, intimidation, violence,
threat, promise or reward. This confession is voluntarily anf admissible in
court as evidence.
2. Involuntarily extra judicial - This is a confession done outside the court
wherein the accused made the statement which is not of his own free will or
influenced by other person or given as a result of farce or intimidation,
violence, threat, promise or reward. This confession is not admissible in court
as evidence because it is involuntary taken and under threat, force,
intimidation reward or promise.
B. Judicial Confession
A confession made inside the court. It is conclusive and maybe considered

to be a mitigating circumstance to criminal liability.
A plea of guilty when formally offered to entered on arraignment is

sufficient to sustain a conviction of any offense even a capital one without
further proof.
IDENTIFICATION OF PERSON OF MATERIAL
Identification - is the recognition of an individual as determine, by characteristics

which distinguish that individual from all others.
Importance of Identification
1. A person who had been arrested of his criminal act and that of victim, their
identities must be established in order to prosecute the case.
2. The identities of a person who died leaving a vast of state and the person who
claimed to be the legal heir of the deceased must be established.
3. Identification relieves the anxiety of his love ones and friends of a missing or
victims of airplane crashed or ship wrecked.
4. Identification is necessary in bank transactions or entering premises.
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Rule in Personal Identification
Law of Multiplicity of Evidence in Identification
The greater the number of Point of similarities and dissimilarities of 2 persons

compared, the greater is the probability for the conclusion to be correct.
The following points should be taken in consideration when unknown dead body is
found.
1. Place, date, time when the body was found

2. Approximate age and built and height.
3. Probable cause of death and time of death
4. Complete description of body including tattoo marks.
The Law of Multiplicity is a law applicable in identification which states that the
greater the similarities and dissimilarities, the greater is the probability for the
conclusion to be correct.
Points to be considered in Identifying a Person
1. Face - It is a very important means of identifying a person. It may be oval,

elongated, or triangular. The feature of the face:
fipantion -shape
a. Caucasian - prominent sharp nose
b. Flat nose with round face among Malayan
c. Mongolian - almond eyes and prominent cheek bone.
d. Negro - Thick lips, prominent eyes, black face.
Facial expression or facies brought about by effects of diseases or race.
1. Hippocratic Facies - It is a facial expression of a person approaching death.

Eyes sunken, pinched nose, temple hollow lips relaxed, livid skin.
2. Myxedema Facies - The face of a person is pole, swollen cheeks which do not
pit on pressure associated with slow speech and muscle weakness.
3. Mongolian Facies - Dull-look appearance of a person characterized by almond
shape eyes, pale complexion and prominence of cheek bones.
4. Facies Leonine - Lion face of a person suffering from leprosy with a pinched
nose, enlarged ears, prominence of orbital bones, thick lips and glistening oily
face.
1. Marks of the Face
a. presence of birth marks, tribal marks, scars, moles and tattoo
b. presence of pimples, pock marks, freckles and new growth
c. presence of lines at the sides of nose and mouth
2. Eyes
a. Size - big or small
b. Shape - slit like or almond shape
c. Color - black, brown, blue, red eyes.
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d. Condition of eyelashes and eyebrows

e. Presence of abnormalities in the eyes – cross eyed, pterygium,
arcus senilis
3. Nose
a. Size and shape – flat or pointed
b. Condition of the nasal openings
c. Condition of the symptom
4. Head
Size and Shape
Caucasian – elongated head

Indians and Eskimos – flat head
Malayan and Mongolian – round
5. Condition of the Hair
a. Hair Lines – anterior and posterior lines
b. Absence, thin, thick, kinky hairs
c. Short and long hair
6. Ears
a. Size – big and small
b. Shape and configuration
c. Presence of earring holes, pinched ears
7. Mouth
a. Size – big or small mouth
b. Lips – thin or thick lips
8. Body Built
a. Thin or skinny
b. Fat, obese or robust style
9. Height – a person ceases to increase in height at the age of 25 years.
As the person grows older the height decreases due fusion of the
intervertebral discs.
The height of a person can be easily determined by using

simple instrument if the body is complete. But if some parts of the
body are lacking actual measurements may not be possible.
Some of the methods used to approximate the height
A. Measure the distance between the tips of the middle fingers of both hands
extended laterally, it will be approximates the height of the person.
B. Measure the distance from the vertex of the skull symphysis pubis multiply by
two that will be approximate the height
C. Distance between supra sternal notch to the symphysis pubis multiply by
three that will approximates the height.
10. Presence of Tattoo marks the form of drawings, names and initials.
11. Gait - Characteristics manner of walking
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a. Cerebellar Gait- A swaying or staggering manner of walking

like that of drunken person
b. Cow’s Gait - A manner of walking due to knock knee like that
of a cow.
c. Ataxic Gait - A Gait in which the foot is raised high and forward
drop down suddenly.
d. Paretic Gait - Feet and legs are held wide apart, steps are
short, feet are dragged.
e. Spastic Gait - A person walks like a robot the legs are held
together and move forward with a short steps and toes are
dragged.
f. Frog Gait - Hopping Gait like that of a frog.
g. Wadding Gait - Swaying movements of the buttocks like that
of a duck.
12. Teeth
a. Loss of teeth - Partial or complete
b. Alignment and color of the teeth
c. Natural or Artificial
d. Condition of the gums
13. Other names that may be of help in identification
a. Clothing - Design, style, texture, stains in the clothing
b. Ornaments or Jewelries - Watches, rings, earrings, necklace
and bracelets
c. Personal Belongings - wallet, bag, driver’s license, calling
card, pictured and eyeglasses
d. Identification thru finger prints and handwriting
Anthropometry - Alphose Bertillon, a french Criminologists devised scheme using

anthropometrial measurement of the human body. The number of bones of human
adult is 206.
BASIS FOR BERTILLON SYSTEM
1. Human skeleton does not change after 20 years.

2. It is impossible to find two human beings having done exactly the same.
3. Measurements can be easily taken by using simple instrument
Importance in the Study of Skeleton
1. It can be determined whether the skeleton is human origin or not

2. Determination of sex
3. Determination of Race
4. Determination of Height
5. Determination of Age
6. Determination of Ante or Post Mortem Injuries
7. Determination of Duration of Interment
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As a general rule, female bones are usually smaller, lighter and smoother than
that of male.
Examination of the Skeleton
Bones of the skeleton are remnants of the dead body and are very important in
elucidating legal problems. After the soft tissues disappeared and only the skeletal
system remains, the study of the bones is rather a difficult procedure especially when
the bones were incomplete and only fragments recover.
The identification of the bones by the naked eye depends on the parts
recovered. The skull is easily distinguished as belonging to human being. The structures
of the bones in all mammals are basically similar. The oval or the round shape of the
skull and less prominence of the lower jaw and nasal bone suggest that is from human
remains.
The pelvis gives the best indication of sex particularly the ischium – public index.
The bones that may be examined to determine the sex. These are the pelvis skull,
sternum, humerus and femur.
Difference Between Male and Female Pelvis:
Male Pelvis
1. Heavier in construction
2. Pubic Arch – narrow and less round
3. Diameter of true pelvis is less
4. Greater sciatic notch is narrow
5. Body of the pubis is narrow
6. Obturator Foramen is egg shape
7. Sacrum is short and wide
Female Pelvis:
1. Lighter in construction
2. Pubic Arch – wider and round
3. Diameter of true pelvis is greater
4. Greater sciatic notch is wider
5. Body of the pubis is wider
6. Obturator Foramen – triangular in shape
7. Sacrum is short and wide
Scientific Methods of Identification
1. Dactylography – art and study of recording finger prints.
Dactyloscopy – art of identification by comparison of fingerprints

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Poroscopy – Study of pores found on the papillary ridges of the skin. Fingerprinting
considered to be the most valuable method of identification and it is universally
accepted. Fingerprints are not changeable and it is formed on 4 th month of pregnancy.
Practical uses of Fingerprints
1. Establish the identity of a missing or unknown person.

2. Fingerprints recovered from the crime scene may associate the person or
weapon.
3. Substitute for signature among illiterate written congenital anomalies in the
hand.
Bibliotics – Science of hand writing analysis. It is a study of documents its genuiness

or authorship
Bibliotist – a person who had acquired special knowledge of the science of

handwriting or hand writing expert of qualified questioned documents examiner.
Graphology – The study of handwriting for the purpose of determining writer’s

personality, character and aptitude.
Handwriting is a complex interaction of nerves, memory and muscular movement.
Writing is a conscious act, but in account of a repeated act it becomes habitual and
unconscious.
2. Determination of Age
Importance of Age Determination
A. Classification of a person whether infant, child, adolescence, adult and old

age.
B. To determine criminal liability
Circumstances which exempt from criminal liability – Article 12, RPC
1. Person under nine years of age

2. Person over nine year of age and under fifteen years
The life of a person is divided into four periods
1. Age absolute irresponsibility – under 9 years

2. Age of conditional responsibility – between 9 and 15 years old
3. Age of full responsibility – over 18 years old to 70 years old
4. Age of full responsibility – over 9 years and under 15 years old offer activity with
discernment.
C. For right of suffrage or in the exercise of political rights

D. To determine the capacity to contract marriage.
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E. An element by which contain crime are committed e.g. rape, seduction,

abduction, and infanticide.
Determination of Age of the Fetus
Rules in Determining the of Age of the Fetus
1. For fetus less than 25cms. long, find the square root of the length in centimeters
and the result in the age of the fetus in lunar month. One lunar month is
equivalent to 28 days. Example. The length of the fetus is 9cms. then the age is
3 months.
2. For fetus 25 cms. long or more, divide the length of the fetus in centimeters by
5, the result will be age in months.
Determination of Age of Childhood and Adulthood
For determination of age in in childhood, the best guide is the eruption of

deciduous or temporary teeth which starts to erupt at 6 months and completed at 2
years. While the eruption of the permanent teeth in adulthood starts at 6 th year and
completed at 17-18 years.
Points to be Considered in Determination of Age in Adulthood
1. Appearance and growth of pubic hair, moustache and beard. Pubic hair begins to
appear at the age of 13 years in female and 14 years old in male and complete
at 16-17 years. Moustache and beard in male starts to appear at 16 -17 years
old.
2. Enlargement of breast in females. The breast of the female starts to develop at
13-14 years old.
3. Change of Voice – The change of voice in male and female occurs at the age of
16-18 years old.
4. Changes in the Color of Hair – The hair usually changes its color at the age of 40
years old from black to grey then silvery white in old age.
5. Grade or year in school or college – Children usually start schooling at 5 years
old and then enter primary school at 7 years old. Usually at 16-18 years old, the
person is in first year college.
6. Menstruation usually starts at the age of 12-13 years old.
7. Atheromatous changes in the aorta and cataract formation usually appears at 40
years old and above.
8. Wrinkles of the skin usually appears at 40 years old and above.
Examination of the Product of Conception
1 months - ovum 1 cm. long, weight is 2.5 grams eyes are seen as 2 dark spots.
2 months - ovum 4 cm. long, 10 grams in weight, eyes and nose recognizable. Anus is
seen as dark spot.
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3 months - lengths - 8cms., weight - 30 grams. Nails begin to appear. Placenta is

formed sex organs have appeared.
4 months - lengths 13 cms., weight - 204 grams, sex can be distinguished Lanugo.
Hair is visible in the body. Fingerprints begin to appear.
5 months - lengths 22 cms., weight - 450 grams, skin begin to be covered by Vernex
Caseossa. Dental gums appear in the mandible.
6 months - lengths - 30 cms., weight - 1 kilogram, skin wrinkled. Hair appears at the
head, Textiles lie close to the kidney. Eyebrows and eyelashes begin to appear.
7 months - lengths - 18 cms., weight - 1.5 kgs. eyelids open. Textiles begin to dissent
into the scrotum. Body is dark red and with hair at the scalp. The child is viable ( 28
weeks).
8 months - 42 cms., in length, 2- 2.5 kgs. in weight. Skin wrinkled and flesh colored.
Lanugo hair beginning to shed. Textiles in the scrotums. Nails reach end of the fingers.
Skin is red.
9 months - lengths - 45 - 50 cms., weight is 3-3.5 kgs., scalp covered with dark hair
3. Identification and determination of blood
Medico-legal importance in the study of blood

a. For identification whether the blood stain is of human origin or not.
b. For blood transfusion and cross matching.
c. For disputed parentage.
d. Corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator of the crime.
e. Determination of the cause of death. The amount of blood loss without
being replaced may imply that the cause of death is hemorrhage. Cherry
red color of blood may indicate carbon monoxide poisoning.
f. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or assailant.
Through drons blood or blood stain.
g. Determination of the approximate time the crime was committed. From
the study of aging of the blood spilled and blood stained material.
The human blood is reddish liquid within the blood vessels and containing
four elements such as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and
plasma, which is the liquid portion. Hemoglobin is responsible for the red
color of blood a normal healthy Pilipino has about 200cc. Loss of 6 glasses
means loss of life while loss of 3 glasses will cause anemia.
In medico- legal cases, the cases, the blood and the blood stained
materials will be object of examination in the crime laboratory and the pointers
to consider is the following:
 Determination whether the stain is blood or not.

 If blood determination whether human blood or not.
 If human blood determination of the blood group or blood type does it
belong, blood group or blood types – A, B, AB, O.
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 Characteristic of the stain and the stained material.

o Age of the stain
o Color of the stain
o Clothing of the blood condition of the stained material.
o Approximate amount of blood lost.
o Nature, configuration, manner, degree and condition of the
standard materials.
Age of the stain: The aging of the stain can be estimated from its color and hemoglobin
derivatives. The red color of the blood is due to the presence of hemoglobin in the red
blood corpuscles. Hemoglobin is the iron containing protein of the blood and is
composed of two substances:
1. Globin, a protein.
2. Hematin, an organic compound of iron.
The normal amount of hemoglobin for an adult individuals is 14 to 17 grams for

each 100cc, of blood. In the circulation, the hemoglobin is found in two forms under
normal condition.
1. Oxyhemoglobin – It is found in oxygenated blood which is arterial in nature.

2. Reduced Hemoglobin – It is chiefly venous blood arterial blood is usually bright
red while venous blood is purplish red. This variation in colors depends upon the
relative proportions of the oxyhemoglobin and reduced hemoglobin in the blood.
The blood of about 7 days old and of one half month may not present
differences in physical and chemical properties.
Physical examination of the Stained Material: The blood may be stained the following
materials such as clothing, wounding weapon and instrument, tires or body of the
vehicles, house flooring, pavement of streets, furniture and other objects. The stained
materials maybe carefully collected and examined. Its physical characteristics should be
described as to its nature, configuration, manner, degree and the condition of the
stained materials. The amount of blood loss maybe approximated from the surface of
the stained material.
Tests for the Blood:
A. Physical tests
1. Solubility test: Blood-stained material is placed in a saline solution will give a bright
red color of the solution. This solution can be used for further examination of the blood.
2. Heat test: The blood-stained material soaked in a saline solution and heated will
have sediments or precipitates.
3. Luminescence test: Stains on dark fabric with mud, paint and other substances will
emit bluish- white luminescence in a dark room when spayed with a special solution due
to the reaction of hematin crystal. Although the solution does not interfere with further
test, unsprayed specimen of the material must be kept for the serologic test. Lyon's
Medical Jurisprudence for India, 10 ed. 1953, p. 303).
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B. Chemical taste:
Although there is yet no chemical test which gives positive proof of the presence of
blood but these are test which are of help in indicating which stains should be
submitted to further examination.
1. Benzidine test: A fragment of the suspected stain is placed in the filter paper. Drop a
solution consisting of one part of a 10% solution of benzidine in glacial acetic acid
(freshly made) and 10 parts hydrogen peroxide. A rapidly developing blue or blue green
color indicates the presence of blood. However, oxidizing agents other than blood also
gives these reactions, so that the test is more reliable when negative than positive. This
test has the sensitivity up to 1:300,000 dilution.
2. Guiacum test- (Van Deen's Day's or Schombein's test). Pressed and rubbed the
surface of the stain to the white filter paper. The solution of the alcoholic tincture of
guiacum is added, then hydrogen peroxide or ozonic ether is applied by drops. A blue
color is indicative of the presence of blood, although other substances like potato skin,
iron rust, cheese, blue indigo gives positive results. The guiacum test is positive up to
1:50,000 dilution.
3. Phenolphthalein test - (Kastle-Meyer test) : The Kastle-Meyer reagent is dropped on

a white filter with stained material. After 10 seconds, a drop of hydrogen peroxide is
placed. A pink color indicates the presence of peroxidase. This test is sensitive up to
1:80,000,000 dilution.
4. Leuco-malachite Green test : with the use of hydrogen peroxide, the lueco-malachite
green is oxidized to malachite green giving a bluish green or peacock blue color of the
solution if blood is present.
5. Blood stained material is saline plus ammonia will give a brown solution due to the
formation of alkaline hematin.
C. Microscopic Examination : The presence of red blood cells, white blood cells,
platelets , epithelial cells and bacteria may be seen when the saline extract of the
stained material is examined under the microscope. The examination relies on the
isolation of corpuscles and a consideration of their shapes, size and the presence or
absence of nuclei. The fact that a stain is old will detract from the value of this because
of alteration to red cells.
The presence of blood in the mammals may be distinguished by the shape

and appearance of the corpuscles all possessing circular discs. Menstrual blood will
show vaginal epithelium and deoderlein’s bacillus.
D. Micro-Chemical test:
1. Teichmann’s test of Heimin crystals: small portion of the stain is scrapped off ,
And placed on a microscope slide . From a garment , the stain or a small part of
it may cut out and placed on the slide and finally covered with a coverslip. A
drop of glacial acetic in which is dissolved 0.1 g of potassium iodide, chloride and
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bromide is run under the cover slide and the slide is warmed over the flame. The
slide is removed from the flame when bubbles appear, and on cooling is brought
to the flame again. Overheating must be avoided for production of crystal.
Haemin crystals are red brown which are bean shape or dumbbell shape in
appearance. The crystal maybe usually located at the periphery on the cover slip.
2. Takayama’s test for haemochromogen crystal: small piece of suspected stain is

placed on a slide and covered with cover slip. Two or three drops of takayama’s
reagent is made to drop at the slide of the coverslip. Salmon pink crystals
assume the shape of shallow rhomboids which in the mass appear as feathery
aggregates. A recommendation for this test is the very characteristics spectrum
produced by the haemochromogen.
3. Acetone Haemin test- Wagenhaar test: a dried stain or stained fabric is placed
on a glass slide and covered with a coverslip with a needle interposed to prevent
direct contact of the coverslip with the slide. Drop acetone at the slide under the
coverslip so that the material is surrounded and a drop of dilute exalic or acetic
acid is then added. When examined under the high power microscope the small
dark dichroic , acicular crystals of acetone haemin are seen.
E. Spectrostopic Examination : The blood pigments, which is the hemoglobin and its
derivative compound have the power of absorbing light of certain wave length and
produce certain characteristics bands on the spectrum with use of spectroscope. In
newly fresh blood stains, the hemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin and hematin kaline hematin,
hematoporphyrin and reduced hematin maybe determine. Other hemoglobin derivatives
such as acid hematin, alkaline hematin, carboxyhemoglobin and hematin maybe
observed.
F. Biologic Examination
1. Precipitin test - This test is of value in the determination whether the blood is of
human origin or not although of the anthropoid ape and related animal may give the
same result. It is also determines whether muscles, secretions, bones, seminal fluid and
other body fluids are of human origin or not. However, other chemical substances like
alcohol, formaldehyde, corrosive sublimate, lysol, creoline, carbolic acids and alkalies
when mixed with blood destry the property of the blood to react with precipitin.
2. Blood Grouping - The blood is composed of certain chemical substances called

antigens located on the red blood cell surface. These blood substances are detected by
their reaction with the corresponding anti-bodies present in the plasma of crrtain
individuals who lack antigen. The observable characteristics of the anti-bodies are their
ability to clump or agglutinate red blood cell possessing the corresponding antigen.
Antigen in the blood such as agglutinogen has been identified as A, B, AB, O which are
foubd in the same or different blood of individuals.
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The inter-relation existing between the four primary major blood groups is clearly
shown in the following table:
Agglutinogen O A B AB
O O A B AB
B - - - -
A - - - -
AB - - - -
Agglutinin Groups-cells
Anti-A Agglutinogen
Anti-B
Anti-O
None
Interpretation of results:
 No agglugation with either groups A and B sera= Group O;

 Agglutination with both group A and B sera= Group AB;
 Agglutination with A but none with B sera= Group B;
 Agglutination with B but none with A sera= Group A
Derivation of Offspring (Landsteiner)
Group Parents Group of Children
OxO O
OxA O, A
OxB O, B
AxA O, A
AxB O, A, B, AB
BxB O, B
O x AB A, B
A x AB A, B, AB
B x AB A, B, AB
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AB x AB A, B, AB
Exclusion cases
A, B, AB A, AB
B, AB O, AB
A, AB O
B, AB O
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MEDICO-LEGAL ASPECT OF DEATH
Death – is defined as absence of life in a living matter. It is the termination of life and
complete loss of vital functions of the body. Thus upon death, the organism returns to a
stable equilibrium both physically and chemically.
In human being, the signs of life include the locomotion, respiration, circulation,
brain activity and the presence of faculty of sense. The ascertainment of death is a
clinical and not a legal problem.
In medico-legal death, it refers to the death which involves in crime or medico-

legal cases to prove or disapprove that a foul play had been done.
Importance of Death Determination
1. Personality of a person is extinguished by death

2. Criminal liability is extinguished by death
3. Property of a person is transmitted to heirs or nearest of kin
4. Basis of immediate removal of organs for transplantation
5. Civil case for claim is dismissed
Kinds of Death
1. Somatic or Clinical Death
It is a complete, continuous and persistent cessation of respiration,

circulation and almost all brain functions of an organism. Ordinarily, the
physician will discharge his duty if he listens with a stethoscope for signs of
breathing or beating of the heart intermittently for half a minute interval
throughout a period of 10-15 minutes as well as examining the eyes by a
flashlight will show the pupil assumes a mid-position and dilated and the
disappearance of the corneal and light reflexes.
The immediate signs of death in a person are sudden cessation of upward

and downward movements of the chest and the process of respiration, sudden
appearance of pale color of the face and lips, the heart and pulse rate stop, jaw
drops down and flaccidity of the muscles occurs pupils dilated and loss of corneal
and light reflexes.
Clinical Types of Death
A. Sociological Death — type of death wherein the withdrawal and separation from
the patient by others producing a sense of isolation and abandonment. Sociologic
death can last for years of patient is abandoned by the family, unvisited and let
alone to die.
B. Psychic Death(accepting the hedio)- the condition of death wherein the patient
regresses, gives up surrenders accepting death prematurely and refuses to
continue living.
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C. Biologic Death -type of death characterized by the absence of cognitive function

or awareness, although artificial support system may maintain organs
functioning.
D. Physiologic Death- type of death when all vital organs cease to function.
2. Molecular Death or Cellular Death
It is the cessation of life of the individual cells in the body which occurs
one at a time after somatic death Nerve and brain cells die earlier about 5
minutes after somatic death while muscle cells live longer until the onset of rigor
mortis which is about 2-6 hours.
3. Apparent Death or State of Suspended Animation
It is a state of temporary cessation of vital activities of the body. This

condition is not actually death although classified under the kinds of death
because the person is still alive although it seems that there are no signs of life.
Apparent death may be seen in diseases or conditions like uremia, hysteria,
drowning and electrocution and sometimes in newborn infants.
Signs of Death
Answers to the following questions must be obtained in any case of death which
is the subject of an official investigation.
These questions are:
1. Is the body dead?

2. How long has the body been dead?
3. What is the cause of death?
External Signs of Death
The most useful signs of death are those which can be detected by the external
examination of the body.
1. Loss of power to move and insensibility of the body as determined by visual

inspection the central nervous system consist of the brain and spinal cord is the
seat of all the faculties of senses and the power of locomotion.
2. Stoppage of Respiration.
A person can hold his breath not longer than 3 1/2 minutes.
A. Upward and downward movements of the chest and abdomen must be

observed. No movement upon death.
B. Palpation of the respiratory movement.
C. Examination with the aid stethoscope. Flow of air can be heard if there is
respiration.
D. Mirror Test. Dimming of the mirror due to condensation if respiration is
present.
E. Placing of a feather of cotton fiber in the nostrils and mouth. If there is
movement then respiration is present.
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F. Place a glass of water at the chest region. If there is movement of water

then respiration is present.
G. Winslow Test — There is stoppage of respiration if there is no movement
of the reflected image on the water on the chest of a person lying on his
back.
3. Stoppage of Heart Action and Circulation.
If there is no heart action for a period of 5-10 minutes, death is considered

certain. Upon death, the heart stops beating in a persistent and continuous which
cannot be revived by cardiac massage and other resuscitative measures for a period of
five minutes. In case of decapitation and judicial hanging, the heart beat persists for 15
minutes 1 hour.
Methods of Detecting Stoppage of Heart Action and Circulation
A. Heart Action
1. Palpation of the heart
2. Auscultation with the aid of Stethoscope
3. Fluoroscopic examination
4. Electro Cardiogram
B. Examination of the Peripheral Circulation
1. Magnus Test – ligature is tied around the finger, blood zone at the site of
application and livid area dental to the ligature.
2. Palpation of the radial pulse, carotid pulse and femoral pulse
3. Icard’s Test – Subcutaneous injection of the fluorescin eye. The skin will
exhibit yellowish green discoloration of the living skin.
4. Reddish color of the web of the fingers when the hand is placed against a
sharp light. This test is called diaphanous tests.
4. Loss of Body Heat Resulting to Cooling of the Body (ALGOR MORTIS)
When life is extinct and heat production in the body stops and its temperature
is lowered gradually to that of the surroundings. The lowering of the body temperature
is one of the earliest signs of death. The rate of fall of the body temperature is most
rapid in the first four hours after death until it reaches the temperature of the
surroundings beyond 12 hours. The normal body temperature in a living person is 37˚C
or 98.3˚F but upon death, the temperature gradually decreases. The fall of 15˚F to 20
˚F is considered as death of the body.
5. Change in the eyes
Upon death, when the eyes are upon, the person stares without
movement of the eyes in any direction. Further examination will reveal the following
changes in the eyes.
A. Loss of corneal and Light Reflexes – the cornea will not have a reaction of
winking the eyes of contraction of the pupil when touched or stimulated by
means of light.
B. Haziness or Clouding of the Cornea – A white patch maybe seen at the cornea
when the eyes are exposed to dry atmosphere after death.
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C. Fixation of the Pupil – The pupil will be fixed and dilated.

D. Flaccidity of the Eyeball- Inter ocular tension falls to zero because of less of
muscle tone.
E. “Tache noir Sclerotique”- described by Sommer in 1833 in a brownish
triangular spot in the Sclera.
6. Changes in the Skin
A. Change of Color- Upon death, the skin of the face, lips and body become pale
waxy.
B. Loss of the elasticity of the Skin.
C. Absence of Reaction to Injury- Application of heat will not produce blisters.
Changes in the Body after Death
The changes that occurred in the body at the time of death or within the next
few minutes or hours are very important to be used in determining that death has
taken place in a person.
Stages of Muscular Change
A. Stage of Primary Flaccidity
It is the stage of muscular change upon death characterized the relaxation of

muscles and loss of their natural tone so the jaw or head drops down, the thorax
collapses and the limbs becomes flaccid and splinters relax. This is the reason why the
dead person may still urinate, defecate or excrete waste product of metabolism through
pores in the skin. When muscles are subjected to mechanical or electrical stimuli, the
muscles will contract owing to the presence of life of the individual cells. This stage
lasts for 4-3 hours of death.
B. Stage of Post Mortem Rigidity or Rigor Mortis
The whole body becomes rigid due to contraction of the muscles. This
develops 3-4 hours after death and may lasts for 18-36 hours. The stiffness which
develops in the muscles of the body after death depends upon post mortem
chemical changes affecting the glycogen and constituents of the muscle cytoplasm.
For a short time after death. The reaction of the muscle protoplasm is alkaline and
as long as this condition endures the skeletal muscle remains flexible. In most cases,
the reaction changes form alkaline to acid from 2-6 hours post mortem because of
the conversion of glycogen and other substances to sarcolactic and phosphoric
acids. Rigidity then begins to develop in the muscles of the face, jaw, upper
extremities, trunk and lower extremities. The process is completed in 2-6 hours. This
stiffness lasts from 12-36 hours.
Conditions Stimulating Rigor Mortis

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1. Heat Stiffening – A condition characterized by hardening of the muscles due to

coagulation of muscle proteins when the dead body is exposed to intense heat as
by burning or immersion in a hot liquid.
2. Cold Stiffening – A condition characterized by hardening of the muscles due to
solidification of fats, muscles and fluid when the dead body is exposed to
extremely cold temperature.
3. Cadaveric Spasms or Spontaneous Rigidity – It is the instant stiffening of a
certain group of muscles which occurs immediately at the moment of death,
although its cause is unknown, it is associated with violent death due to extreme
nervous tension, and injury to the central nervous system.
c. Stage of Secondary Flaccidity
A muscular change characterized by the softness and flaccidity of the

muscles in which no longer responses to electrical or mechanical stimuli due to
dissolution of the muscle proteins that have been previously coagulated during the
stage of rigor mortis. This stage is the onset of putrefaction.
Putrefaction – It is the process of dissolution of tissues by the digestive action of its

enzymes and bacteria that results to softening and liquefaction of tissues are usually
accompanied by the liberation of foul smelling gases and change of color of the tissues.
Some authorities defined putrefaction as the breaking down of complex proteins,
carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals to simpler components by the action of its
enzymes and bacteria resulting to softening and liquefaction, liberation of putrid gases
and change in the color of tissues.
The flies will be attracted to the dead body during putrefaction and sipped the
juicy portion of the tissues. The egg will hatch within 24 hours and form maggots and
which again feed vigorously on damaged tissues. Other destructive agents in
decomposition are the rodents, lizards, snakes, vultures, ants and dogs. Fishes and
aquatic mammals when dead body is in water.
Sequence of Events in Putrefaction of Dead Body in Tropical Country
After 1-2 days (24-48 hours)
Rigor mortis absent, putrefaction changes, muscles soft and flaccid. Greenish
discoloration over the abdomen. Some veins beneath the skin seen as interlacing
purplish brown network over the shoulder, chest and abdomen known as marbolization.
3rd day (72 hours)

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Abdomen distended with gases, trunk bloated, hair and nails loosened from its
attachment. Blister formation and blebs. Face grossly swollen and discolored. Maggots
seen.
1 week (7 days)
Further bloating of the body and discoloration of the skin. Bursting of blisters and
denudation of the skin. Soft tissues continue to putrefy.
2 weeks (14 days)
Detachment of the hairs and nails from its attachment Bursting of the thorax and
abdomen. Further dissolution of more resistant viscera.
1 month - Body completely skeletonized
The speed in which process of destruction in air, water or under the earth. The
process more rapid in the air than in the other 2 media expressed by the old formula
which states that 1 week in the air equivalent to two weeks in the water or 8 weeks in
the soil.
3 Special Forms of Putrefaction
A. Mummification
A condition where is removal of the body fluid before decomposition sets in that
resulted to sinking and preservation of the body.
Natural Mummification- The dead only is buried or exposed to a dry, hot sandy soil
with considerable air movement. While artificial mummification or embalming is a form
which preserves the dead body by the addition of some chemicals like formalin, alcohol,
phenol, mercury and arsenic and covering the skin with plaster of Paris.
B. Saponification or Adipocere Formation
It is a formation of a soft, friable and brownish white greasy substance. This

substance is called adipocere and formed by the post mortem hydrolysis and
dehydrogenation of the body fats. Adipocere is a soapy or waxy material, rancid in
smell, dissolve in alcohol and ether when burn produces yellow flame.
C. Maceration
It is a condition of the dead body usually the fetus characterized by softening

and discoloration of tissues as well as formation of blisters in the skin due to action of
autolytic and proteolytic enzymes in the absence of putrefactive bacteria.
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Changes in the Blood after Death
A. Change of Color
After death, the heart stops beating followed by stoppage of circulation.

The stasis in the circulation will drain the blood from the capillaries and veins to
accumulate in the most dependent portions in the body due to pull of gravity
producing discoloration in those areas not subjected to pressure.
B. Post Mortem Lividity or Livor Mortis
A discoloration of the body after death when blood tends to pool in the
blood vessels of the most dependent portions of the body which appears 20-30
minute after death and complete in about 12 hours. The usual colour is dull red
or reddish purple with some bluish black peterbiae due to rupture of small
engorged capillaries.
Importance of Livor Mortis
1. One of the sign of Death

2. Determines the protein maintains by the body after death
Basis in estimating the time of death
1. General Physical Changes – a warm supple of body with moist, transparent

cornea and moist lips as well as the absence of post mortem lividity is a
condition of recent death.
2. Post Mortem Rigidity or Livor Mortis – the onset of post mortem lividity is
20-30 minutes and complete in about 12 hours.
3. Post Mortem Rigidity or Rigor Mortis – onset is 3-4 hours after death
completed in about 12 hours. May lasts 24-36 hours in tropical countries.
4. Onset and Stage of Decomposition – in tropical countries, the onset of
decomposition is 1-2 days after death and skeletonized in months’ time.
5. Life Cycle of Flies – the egg or ova laid on dead bodies will hatch to form
maggots within 24 hours. The maggots will feed vigorously on the damaged
dead bodies, then transform into pupal stage finally into adult flies within a few
days.
6. Change in the Body Temperature — Upon death, body temperature decreases
gradually until it reaches the temperature of the environment. The rate of fall of
the temperature is from 150F to 200F is considered as a sign of death.
7. Changes in the blood — The blood remains fluid in the body after death for 6-9
hours.
8. Changes in the Stomach — It is usually takes 3-4 hours for the stomach to
empty its contents after meals.
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9. Changes in the Hair — The rate of growth of hair loss has been estimated from
0.4 mm - 0.5 mm/ day.
10. Changes in the Urinary Bladder — The amount of urine in the bladder may
indicate the time of death when taken into consideration the time when a person
urinates or evacuates his urinary bladder.
11. States of Clothing — If the dead person is well dressed, it is more likely that
death occurs at day time, but if wearing pajamas of nightgowns, it is possible
that death occurs at night and probably at home.
12. Presence or Absence of Fleas in the Clothing of dead Person in Water — If fleas
in the clothing of a drowned person are still alive, then the person has been in
water less than 24 hours. Survival of the fleas is not possible if they are in the
water for more than 24 hours.
Presumption of Death
Disputable presumption — Rules of court Sec. 96 Rule 123, that a person not heard,
seen, or absent for seven years is dead.
A person on board a vessel who was lost during a sea voyage or an airplane which is
missing who had not been heard for 4 years.
A person in the military or armed forces who has taken part in war and has been
missing for 4 years.
A person who has been in danger of death under other circumstances and his existence
has not been known for 4 years.
Presumption of Survivorship
The presumption of survivorship of persons as to who died first can be interred from
the strength, age, sex of the person concerned.
 If both were under the age of 15 years, the elder is presumed to have survived.
 If both were above the age of 60, the younger is presumed to have survived
 If one is under 15 and the other above 60 years old, the former is presumed to
have survived.
 If both be over 15 and under 16 years old and the sexes is different, the male is
presumed to have survived, if the sexes be the same, then the older is presumed
to have survived.
 If one be under 15 or over 60 years old and the other between those ages, the
latter is presumed to have survived.
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CAUSES OF DEATH
Classification as to the Cause of Death
It may be:
A. Natural Death – it is death that occurs due to a disease or ailment in the body.
The disease may occur spontaneously or it might have been consequence of the
physical injury inflicted prior to its development. The termination of life comes
quickly and unexpectedly or delayed due to lingering illness. Sudden death is the
termination of life whose arrival is not expected. A good example of this and it is
frequently observed among males, from 18 years old up to 35 years old and very
common among low income group called Sudden Unexpected Nocturnal Death
(SUND) commonly called “Bangungot”.
B. Violent Death – it is death due to injuries by some forms of outside force
wherein the physical injuries inflicted is the proximate cause of death.
Classification of Physical Injuries
1. Physical Injury – use of physical force

2. Thermal Injury – caused by heat or cold
3. Electrical Injury – death caused by electrical energy
4. Atmospheric Injury – death or injury caused by change in atmosphere pressure
5. Chemical Injury – death or injury caused by chemicals
6. Radiation – death or injury caused by radioactive substances.
Under violent death we have the following:
1. Accidental Death – due to misadventure and outside our will

2. Negligent Death – death due to reckless imprudence, negligence, lack of
skill or lack of foresight.
3. Infanticidal Death – death due to killing of infant less than 3 days old
4. Parricidal Death – it is death due to killing of one’s relative. Any person
who shall kill his father, mother or child whether legitimate or illegitimate or
any of his ascendants or descendants or his spouse shall be guilty of parricide
and shall be punished by a penalty ranging from reclusion perpectua to
death.
5. Homicidal Death – Homicide is the killing of another person with intent but
without justification.
6. Murder – it is the unlawful killing of another person committed with any of
the following attendant circumstances.
a. With treachery taking advantage of superior strength, with the aid of
armed men or employing means to weaken the defense or of means of
person to insure or afford impunity.
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b. In consideration of a price, money, reward or promise

c. With evident premeditation
d. With extreme cruelty by deliberately augmenting the suffering of the
victim
7. Euthanasia or Mercy Killing – It is a wilful acceleration of death of a
person in order to lessen his sufferings. There are instances wherein a person
suffering from a hopeless incurable disease, ailment or condition will be
placed to death to lessen his sufferings and for financial reason as agreed by
the physician and relatives concerned. In some countries mercy killing is
against the law for reason that everyone has the right to live.
8. Suicidal Death – It is death due to killing or destruction of one’s self. A
person who commits suicide but was not consummated is not penalized by
law but a person who assists another person to commit suicide is punishable
by law.
SPECIAL DEATHS
Deaths under Special Circumstances
A. Death caused, tumultuous affray as in riot. The identity of the killer is not known.
B. Death under exceptional circumstances. Any legally married person who, having
surprise his spouse in the act of committing sexual intercourse with another
person, shall kill any of them or both shall suffer the penalty of “distierro”
Methods of Judicial Death
A. Death by Electrocution – using 1,500 volts

B. Death by Lethal Injection – the lethal drug is injected intravenously
C. Death Musketry or Firing Squad
D. Death by Gas Chamber
E. Death by Hanging
F. Death by Decapitation
Death from Starvation
Starvation is the deprivation of a regular and constant supply of food and water
Causes of Starvation
1. Accidental – Marooned in an island, where there is scarcity or no supply of food

and water, as in airplane accident or trapped in a miner’s camp.
2. Homicidal – Intentional and deliberate deprivation of food and water
3. Suicidal – as in the case of hunger strike
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A person cannot survive for more than 10 days without food and water but with
water alone, a person can survive for 50 days.
METHODS OF DISPOSAL OF DEAD BODY
1. Embalming – it is the method of preserving the dead body for the removal of
the body fluid and replacement of the same by chemicals sucks as formalin,
alcohol and phenol.
2. Burial, Interment or Inhumation – it is the method of placing the dead body
into the grave. According to sec. 1100 of the Revised Administrative Code, a
grave shall be dug one and half meters deep or 6 feet.
3. Cremation – Pulverization of the body by using intense heat.
4. Disposal of the Dead Body to the Sea – Dead person who had died abroad a
sea vessel may be thrown overboard usually after a brief ceremony, however,
those who died on land may also be permitted to be buried to the sea depending
upon the will of the diseased and religion practiced.
5. Use of his Dead Body for Scientific Purposes – The body of nay deceased
person which is to be buried at public expense and which is unclaimed by the
relatives or friends for a period of 24 hours after death shall be subjected to the
disposition of the Director of Health. May be devoted to the purpose of medical
science and to the advancement and promotion of medical knowledge.
Exhumation – it is the raising or disinterring the dead body or remains from the rave.
Exhumation may be made in order to afford an opportunity for a post mortem
examination to establish the circumstances of death.
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PHYSICAL INJURY
An injury is the impairment of the body structure or function caused by the

outside force. It is the effect of some form of stimulus to the body. The effect of the
application of force is he production of wound.
Wound – is a break or solution in the continuity of the skin or tissues of the living body
Vital Reaction – is the sum total of all reactions of tissues or organs to physical injury
or trauma
Classification of Wounds
A. As to severity
1. Mortal Wounds or Fatal Wounds – which when inflicted capable of causing
death. (e.g. Injuries to the brain, spinal cord heat and big blood vessels,
internal abdominal organs).
2. Non-Mortal Wounds – wound when inflicted will not endangers one’s life
B. As to the manner of infliction
1. Hit – by the stroke of a bolo, axe and other blunt instruments
2. Thrust or Stab – by the stroke of a knife, dagger, ice pick, bayonet and
spears
3. Sliding or Rubbing
4. Gunpowder explosion by Projectile or Shrapnel
5. Tearing or Stretching
C. As to the kind of instrument used
1. Lacerated Wound - produced by blunt instruments e.g. lead pipe, piece of
wood, stones
2. Incised Wound – wound produced by sharp edged instrument
3. Stabbed Wound – wound produced by sharp edged and sharp pointed
instruments. E.g. kitchen knife, balisong, dagger
4. Punctured Wound – wound produced by sharp pointed instrument – e.g ice
pick, screw driver, barbecue stick
5. Wound produced by tearing force
D. As to the depth of wound
1. Superficial Wound – wound which involves the outer layer of the skin e.g
scratch or abrasion
2. Deep Wound – wound which involves the outer as well as the inner structure
of the body
A. Penetrating Wound – wound wherein the instrument pierces a solid
organ or tissues. E.g. stab wound piercing the liver, spleen, kidneys.
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B. Perforating Wound – wound where there is communication between

the outer and inner portions of the hallow organs.
E. As to the relation of the site of application or force and the location of
injury
Coup Injury – injury which is found at the site of application of force
Contre Coup Injury – injury which is found not at the site but opposite
the site of the application of the force
Coup Contre Coup Injury – injury which is found at the site and also
opposite the site of the application of force
Locus Minor’s Resistencia – it is the injury which is found not at the

site or opposite the site of the application of force but in the some areas offering
least resistance to the force applied
Extensive Injury – it is the physical injury involving greater areas

beyond the site of application of force. E.g. fall from height, vehicular accident.
Special Types of Wound
Patterned Wound – wound produced by the shape of the instrument of

object reflected in the body. E.g. imprint of the radiator on the chest, tire marks on the
body.
Defense Wound – produced by person’s instinctive reaction for self-

protection. E.g. contusion in the forearm produced by parring the blow, incised wound.
Legal Classification of Physical Injuries
1. Mutilation – the intuitional act of cutting or looping any part or parts of the
living body
2. Slight Physical Injury – it is the physical injury wherein the victim is
incapacitated for work or requires medical attendance for a period from one to
nine days
3. Less serious Physical Injury – A physical injury wherein the offended party is
incapacitated for work or require medical attendance for 10 days or more but not
more than 30 days
4. Serious Physical Injury – it is an injury wherein the victim becomes ill or
incapacitated for the performance of his usual work for more than 90 days, the
injury caused deformity, loss of any member of his body and loss the use
thereof.
Deformity – Permanent disfigurement of the body producing physical ugliness. E.g.

loss of an ear, scars in the face
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Incapacity – the inability of the injured person to perform his work where he is
habitually engaged.
F. As to the types of wound

1. Closed Wound – When there is no break in the continuity of the skin or
mucous membrane.
 Petechiae – minute pin-point circumscribed extravasations of blood
underneath the skin or muscous membrane, e.g. subpleural petechiae
hemorrhage, insects bite, tardieu spots.
 Contusion or Bruise – wound in the skin and subcutaneous tissues
characterized by swelling and discoloration of tissues because of
extravasation of blood.
 Hematoma – Large extravasation in a newly formed cavity secondary
to trauma characterized by swelling, discoloration of tissues and
effusion of blood underneath the tissues.
 Musculo Skeletal Injuries – e.g. sprain, dislocation, strain, fracture.
 Internal Hemorrhage
 Cerebral Concussion
2. Open Wound – there is breach of the continents of the skin, e.g. abrasion,
incised wound, stab wound, punctured wound, lacerated wound and shrapnel
wounds.
Closed Wounds
Petechiae – Circumscribed extravasation of blood in the subcutaneous tissues, pinhead

size like mosquito bites.
Contusion “Pasa” – Effusion of blood into the tissues underneath the skin on account
of the rupture of the blood vessels as a result of the application of blunt force.
Contusion is red or purple when fresh, after 4-5 days it becomes green and after 7-10
days it becomes yellow and gradually disappears at 14 th day.
Hematoma (blood cyst, bukol) – effusion of blood in the newly formed cavity
Musculo-Skeletal Injuries
Sprain – partial or incomplete disruption in the continuity of muscle or ligaments
Dislocation – displacement of the articular surface of the bones
Fracture – it is a break or solution in the continuity of the bone tissues.
Internal Hemorrhage – Rupture of blood vessels causing haemorrhage. May

be due to the following:
1. Traumatic intracranial hemorrhage

2. Rupture of parenchymatous organs
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Cerebral Concussion – jarring or stunning of the brain follows a blow in the

head.
Open Wounds
1. Abrasion (“Gasgas”, Scratch, Graze, Friction Mark) - characterized by
removal of the superficial layer of the skin brought about by friction against a
hard rough object.
Form of Abrasion
a. Linear Abrasion – there is single line which may be curve or straight

b. Multi-linear Abrasion – several lines of injury which are parallel to one
another
c. Confluent Abrasion – the lines of injury are arranged in haphazardly
manner
d. Multiple Abrasions – abrasion in the body surface located in different
parts of the body
Types of Abrasion
a. Scratches – abrasion brought about by the stroke of sharp pointed

instrument over the skin
b. Grazes – due to forcible contact with a rough, hard object resulting to
irregular removal of the skin surface
c. Impact or impact Abrasion – an abrasion due to contact with a
rough, hard object in which the structural form of the object is
reflected over the skin
d. Pressure of Friction Abrasion – an abrasion due to pressure applied
and with accompany movement over the skin
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2. Incised wound (Cut, Slash, “Hiwa”) – an open wound produce by forcible
contact with sharp edged instrument characterized by gasping of the wound with
smooth edges and causing profuse bleeding, e.g. knife, razor, broken glasses,
metal sheet. The incised wound may be suicidal, homicidal, accidental depending
upon the location, direction and presence or absence of hesitation cuts.
When the wounding instrument is fairly large and hearing, like bolo,
samurai, axe, saber the wound produced is chopped or alike wounds.
3. Lacerated Wound (Tear, “Putok”) – wound produced by blunt instrument

characterized by ill-defined or irregular edges, e.g. blow by piece of wood, lead
pipe, stone, butt of a firearms, fist blow.
4. Punctured Wound – an open wound produced by round bodied and pointed
instrument characterized by small opening, e.g. ice picks, nails, thorns, hooks,
screw drivers and barbecue sticks.
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5. Stabbed Wound – wound produced by sharp pointed and sharp edged

instrument. The edges of the wound are clean-cut, smooth and distinct
 Penetrating Stab Wound – involves solid interval organs.
 Perforating Stab Wound – involves hallow interval organs
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GUNSHOT AND SHARPNEL WOUNDS
Is an open wound brought about by the penetrating power of the projectile

propelled by the expansive force of the burning gunpowder in the cartridge shell,
shrapnel wounds are open wounds produce by shrapnel and fragments of high velocity
after detonation of high explosives like grenades and bombs.
Firearm – is an instrument used for the propulsion of a projectile by the

expansive force of gases coming from the burning gunpowder
Types of Firearm
1. Revolver – has cylindrical magazine capable or revolving action. It is a

low velocity firearm with muzzle velocity of 600 ft. /sec.
2. Automatic Pistol – self-loading firearm with muzzle velocity of
1,200ft./sec. classified as low velocity firearm
3. Rifle – with long barrel and butt with muzzle velocity of 2,500ft./sec. and
a range of 3,000 feet classified as high velocity firearm
4. Shot Gun – the projectile is the collection of pallets or shirt and without
predetermined directions
Gunshot wounds of entrance and exit are the subject of meticulous

examination by the medical examiner. Its characteristics and appearance are
influence by the following factors.
1. Kind of weapon
2. Caliber of weapon
3. Shape and composition of the missile
4. Range of fire
5. Direction of fire
6. Parts of the body involved
Characteristics of the wound of entrance
1. In general, the size of the wound of entrance is usually smaller the missile owing
to retraction the skin. The shape may be oval or circular. The edge of the wound
is inverted with contusion collar or abrasion collar around the wound of entrance.
2. In contact or closed range fire, there is burning of the skin and singeing of hair
due to flame and gunpowder tattooing
A. Contact Fire – the wound of entrance bursted due to sudden
release of the expanded gas. There is burning of the tissues around the
wound of entrance because it is within the flame zone. There is soot,
smoke and smudging. These are here by product of the complete
combustion of the gunpowder deposited around the wound of entrance.
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Presence of smudging at the wound of entrance indicates a near shot.

Unburned partially burned gunpowder is responsible for tattooing,
stippling or peppering around the wound of entrance. It becomes lesser
and lesser until it disappears beyond the distance of 24 inches.
B. Near Contact Up to 6 Inches Distance – there is bursting of
tissues, burning and blackening the skin as in contact fire but the
particles of the gunpowder are present not only the inside but as well as
around the wound of entrance. The shape of the wound may be
lacerated, stellate or slit-like and the size is larger than the diameter of
the missile.
C. Distance Above 6 Inches Up to 24 Inches and beyond – the
size of wound gradually approximates the size of the missile. As the
distance from the target becomes farther, the burning, blackening of
tissues, gunpowder tattooing or stippling and singeing of hair becomes
lesser and lesser until it disappears beyond 24 inches distance.
Characteristics of Wound of Exit
 Usually the size larger than the missile

 It has no definite shape
 The edge of the wound is averted
 Sometimes flaps the skin and tissues are seen protruding from the wound
Characteristics between Gunshot Wound of Entrance and Exit
1. The size of the wound of entrance is smaller than the missile while the exit
wound is bigger than the missile.
2. Edge of the Exit – the entrance wound is inverted while the exit wound is
averted
3. Shape of the Wound – the entrance wound is round or oval while the exit
wound has no definite shape.
4. Contusion Collar – present in the entry wound while absent in exit wound
5. Gunpowder Tattooing – present in contact or near contact fire while absent in
exit wound
6. Paraffin Test – positive in the wound of entrance in contact and near contact
fire, negative in exit wounds
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Determination Whether the Gunshot wound is Suicidal, Homicidal or

Accidental
A. Evidence to Prove that the Gunshot wound is Suicidal.
1. Parts of the body involved are accessible to the hands of the victim.
2. There is usually one gunshot wound.
3. Presence of suicidal note.
4. Usually the distance is near or close range.
5. History of frustration.
6. Drug dependency
B. Evidence that the Gunshot wound is Homicidal.
1. Wound is located in any parts of the body.
2. The victim is usually at a certain distance from the assailant.
3. Signs of struggle or defense wound may be present of the part of the victim.
4. Wounding weapon usually not found at the crime scene.

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5. There may be disturbance in the surrounding.
C. Evidence that Gunshot wounds is accidental.
1. There is usually one gunshot wound.
2. Wound is located in any parts of the body.
3. Testimony of the witness.
Shotgun Wound
-It is an open wound produced by the penetration of pellets or shots which usually
lodged inside the body.
Characteristics of the Shotgun Wound of Entrance
A. Contact fire - the wound of entrance is irregular with bursting tissues due to the
heated and expanded gases with accompanying flame. There is singeing of hair
presence of wads as well as particles of gunpowder inside the wound of entrance.
B. Near Shot Up to 6 Inches Fire - There is marked laceration of the skin and
distinction of tissue due to the presence of explosion. The burning is marked on the
surface of the skin and particles of gunpowder are present inside and around the
wound of entrance. There is singeing of the hair as well as pieces of wads inside and
outside the wound of entrance.
C. Distance About 1 Yard - The pellets penetrate the tissue as one mass with
irregular edges at the wound of entrance. There is also blackening of tissues with slight
burning, singeing and tattooing.
D. Distance About 2-3 Yards - The wound of entrance has a big central hole with
ragged edges. There is no blackening or burning of the skin, singeing and tattooing.
E. Distance at 4 Yards - Small group of pellets may penetrate the tissues.
Wounds from Explosion of Explosive Materials like Dynamite and Bombs
The explosive materials may be covered by soft materials such as pieces of papers,
cartoons, aluminum foils as exemplified in dynamite and big fire crackers while other
explosive material are covered by metal as exemplified by grenades, bombs, mine, anti-
aircraft and said missiles.
The following Injuries Occur from the explosion of Explosive Materials

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1. Blast Wave Injury - When the explosion occurs, it causes sudden increase of
atmospheric pressure followed by sudden decrease. This compression-decompression
effect will relayed in the atmosphere producing destruction, distortion and bursting of
tissues especially the interval organs causing hemorrhage.
2. Burns from Flame and Heated Gases - The explosion of the powder will produce
flame and heated expanded gases.
3. Poison by Inhalation of Carbon Monoxide, Nitrous and Nitric Gases,

Hydrogen Sulfide and Sullfur Dioxide - the explosion cause liberation of poisonous
gases which when inhaled in sufficient amount will produce gas poisoning or asphyxia.
4. Direct Injury from the Flying Missile - The detonation of high explosive
especially whose with metal covering will cause fragmentation of metal in the form of
shrapnels.
The “odd and even rule” in gunshot wounds
If the number of gunshot wounds of entrance and exit found in the body of the
victim is even, the presumption is that no bullet is lodged in the body but if the number
of gunshot wounds entrance and exit is odd, the presumption is that one or more
bullets might have lodged in the body.
No Gunshot wound of Exit but Bullet is not found in the body of the Victim.
1. Bullet lodged in the gastro intestine tract and expelled thrown the bowel.
2. Near contact with blank Cartridge of wound of entrance but no slug recovered.
3. Bullet may enter the wound of entrance and upper hitting the bone, the course is
deflecting to have the wounds of entrance as wound of exit.
INJURIES OR DEATH DUE TO EXTREMES OF TEMPERATURE
Thermal injuries are those caused when the body is exposed to an increase or
decrease of environmental temperature.
Effect of Cold Temperature - When the body is exposed to cold or freezing

temperature, the dissociation power of oxygen from hemoglobin will become less thus
diminishing the tissues to utilize the oxygen prolonged. Exposure may cause necrosis
and gangrene of the tissues. The degree of damage depends upon the decrease in
temperature, duration of exposure, vitality of his tissues involved, sex and condition of
the body.
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A short exposure to freezing temperature is dangerous to the body than a long

cold dry air. The children and old persons are easily injured by cold temperature
because the thermo-regulating centers in children are not fully developed while in older
persons, the thermo-regulating centers are deteriorated. Woman is more resistant to
cold temperature than man due to greater deposits of subcutaneous fats. Extreme
fatigue, malnutrition, alcoholism and previous illness are prone to the effects of cold
temperature.
Local Effects of Cold Temperature
1. Frostbite - Expose of the certain parts of the body to cold temperature producing
mechanical description of the cell structure characterized by diminished body
temperature, cold stiffening and pallor which later lead to swelling thrombosis, necrosis
and gangrene of his affected tissues.
2. Trench Foot - A condition usually seen among those walking over the snow wherein
the foot is exposed to freezing temperature characterized by cold stiffening, muscle
cramps, necrosis and gangrene of the foot.
3. Immersion Foot - A sub variety of trench foot wherein the foot is submerged into
cold freezing liquid characterized by decreased body temperature, cold stiffening,
muscle cramp, necrosis and gangrene.
Effects of Heat in the Body
Heat is a form of kinetic energy transferable from one body to another.
Specific Heat - Is the number of calories required to raise the temperature of one
gram of a particular substance with a temperature of one degree centigrade.
Sensible Heat - Is the heat which when absorbed by the body produces a rise
temperature.
Generalized or Systematic Effects of Heat
1. Heat Cramps - is a painful contraction of the skeletal muscles due to dehydration

and loss of sodium chloride to excessive sweating.
2. Heat Exhaustion (Heat Collapse) - It is a physiologic breakdown following

exposure to heat precipitated by exertion and warn clothing characterized by peripheral
vasomotor collapse, faintness, palpitation nause vomiting, syncope, dizziness and
headache. The victim dies of heart failure.
3. Heat Stroke (Sunstroke) - Breaking down in sweating mechanism usually seen

among workers working in warm environment or direct exposure to sublight manifested
by elevation of body temperature, mental confusion, injuries to central nervous system,
congestion and hemorrhages in various organ.
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Local Effects of Heat
1. Scald - Burn due to contact with a hot or boiling liquid characterized by redness,
pain and blister formation. The injury in scolds depends upon the temperarure of liquid,
duration of contact, underlying clothing and tissues involved. Boiling fat, cooking oils,
boiling syrup will cause more severe burning than water because of their higher boiling
points.
2. Burns - It is the injury due to application of physical heat in any form to the body
and is characterized by redness, heat coagulation of tissues to actual charring. The
effects of burns to the body is influenced by the intensity of heat, duration of contact,
tissues involved, age, sex and accompanying complications.
Classification of Burns
A. First Degree - It is a burn which involves the superficial layer of the skin
characterized by redness and pain, sunburn.
B. Second Degree Burn - It is a burn which involves the superficial layer of the
tissues and skin and nerve ending characterized by blisters information. This is the most
painful burn because of irritation of nerve endings.
C. Third Degree - It is a burn involving the skin, nerves, muscles and bones which os
usually met in victims of conflagrations. This is the most severe burn because the victim
usually dies from loss of fluid and electrolytes and massive infection.
INJURIES OR DEATHS DUE TO EXPOSURE IN EXTREME OF ATMOSPHERIC

PRESSURE
A. Effects of increased pressure, (Caisson Disease) the normal atmospheric pressure at

sea level are 760mm/Hg, which is conductive to life and health. When a person goes
several feet or fathoms under water pressure becomes greater. The gases in the body
such us oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen will accumulate and liberated in the
circulation blocking small caliber blood vessels. Gas bubbles block the blood vessels
producing injury to the distal part supplied by blood and this is called air embolism. This
condition is further accelerated when a person under goes abruptly from increased
pressure to normal pressure environment. The post mortem finding show gas bubbles
in different organs.
B. Effects of decrease atmospheric pressure as a person go higher and higher in the

atmosphere the pressure becomes lesser and lesser and the oxygen in the air becomes
lesser and lesser.
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1. Mountain Sickness - It is condition usually seen among mountain climbers. When

exposed in high altitude, the atmospheric pressure is diminished resulting to reduction
in the combining power of his hemoglobin in the blood and oxygen.
2. Airplane and Aircraft Facilities - In airplane travel, the most dangerous part
occurs during take offs and landing. Injuries or deaths due to radiation from radioactive
substances may be in the form of alpha, beta and gamma rays. The most dangerous
ray which is deleterious to life and health is the gamma ray, which has a high energy,
high penetrating power and destructive to tissues. It can absorbed by the body
inhalation, ingestion, skin absorption and therapeutic injection.
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ASPHYXIA
Asphyxia is a condition wherein there is interference in the process of respiration

resulting to impairment of normal exchange of respiratory gases. Whereby the supply of
oxygen to the blood and tissues has been reduced below the normal level.
Stages of Asphyxial Death
1. Dyspneic Stage - Due to lack of oxygen and retention of carbon dioxide, breathing
becomes rapid and deep. Blood pressure is elevated and pulse rate increased. There is
cyanosis in the lips, face and finger nail beds.
2. Convulsive Stage - Retention of carbon dioxide stimulates the central nervous

system. Cyanosis becomes more marked. Eyes become starring and pupils dilated.
3. Apneic Stage - There is paralysis of the respiratory center. The breathing becomes
shallow, slow and gasping. The victim dies of heart failure.
Classification of Asphyxia
I- Asphyxia by Hanging - Is a form of violent death wherein the body is suspended

by a ligature encircled around the neck. It may be complete hanging whereby the feet
to do not touch the floor and incomplete hanging when the victim is in sitting, kneeling
and lying positions. Pressure by ligature is present in front or in the side of the neck
causing the air passages to constrict and compression of the carotid arteries reduce the
blood supply to the brain causing cerebral anoxia. The ligature marks on the neck
follows the portion of the noose at the point of suspension where it is usually
interrupted or shows an irregular mark of a knot. At first, it is pale but later becomes
brown and parchment like in consistency. The skin at the sight of the ligature mark is
abraded. The head is elongated and stretched with the head inclined opposite the knot.
Eyes partially open in dilated pupils. Pallor of the face with swelling saliva dribbled from
the sides of the mouth with bluish lips. The hands are clinched firmly and purple cooler
finger nails. There is spontaneous urination or defecation due to loss sphincter tones.
There is erection or semi erection of his penis with ejaculation. Post mortem lividity with
petechial hemorrhages is marked in the lower extremities. There is congestion of the
internal organs. There is sub pleural and sub pericardial hemorrhage called tardieu
spots.
Evidence to Support Homicidal Hanging

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1. Signs of struggle in the clothing and surroundings.
2. Presence of bodily injuries on the victim.
3. Presence of defense wounds on the body of the victim.
Evidence to Support Suicidal Hanging
1. No signs of struggle.
2. History of previous ineffective suicidal attempts.
3. Presence of suicidal notes.
4. History of reverses in life, loss of loved ones, failure in jobs and love.
II - Asphyxia by Strangulation - Is produced by compression of his neck by trying

to ligature around the neck and the two ends pulled in the opposite direction in such a
manner to tighten the ligature.
Causes of Death in Ligature Strangulation
1. Asphyxia due to occlusion of trachea.
2. Cerebral anoxia due to compression of cerebral arteries.
3. Inhabitation of his respiratory center due to pressure on vagus and sympathetic

nerves.
Manual Strangulation or Throttling
- It is a form of strangulation whereby the hands are used in applying pressure to

the beck and obstructing the air passages causing asphyxial death. It is homicidal and
the assailant is either in front, at the side or back of the victim while applying pressure
over the neck, one or both hands may be used.
Special Forms of Strangulation
1. Palmar Strangulation - Form of strangulation wherein palms of the hand are used
in applying pressure over the neck while the assailant is ethier in front or at the back of
the victim.
2. Garroting - Form of strangulation wherein a metal collar or strap is placed around

the neck and tighten to compress the neck.
3. Mugging - Form of strangulation wherein the assailant stands at the back of the
victim and forearm is applied in front of the neck.
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4. Compression of the Neck with a Stick, Rod or Pipe - This is a form of

strangulation wherein a piece of pipe, rod or stick is used in applying pressure over the
neck and the assailant is either in front or at the back of the victim.
III - Asphyxia by Suffocation - Is exclusion of air from the lubgs by closure of air
openings or obstruction air passages from the external openings.
1. Smothering - Caused by closing of the external respiratory orifices (mouth and

nostrils) either by the use of hands, cloth, pillow or linen.
Over Laying - most common accidental smothering in children suffocated either

from beddings or pillows.
Gagging - application of material usually handkerchief, line other clothing material

through the mouth and nostrils.
Plastic Bag Suffocation - used of plastic bag, common among children.
2. Choking - form of suffocation brought about by the impaction of the foreign body,
food or blood clots in the respiratory passages.
A. Vomitus - too much alcohol intake
B. Bleeding pulmonary tuberculosis
C. Dentures
D. Bolus of food
IV – Asphyxia by Drowning or Submersion in Water
The air passages are submerged in water thereby preventing the force
blow of air into the lungs. It is not necessary for the whole body to be submerged in
water.
Post Mortem Findings
External Findings
1. Clothes are wet with foreign bodies clinging and pale face.
2. Eyes closed or may be half opened congested conjunctivae and pupils dilated
3. Hypostatic lividity located on the head, chest and neck
4. Cutis anserine, gooseflesh or goose skin a condition of his skin usually in the
extremities manifested by pale, puckered and contracted skin due to
contraction of erector pili muscle
5. Champignon de Ocume – a whitish form which accumulates at the nostrils
and mouth which increases in amount upon pressure on the chest.
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6. Penis and scrotum may be contracted

7. Washer woman’s hands and feet – bleached and corrugated
8. Presence of clenched fists which holds foreign materials like weeds, stones
and sand.
Internal Findings
1. The lungs may be voluminous with a doughty falling and slight increased in
weight (Edema Aquosum) and emphysema because of the air being driven by
the fluid on the surface. (Emphysema Aquosum)
2. Stomach Content – Plenty fluid and other foreign bodies. Absence of water in the
stomach indicates that death is rapid and submersion is made after death. The
gastric mucosa will hand a soggy appearance
3. The right side of the heart is dilated and the great veins filled with dark red
blood which is fluid and does not clot. The chloride content of the right and left
ventricle of heart is determined by using Getltler’s Test. If drowning took place in
salty water, the blood chloride content is greater in the left side of the heart than
the right. With a difference of 25mg. but if drowning took place in fresh water,
the blood chloride content is more in the right than the left.
4. Internal Organs – presence of sub pleural and sub epicardial petechial
hemorrhages called tardieu spots.
Conclusive Findings in Drowning
1. Clenched fists with foreign bodies in the hands of the victims

2. Increased lung volume and weight in edema of the lungs
3. Presence of water in the stomach
4. Presence of froth, foam and foreign bodies in the respiratory passages
5. Presence of water in the middle ear
Tete De Negri – dark bloated condition of the face in drowning with bronze color of
the head and neck
V – Asphyxia by Compression of the Chest or Traumatic Crush Asphyxia
Is a form of asphyxial death wherein the exchange of gases into lungs is

prevented due to trauma to the chest and abdomen
Burking – form of traumatic asphyxia invented Burke. The murder will sit or kneel on
the chest of the victim and cover the nostrils and mouth to prevent the flow of air into
the respiratory passages.
VI – Asphyxia by Breathing Irrespirable Gases
Some gases when inhaled is detrimental to life and health. The most common
gases which cause asphyxia death are carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide and sulfur dioxide.
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UNIVERSITY OF SAINT ANTHONY

(Dr. Santiago G. Ortega Memorial)

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

CONCEPT, NATURE, HISTORY OF LEGAL MEDICINE EVIDENCE

Legal medicine is a branch of medicine that deals with application of medical

History of Legal Medicine

1895 – Medico-legal laboratory was established in the city of Manila.

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

The medico-legal system is used in the Philippines at present which is handled by

Persons Authorized to Perform Autopsies

2. Medical staff of accredited hospitals

3. Health officers in remote or rural areas.

Evidence is a means, sanctioned by rules of court, of ascertaining in the judicial

Type of Medical Evidence

1. Real, autoptic or object evidence — It is an evidence that made known or

1. That the declarant was conscious about his impending death.

2. That the declarant was in full possession of his mental faculties.

3. That the declarant must be with regards to his impending death.

3. Experimental Evidence – a medical witness may be permitted to conduct

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

4. Documentary Evidence – a written evidence presented to the court by the expect

Medical Documentary Evidence may be in the form of:

A. Medical certification or report

1. Physical Exam report

C. Deposition – is a written record of evidence given orally and transcribed in writing

Evidence Necessary for Conviction

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

4. Corroborative Evidences – it is an additional evidence of a different kind and

Methods of Preserving Evidence

1. Photography and Audio – Visual recording. Photography is the most useful

- In a criminal case, the defendant is entitled to an acquittal unless guilt is

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

Medico Legal Investigation

Truth is necessary in the administration of justice attained by using medical

Deception detection methods

It is a method of gathering information from the subject about the crime in

1. Use of polygraph test or lie detector test or Keeler’s test

In 1914, a device by Vittoro Benussi used to measure breathing and an

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

Today, polygraph examiners use two types of instrumentation: Analog and

LIE DETECTOR OR POLYGRAPH TEST

A test used to record physiological changes associated with lying in a subject.

Although the polygraph has been used extensively as an investigative aid in

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

Stimulus Association Test

Alternation of consciousness and concentration in which the subject

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF GUILT

A good investigator must be a good observer. The emotional factor is a basis in

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

Blushing or red color of the face indicates anger or humiliation. Pallor of

2. Sweating or perspiration accompanied by flushed face indicative of anger,

6. Inability to look straight at the interrogator's Eyes.

The holding of the breath is an inclination of tension especially when

8. Peculiar and Unusual Expression.

9. Swearing to the truthfulness of his assertions.

10. Spotless Record

Confession and Admission

A confession is an expressed acknowledgement by the accused in a criminal

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

A confession is different from admission. A confession is a declaration of the

A. Extra Judicial Confession

Confession made outside the court during preliminary Investigation.

1. Voluntary extra judicial confession - A confession voluntarily made