Carbohydrates Full Unit

CARBOHYDRATES
By
Dr. Ajesh Vijayan
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemistry
MISSION VISION CORE VALUES
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holistic development to make effective contribution to Love of Fellow Beings
the society in a dynamic environment Social Responsibility | Pursuit of Excellence
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Deemed to be University
CARBOHYDRATES
Provide us three basic needs of life, namely,

1) Food (in the form of starch containing grains),
2) Clothing (cotton, linen and rayon are literally cellulose)
3) Shelter (wood used to make houses and furniture is almost
cellulose).
• Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and

oxygen.
• Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with later two
elements in the ratio 2 : 1 (water composition)
Excellence and Service 2

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• Having empirical formula Cn(H2O)m hence named as hydrates of carbon

• Their names generally end in characteristic ose.
For example, glucose and fructose, C6H12O6 = C6 (H2O)6;
sucrose C12H22O11 = C12(H2O)11
• Ribose and deoxyribose (aldopentoses) are components of hereditary
material nucleic acid (RNA and DNA).
• Carbohydrate is a misnomer, as some members do not obey above
definition (e.g., Rhamnose, C6H12O5) whereas some other compounds
like formaldehyde (CH2O) are not carbohydrates but obey empirical
formula
• Lower molecular weight carbohydrates are known as sugars
• They are often called saccharides (Latin, saccharum meaning sugar)
because of the sweet taste of simpler members

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• Structurally, carbohydrates contain only two main

functional groups, viz., carbonyl and hydroxyl groups.
• Structurally, they are polyhydroxy aldehydes or
polyhydroxy ketones.
• Carbohydrates are defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or

Ketones or compounds which give these on hydrolysis and
contain atleast one asymmetric carbon atom.

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Classification
Carbohydrates are divided into four major groups–
monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides
These are the simple sugars, which cannot be hydrolyzed further into simpler
forms and they have a general formula CnH2nOn.
Monosaccharides can be further sub-classified in accordance with

(i) Number of carbon atoms in continuous chain
A three-carbon monosaccharide is termed as triose;
One with four carbons—a tetrose;
One with five carbons—a pentose;
One with six carbons—a hexose.
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Monosaccharides
ii. Aldehyde (–CHO) or ketone (–CO) group present in the saccharide.

The saccharides containing an aldehyde group are called aldoses while
those with a ketone group are referred to as ketoses.

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Disaccharides
These are the sugars, which yield two same or different molecules of
monosaccharides, on hydrolysis.
In other words, a disaccharide is the result of joining of two
monosaccharide units.
The general formula for disaccharides is Cn(H2O)n–1.
Examples of some common disaccharides along with products obtained

from their hydrolysis are as follows:
• Maltose yields two molecules of glucose.
• Lactose yields one molecule of glucose and one molecule of galactose.
• Sucrose yields one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose.

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Oligosaccharides
● They may be tri-, or tetra saccharides depending upon the number of
monosaccharide units given on their hydrolysis.
A few examples of oligosaccharides are
● Maltotriose is a trisaccharide, which on hydrolysis yields three
molecules of glucose.
● Raffinose is a trisaccharide, which on hydrolysis yields three different
monosaccharides, namely glucose, galactose, and fructose.
Polysaccharides
● These are carbohydrates which can be hydrolysed to many (hundreds or
even thousands) monosaccharide units. For example, starch and
glycogen.
● They are classified as homopolysaccharides or heteropolysaccharides,
depending upon whether they give only one kind or more than one
kind of monosaccharide units on hydrolysis.
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● The general formula for polysaccharides is (C6H10O5)n
● (a) Homopolysaccharides : Starch and cellulose for example give only

one kind of monosaccharide(glucose).
● (b) Heteropolysaccharides : a-Haparin and hyaluronic acid give more

than one kind of monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
Sugars and Non-sugars

All the mono- and di-saccharides are called sugars as they possess sweet taste
and are soluble in water.
In contrast, polysaccharides are non-sugars, amorphous in nature and
insoluble in water.
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Glucose & Structure

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Open Chain Structure
1) It has the molecular formula, C6H12O6, as determined on the

basis of elemental and molecular weight determinations.
2) Presence of straight chain
Vigorous reduction with phosphorus and hydroiodic acid
gives n-hexane. The six carbon atoms of glucose, therefore,
form a straight chain.
3) Presence of aldehyde group
It reacts with
(a) hydroxylamine to form a monoxime,
(b) hydrogen cyanide to form a cyanohydrin.

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• This shows the presence of one carbonyl group.

• Therefore, formula of glucose can be rewritten as
C5H12O5(C=O).
• Gentle oxidation of glucose with bromine water or sodium
hypobromite gives a monobasic acid, gluconic acid,
C5H11O5(COOH), containing the same number of carbon
atoms as glucose.
• Forms heptanoic acid by the hydrolysis of the cyanohydrin of
glucose.
• Therefore, the carbonyl group must be an aldehyde group.
• Thus, the formula of glucose can be rewritten as
C5H11O5(CHO).

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4) Presence of 5 OH groups
• It forms penta-acetate C6H7O(OCOCH3)5, with acetic
anhydride, indicating the presence of five hydroxyl groups.
• Thus all six oxygen atoms in glucose have been accounted for
and can be formulated as C5H6(OH)5(CHO).
• This assignment is confirmed by the catalytic reduction of
glucose to hexahydric alcohol, sorbitol (C6H14O6) which
gives hexa-acetate with acetic anhydride.

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5) Presence of terminal —CH2OH group

• Oxidation of gluconic acid with nitric acid gives a dicarboxylic
acid, (glucaric acid or saccharic acid) (C6H10O8), containing
the same number of carbon atoms.
• As glucose contains only one aldehyde group, the second
carboxyl group must have originated from the oxidation of a
primary alcoholic group.
• Hence the formula of glucose becomes
C4H4(OH)4(CH2OH)(CHO).

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• The arrangement of the six C-atoms in glucose has been

shown to be in a straight chain.
• The —CHO group must be in the terminal position.
• One of the five —OH groups is present as a —CH2OH
group and this should be in a terminal position.
6) Open chain structure
• The disposition of the remaining four hydrogen atoms and
four —OH group follows from the fact that glucose does not
dehydrate easily as must be the case if glucose contained
C(OH)2 groups and a corresponding additional number of —
CH2 groups.

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• On the basis of these observations, Baeyer in 1870 gave

following open chain formula for glucose.
Baeyer's Formula
• C* = Assymetric or chiral carbon

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Glucose consumes 5 moles of periodic acid forming formaldehyde

(1 mole) and formic acid (5 moles).
This oxidative cleavage by HIO4 for vicinal -OH groups can explain the
foregoing structure for glucose as follows:

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7) Stereochemistry
• There are four different asymmetric carbon atoms (*C) in the
structure (I) of glucose.
• Therefore, the number of possible stereoisomeric structures would
be 24 or 16, i.e. eight pairs of enantiomers.
• There would be no meso compounds because two ends are
dissimilar.

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• The naturally occurring dextrorotatory glucose, (+)glucose, is only

one of the 16 stereoisomers.
• E. Fischer, assigned configuration (II), usually shown as
D-glucose, to (+)-glucose.
• The bottom structure (shown in screen box) resembles to D-
configuration of glyceraldehyde.

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All
altruists
gladly
make
gum
in
gallon
tanks

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8) Limitations of open chain structure

The open-chain structure (II) can explain most of the reactions of
glucose but failed to explain following properties.
i. It failed to give some reactions of aldehydes like
• Formation of adduct with sodium bisulphite
• Does not give pink color with Schiff's reagent.
ii. It exists in two stereoisomeric forms (a- and b-)
• The ordinary glucose (a-form) obtained by crystallization from
alcohol water has m.pt. 146°C and sp. rotation [a]D = +112o in
fresh aqueous solution.
• When it is crystallized from pyridine solution a new form b-
glucose is obtained which has m.pt. 150°C and sp. rotation [a]D
= +19°.
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iii. Mutarotation
• It is noted that specific rotation of an aq. solution of a-D(+)-
glucose gradually falls from +112° to +52.7o
• Whereas in b-D(+) glucose gradually increases from +19o to
+52.7o.
• Thus a- and b-glucose gives an equilibrium mixture with a
constant specific rotation.
• Such change in specific rotation to give equilibrium value is known
as mutarotation.

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iv. Formation of two types of ethers (Glycosides)

• D-(+)-glucose when treated with equimolar amount of methanol
and anhydrous HCl gives two forms of methyl glucosides namely
methyl-a-D-glucoside (m.pt. 165oC) and methyl-b-D-glucoside
(m.pt. 107oC).
• The methyl glucosides behave as acetals (formed by the interaction
of alcohol and aldehyde group).
• These glucosides do not reduce Fehling's or Tollen's reagent and do
not undergo mutarotation.

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9) Ring structure of D(+) glucose
• The above limitations show that aldehyde group is not free in
glucose.
• A hemiacetal ring structure formed from open chain structure by the
mutual intramolecular interaction of aldehyde group and -OH group
of position-5 was proposed.

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• Cyclic hemiacetal structure (A) generates a new chiral center at C-1.

• This can give two possible structures, one with OH at right is termed
a-D(+) glucose (A) and other with -OH at left (B) is b-D(+)
glucose.
• This pair of diastereomers which differ in configuration at C-1 only
are known as anomers and C-1 is known as anomeric carbon.
• The anomeric carbon is the carbon derived from the carbonyl carbon
compound (the ketone or aldehyde functional group) of the open-
chain form of the carbohydrate molecule.
• Hemiacetal is formed by the reaction of alcoholic group with
aldehyde. This intramolecular reaction results to a stable 6-
membered hemiacetal ring, pyranose structure, resembling the
heterocyclic compound pyran.
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• These structures (A and B) explain the formation of glycosides and

resistance to undergo addition reaction with sodium bisulphite.
• The phenomenon of mutarotation given by anomers (a- and b-
forms) can also be explained.
• Each anomer is a hemiacetal and readily hydrolyzed to give the
open chain structure.
• Thus, an equilibrium mixture contain both anomers (A and B) and
a small amount of open chain structure.
• This phenomenon is known as Mutarotation.
• Hence, easy opening and closing of hemiacetal ring accounts for
the phenomenon of mutarotation.

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• A very little quantity of glucose exists in the open chain form.

• A dynamic equilibrium exists between three forms.
• Equilibrium mixture of glucose contains
0.02% of open chain glucose
37% (~1/3) of α-isomer
63% (~2/3) of the β-isomer

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• The presence of small amount of the open-chain aldehyde form in

the equilibrium mixture of the two anomers can explain the
reactions like osazone formation, reduction of Fehling's and Tollen's
reagents.
• As equilibrium is disturbed by conversion of the open-chain form
into these derivatives, more of the open-chain form results to push
the reactions.
• The aldehyde reactions like Schiff's test, bisulphite addition, etc. are
easily reversible and the concentration of the open-chain structure in
the equilibrium mixture is too low (less than 0.5%) for satisfactory
results. Therefore, it does not give Schiff's test and bisulphite
addition.

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• The two methyl D-glucosides are also anomers.

• These are stable in aqueous solutions and do not undergo
mutarotation.
• These are stable to alkali and do not hydrolyze to open chain form
by the alkali present in Fehling’s or Tollen’s reagents.

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10) Ring Size
• We have assumed the ring structure of D(+) glucose to be six-
membered oxygen heterocycle pyran (hence the name pyranose
structure also).
• But all the foregoing facts can be explained by considering the ring
closure at carbon other than at C-5.
• The ring closure at C-2 and C-3 is ruled out as the resulting three
and four membered rings are unstable.
• The cyclization at C-4 gives five membered ring (furanose) has to be
considered, as it has the same order of stability as that of six
membered ring in accordance to Baeyer strain theory.
• The following experimental facts have established the six membered
ring rather than five membered ring formation in the structure of
glucose.
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• Six membered, methyl-b-D-glucoside, on methylation with methyl

sulphate in the presence of alkali followed by hydrolysis with dil.
HCI gave b-2, 3, 4, 6-tetra-O-methyl-D glucose.
• This was oxidized by HNO3 to give a mixture of trimethoxy glutaric
acid and dimethoxy succinic acid which can be given only by the
oxidative cleavage of the intermediate "Keto acid" on either side of
C-5.
• The keto group in intermediate keto acid must be situated at C-5.
• The free-OH group in tetra-O-methyl D-glucose would obviously be
at C-5 that is the point of linkage of hemiacetal ring in b-D-
glucoside.

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• If C-4 hydroxy group is involved in the formation of hemiacetal ring

of b-D-glucoside (five membered furanose ring), then trimethoxy
glutaric acid could not be formed which is actually obtained in
experiment.
• Further five membered ring is expected to give methoxy malonic
acid which is not actually formed.
• Hence, five membered (furanose) structure for glucose is ruled out.

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• Hence, 6-membered ring (Pyranose) is the common ring in the

methyl b-D-glucoside and b-D-glucose which can account the
formation of both final products of oxidative cleavage.

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11) Haworth projection formulae for a-and b-D(+) glucose

Two cyclic forms of glucose and their glucosides can be represented
by the Haworth projection formulae (A) and (B) in which hexagonal
pyran ring is considered to be situated in the plane of the paper.

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• In this structure next to oxygen is the chiral carbon C-1 followed

by C-2, C-3, C-4 and C-5 arranged in a clockwise direction.
• The -H and -OH are situated at right angles to the plane of the
ring.
• The lines projecting upwards are above the plane and lines
projecting downwards are below the plane.
• Intersection of lines carries carbon atom.
• This structure explains the phenomenon of mutarotation.

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To write the complete Haworth formula,
• All groups written to right of the Fischer projection formula are
written downwards
• Whereas all groups on the left of the Fischer projections are
written upwards.

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12) Chair conformation

• The above structure A and B can be presented by strain free chair
conformation (C and D).
• This is believed to be the most stable conformation as all the bulky
substituents (-CH2OH and -OH) occupy equatorial positions,
except -OH group at C-1 in a-D-glucose.
• It is obvious that b-anomer of D (+) glucose is more stable as all
bulky substituents occupy equatorial position.
• Hence more dominating in D (+) glucose (63%).
• These structures have been confirmed by X-ray analysis.

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Relative Configuration of Sugars
• Glyceraldehyde has an asymmetric carbon (marked by *) and
exists in two enantiomeric forms.
• The enantiomers having –OH group on the right side in Fischer
projection are referred to as D-glyceraldehydes and the ones with
the –OH on left as L-glyceraldehydes.
• All aldoses can be prepared by a complex series of reactions from

one of the enantiomeric glyceraldehydes.
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• When glyceraldehyde is converted to a tetrose, the carbon atom of

the aldehyde group of glyceraldehyde is reduced, thus, becoming a
new asymmetric carbon atom.
• The added carbon atom becomes the aldehyde group of
aldotetrose produced.

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• The original asymmetric carbon atom of glyceraldehyde now

becomes the asymmetric carbon farthest from the aldehyde group
in new aldose.
• All aldoses in which the –OH group of the asymmetric carbon
farthest from the aldehyde group is written on the right of the
Fischer projection formula are said to be related to D-
glyceraldehyde and are known as D-sugars.
• Similarly the aldoses where asymmetric carbon farthest from the
aldehyde group has –OH group on the left are termed as L-sugars.
• This is known as relative configuration of sugars.

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Absolute Configuration of Glucose CHRIST

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Absolute Configuration of Glucose

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Epimers & Epimerisation
• (+)-glucose and (+)-mannose should be a pair of diastereomeric
aldohexoses, differ in configuration at C-2 only.
• Such diastereomers which differ only in configuration at one-

asymmetric carbon atom are called epimers.

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• The process used to change the conformation at one of the

asymmetric carbon atoms (in compounds containing more than
one asymmetric carbon atoms) without altering any change in the
remaining part is called epimerization.
• Conversion of glucose into mannose is an example of
epimerization. Hence, mannose is an epimer of glucose.

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D-Fructose

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Fructose
Fructose is also believed to exist in the furanose structure (as 5 membered ketal form
with both a- and b- isomers), but such forms are unstable and their existence is
known only in combined form (say in fructosides, sucrose, inuline, etc.)
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D-Mannose
D-Galactose

Ascending the Chain CHRIST

Killiani-Fischer synthesis (Ascending)
Conversion of
Lengthening of carbon chain in aldoses D-arabinose to
D-glucose &
D-mannose
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Conversion of D-arabinose to D-glucose & D-mannose Deemed to be University
The synthesis involves the following steps:

1) Addition of HCN (formation of diastereomeric cyanohydrin):
Addition of cyanide to aldehyde group lengthens the chain by one carbon and
generates a new stereocenter around which two configurations are
possible. As a result, two diastereomeric cyanohydrins are formed.
2) Hydrolysis (formation of two diastereomeric aldonic acids)
3) Dehydration (formation of lactone)
4) Reduction of lactone with Na–Hg :
The acids on dehydration followed by reduction with sodium amalgam
result in the formation of two aldoses with one carbon more than the
parent aldose.
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Ruff degradation (Descending the series)

Conversion of
Shortening of carbon chain in aldoses D-glucose to
D-arabinose

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Conversion of D-glucose to D-arabinose Deemed to be University

1) Oxidation of D-glucose with Br2 water (formation of gluconic acid)
2) Conversion to Calcium salt
The calcium salt of gluconic acid is prepared by treating it with CaCO3.
3) Oxidation of calcium salt of gluconic acid :
The calcium salt is then oxidized by hydrogen peroxide in presence of
ferric salts* as catalyst to form D-arabinose (new aldose with one carbon
atom less than the parent molecule). In the process, carbonate ion is
eliminated.
[*Hydrogen peroxide and ferrous sulphate [Fe (II)], are together also used
as oxidizing agents and collectively known as Fenton’s reagent].
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Wohl’s degradation (Descending the series)

Conversion of
Shortening of carbon chain in aldoses D-glucose to
D-arabinose

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Conversion of D-glucose to D-arabinose Deemed to be University

1) Reaction of D-glucose with hydroxylamine gives corresponding
aldoxime
2) The aldoxime on heating with acetic anhydride looses water
molecule to form a polyacetylated aldonitrile
3) Further heating of the product with ammoniacal silver nitrate
results in elimination of HCN and hydrolysis of acetyl group to
produce D-arabinose (a new aldose with one carbon less). This step
is, in fact the reverse of cyanohydrin reaction.
❖ Zemplén modification :- Uses sodium methoxide in CHCl3 is used in

the elimination of the nitrile instead of tollens’ reagent.
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Osazone Formation: Reaction with Phenylhydrazine
• The carbonyl group of aldose or ketose reacts with one mole of
phenylhydrazine to produce corresponding phenylhydrazone.
• In a weakly acidic solution and in the presence of excess
phenylhydrazine, the formation of osazone takes place.
• This formation involves use of three moles of phenylhydrazine.
• The first step involves the reaction of carbonyl group with
phenylhydrazine to yield phenylhydrazone.
• The second step involves Amadori rearrangement where –CHOH
group at C2 in glucose is oxidized to keto group. Aniline is
eliminated in the process from glucose phenylhydrazone.

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• The third step is the reaction of newly generated carbonyl groups with second
mole of phenylhydrazine followed by a reaction with the third mole of
phenylhydrazine, which involves removal of ammonia. The net result is
formation of glucosazone.
• The osazone so produced contains two phenylhydrazino groups at C1 and C2.

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Conversion of Glucose into Fructose
• The conversion of glucose (an aldohexose) into fructose (a keto hexose)
takes place by converting glucose into glucosazone which on boiling
with HCl give a polyhydroxy keto aldehyde.
• The selective reduction of keto aldehyde gives fructose (a keto-hexose).

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Conversion of Fructose into Glucose
• It involves the reduction of fructose followed by oxidation, dehydration
and reduction to give epimeric glucose and mannose.

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Di or Polysaccharides Monosaccharides Linkage
Sucrose Glucose and Fructose α-1, β-2-glycosidic
Maltose Two Glucose Units α-1, 4-glycosidic
Lactose Galactose and Glucose β-1, 4-glycosidic
Starch Glucose
Amylose α-1, 4-glycosidic

Amylopectin α-1, 4 and α-1, 6-glycosidic
Cellulose Glucose β-1, 4-glycosidic

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Sucrose
• William Miller, an English chemist, coined the word sucrose in the year
1857.
• Sucrose is a molecule composed of two monosaccharides, namely glucose
and fructose.
• This non-reducing disaccharide has a chemical formula of C12H22O11.
• Sucrose is commonly referred to as table sugar or cane sugar.

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• In sucrose, the monomers glucose and fructose are linked via an ether bond
between C1 on the glucosyl subunit and C2 on the fructosyl unit.
• Glucose exists predominantly as a mixture of α and β "pyranose" isomers,
but only the α form links to fructose.
• Fructose itself exists as a mixture of α and β "furanose" isomers, but only
the β isomer links to glucose.
• The sucrose molecule is unique among the common disaccharides in having
an α-1, β-2-glycosidic (head-to-head) linkage.
• Because this glycosidic linkage is formed by the OH group on the anomeric
carbon of α-D-glucose and the OH group on the anomeric carbon of β-D-
fructose, it ties up the anomeric carbons of both glucose and fructose.

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Maltose
• Maltose, also known as malt sugar is present in germinating seeds, especially
cereals.
• The hydrolysis of maltose produces two molecules of D-glucose.
• The glucose units in maltose are joined in a head-to-tail fashion through an
α-linkage from the first carbon atom of one glucose molecule to the fourth
carbon atom of the second glucose molecule (that is, an α-1,4-glycosidic
linkage).
• The bond from the anomeric carbon of the first monosaccharide unit is
directed downward, which is why this is known as an α-glycosidic linkage.
• The OH group on the anomeric carbon of the second glucose can be in
either the α or the β position

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Maltose

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Maltose

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Maltose

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Maltose

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Lactose
• Lactose is known as milk sugar because it occurs in the milk of humans,

cows, and other mammals.
• Lactose is a reducing sugar composed of one molecule of D-galactose and
one molecule of D-glucose joined by a β-1,4-glycosidic bond (the bond
from the anomeric carbon of the first monosaccharide unit being directed
upward).
• It is a β-galactoside, not a glucoside (i.e., reducing moiety is glucose).
• Certain bacteria can metabolize lactose, forming lactic acid as one of the
products. This reaction is responsible for the “souring” of milk.

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Lactose
• Exists as a- or b- lactose

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Lactose
• Exists as a- or b- lactose

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Starch
• Chemically starch is a homopolymer of α-Glucopyranose units with the

chemical formula (C6H10O5)n.
• Starch is composed of two types of polymer chains known as water
insoluble amylose and water soluble amylopectin.
• Amylose possesses a linear structure with α 1–4 glycosidic linkage while
amylopectin possesses a branched structure with α 1–4 as well as α 1–6
glycosidic linkages.
• Normally, starch consists of relatively lower amount of amylose (20–30%)
than that of amylopectin (70–80%).

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Starch

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Cellulose
• Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer available in nature, since it is
one of the major components of the cell walls of most of the plants.
• Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C6H10O5)n, a
polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many
thousands of β (1→4) linked D-glucose units.

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Cellulose

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Starch
Cellulose

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Carbohydrates Full Unit

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CARBOHYDRATES

Provide us three basic needs of life, namely,

• Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and

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• Having empirical formula Cn(H2O)m hence named as hydrates of carbon

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• Structurally, carbohydrates contain only two main

• Carbohydrates are defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or

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Monosaccharides can be further sub-classified in accordance with

ii. Aldehyde (–CHO) or ketone (–CO) group present in the saccharide.

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Examples of some common disaccharides along with products obtained

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● (a) Homopolysaccharides : Starch and cellulose for example give only

● (b) Heteropolysaccharides : a-Haparin and hyaluronic acid give more

Sugars and Non-sugars

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1) It has the molecular formula, C6H12O6, as determined on the

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• This shows the presence of one carbonyl group.

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5) Presence of terminal —CH2OH group

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• The arrangement of the six C-atoms in glucose has been

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• On the basis of these observations, Baeyer in 1870 gave

• C* = Assymetric or chiral carbon

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Glucose consumes 5 moles of periodic acid forming formaldehyde

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• The naturally occurring dextrorotatory glucose, (+)glucose, is only

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8) Limitations of open chain structure

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iv. Formation of two types of ethers (Glycosides)

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• Cyclic hemiacetal structure (A) generates a new chiral center at C-1.

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• These structures (A and B) explain the formation of glycosides and

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• A very little quantity of glucose exists in the open chain form.

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• The presence of small amount of the open-chain aldehyde form in

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• The two methyl D-glucosides are also anomers.

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• Six membered, methyl-b-D-glucoside, on methylation with methyl

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• If C-4 hydroxy group is involved in the formation of hemiacetal ring

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• Hence, 6-membered ring (Pyranose) is the common ring in the

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11) Haworth projection formulae for a-and b-D(+) glucose

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• In this structure next to oxygen is the chiral carbon C-1 followed