LOAD ANALYSIS

Structural Design STD307B

Mr J Moroathsehla

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
Wind load pressures

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
3
Wind Loads

Wind loads, like rain snow and hail, are environmentally induced loads.
This act outside the structure and as such, the structure must carry these loads.

 Unlike other environmentally induced loads, wind loads act perpendicular to the
walls or roof surface of a building;

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
4
Wind loads
Standards and Calculation Methodology

 SANS 10160-3 :2019 (Or latest) provides methodology for calculating wind loads –

 The load calculation procedure is summarized in table 5 of SANS 10160-3 :2019

given below;

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
5
Wind loads
Calculation Methodology as per table 5 SANS10160-3: 2019
• Fundamental basic wind speed
• Basic wind speed
• Terrain category
• Reference height
• Topography coefficient
• Roughness/ height coefficient
• Peak wind speed
• Peak wind speed pressure
• Internal pressure coefficient
• External pressure coefficient
• Internal wind pressure
• External wind pressure
• Wind force calculated from force coefficient
• Internal force
• External force
• Frictional force/drag force

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
6
Wind loads
Determining the basic wind speed

 Figure 1 (Figure 1 in SANS

10160-3 2019)
 𝑽𝒃 = 𝑪𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃 × 𝑽𝒃,𝒐 (basic
wind speed)

 𝐶𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏 =
1−𝐾×ln{−𝑙𝑛(1−𝑝)}) 𝑛
[{ }]
1−𝐾×ln(−𝑙𝑛0.98)

• K= shape parameter =0.2

• n=0.5
• p= probability of annual
exceedance (p=0.02 for a
mean return period of 50
years)

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
7
Wind loads
Determining the Terrain Category

 SANS 10160-3: 2019 table 2 defines the four terrain categories

 The four terrain categories are defined as follows;

• Category A-flat, open countryside or sea
• Category B-Small scattered buildings, low vegetation or trees
• Category C-Suburban and light industrial areas with closely spaced small
to medium buildings and large trees
• Category D-Area in which at least 15% of the surface is covered with
buildings with average height greater than 15m

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
8
Wind loads
Determining reference height topography and roughness coefficient
 SANS 10160-3: 2019 table 1 and clause 7.3.2 facilitates the
determination of 𝑐𝑟 𝑧-the roughness factor;
𝒛−𝒛𝟎 ∝
 𝑪𝒓 𝒛 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔(𝒛 )
𝒈 −𝒛𝒄
 All the heights are defined in clause 7.3.2.1, these are dependant on
the terrain category,
 Reference height 𝑧𝑒 is given by clause 7.5.2.2
 The topography factor 𝑐0 (𝑧) is taken as one unless the terrain
topography increases the wind speed by more than 5%, then 𝑐0 (𝑧) is
calculated in accordance to Annexure B.3 of SANS 10160-3: 2019
 The basic peak wind speed, 𝑣𝑏,𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 is given by the expression
𝑣𝑏,𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘=1.0𝑣𝑏
 From this coefficients or factors, we can now calculate the peak wind speed
at elevation z using the expression;
𝒗𝒑 𝒛 = 𝑪𝒓 (𝒛) × 𝑪𝟎 (𝒛) × 𝒗𝒃,𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
9
Wind Loads
Peak wind pressure

 The wind pressure is dependant on the square of the wind speed and the air density

 The air density,ρ, depends on the height above sea level as given by table 4 in SANS
10160-3: 2019

 The peak wind speed pressure , 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) is given by the expression below;

𝟏
𝒒𝒑 𝒛 = × 𝝆 × 𝒗𝒑 𝟐 (𝒛)
𝟐

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
0
Wind Loads

Pressures on Structural elements

 The pressure exerted on part of a structure is a function of the peak wind speed
pressure, the geometry of the structure and the orientation towards the flow of the
wind
 The relationship between the peak wind speed pressure and the pressure
exerted at a particular point of the structure is represented by the pressure
coefficients
 The pressure coefficients are multiplied by the wind pressure 𝑞𝑝 𝑧𝑒 to obtain the
actual wind pressure for any particular building surface
 The two coefficients introduced by the code are the external pressure (𝑐𝑝𝑒 ) and the
internal pressure coefficient (𝑐𝑝𝑖 ) –found in clause 8 of SANS 10160-3
 The coefficients are dependant on the type of roof and on the direction of the wind
 Sign Convention-A positive pressure coefficient indicates a pressure towards
a surface and a negative pressure coefficient indicates a pressure away from
the surface, or a suction

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
1
Wind Loads

Internal pressure and internal pressure Coefficient (𝒄𝒑𝒊 )

 The internal pressure coefficient is used to determine the pressure on the internal
surface elements
 To have internal pressures, an air passage is necessary to allow the flow between the
inside and the outside of the structure
 Internal pressures tend to adjust to external pressures at the position of air leakage
 Opening on the windward side tend to produce positive internal pressures and those
in the side or end walls negative internal pressure
 In case where there are several openings on various sides of buildings , the
internal pressure tend to equalise towards a weighted average
 The approach adopted by SANS 10160-3: 2019 is based on whether a building has a
dominant wall – figure 16 illustrates the determination of (𝑐𝑝𝑖 ) without a dominant
opening, based on the opening ratio
 SANS 10160-3: 2019 (Clause 8.3.9.6) also stipulates that where it is not possible to
estimate the opening ratio, (𝑐𝑝𝑖 ) should be taken as the more onerous of 0.2
and -0.3

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
2
Wind Loads

Resultant force
 The wind pressures on the internal and external surfaces are respectively
given by the following equations;
𝒘𝒊 = 𝒒𝒑 (𝒛𝒆 ) × 𝒄𝒑𝒊
𝒘𝒆 = 𝒒𝒑 (𝒛𝒆 ) × 𝒄𝒑𝒆
 The force acting on a structural element is determined as a product of the net
pressure (i.e difference between pressure on the internal and the external
surface, taking into account their signs) and the area of the element
 For the determination of the wind force for the whole structure , force
coefficients must be used as presented in Clause 7.5.3 of SANS 10160-3:
2019
 This force is used for the determination of the overturning moments or total
drag force on a structure in the wind, it is given by the expression below;
 𝑭𝒘 = 𝒄𝒔 × 𝒄𝒅 × 𝒄𝒇 × 𝒒𝒑 (𝒛𝒆 ) × 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒇

 NB: it is never possible to define the wind direction for design

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
3
Wind Loads

Example E2.3 (Mahachi)

Case (a) To be done in class
Case (b) To be done as a practice problem by the student

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
4
Wind Loads

Example

The building shown below in the Diagram is a newly proposed aircraft hanger to be
constructed in Lanseria international airport located north of Randburg and Sandton,
the area has small scattered buildings and is surrounded by farms. The altitude at the
proposed construction site is 1377 m. With reference to the relevant clauses from the
SANS 10160-3, determine the external pressure and force acting on the windward
wall of the building when all the openings are closed and the wind is in the direction
shown. Assume a return period of 50 years and that the concrete walls have a rough
finish.

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment
Department of Civil Engineering
6
Wind Loads
Example solution
Reference Workings Output
Figure 1 𝑣𝑏,0 = 36 𝑚/𝑠 36 m/s
7.2.3 𝐶𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏 = 1 1
7.2.2 𝑣𝑏 = 𝐶𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏 × 𝑣𝑏,𝑜 36 m/s
Table 2 Farmland and scattered buildings Terrain
category B
Figure 8.3.2.1 (h=12 m)<(b=90 m) Z=12 m
Figure 7 Height above ground level 𝑧 = 𝑧𝑒 = 12 𝑚
Table 2 & 𝑧𝑔 = 300, 𝑧0 = 0, 𝑧𝑐 = 2, 𝛼 = 0.095 1.002
7.3.2.1 𝐶𝑟 𝑧 = 1.002
7.3.1.2 𝐶𝑜 𝑧 = 1.000 1

7.3.1.1 𝑣𝑏,𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 1.0 × 𝑣𝑏 = 1 × 36 36m/s

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
Reference Workings Output
7.3.1.1 𝑣𝑝 𝑧 = 𝐶0 𝑧 × 𝐶𝑟 𝑧 × 𝑣𝑏,𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 1 × 1.002 × 36 36.072 m/s
Table 4 @ altitude of 1377m air density is 1.015 kg/𝑚3 1.015 kg/𝑚3
7.4 𝑞𝑝 𝑧 = 660.354 𝑁/𝑚2 0.660 kN/𝑚2
8.3.2.1 h/d=12/45=0.267 loaded area = 12 × 90 =
1080 𝑚2
8.3.1.1 Zone D: 𝐶𝑝𝑒 = 𝐶𝑝𝑒,10 = 0.8 Zone D: 𝐶𝑝𝑒 = 0.8
8.3.9.6 𝐶𝑝𝑖 = −0.3 (most onerous value) 𝐶𝑝𝑖 = −0.3
Note 2 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡, 𝐷 = 0.8 − −0.3 × 0.660 = 0.726 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
= 0.726 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
7.5.3.2 𝐹𝑤 = 𝐶𝑠 × 𝐶𝑑 × 𝐶𝑓 × 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 1080 𝑚2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 12 × 90 = 1080 𝑚2 𝐶𝑠 × 𝐶𝑑 =1
Table 17 𝐶𝑓 = 0.02 0.02
𝐹𝑤 = 1 × 0.02 × 0.726 × 1080 = 15.682 𝑘𝑁 𝐹𝑤 = 15.682 𝑘𝑁

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
8
Summary

Wind loads
 Wind load calculation procedure is summarized in table 5 of SANS 10160-3 :2019

 The topography factor 𝑐0 (𝑧) is taken as one unless the terrain topography
increases the wind speed by more than 5%

 The force acting on a structural element is determined as a product of the net

pressure (i.e difference between pressure on the internal and the external
surface, taking into account their signs) and the area of the element

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
Load Takedown
(Next)

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
0
Load Takedown

Load takedown definition

 Load takedown is the quantification of the loads acting on a structure or

more commonly structural elements.
 These loads could be live loads or dead loads
 They depend on various factors including the geometry of the structure,
the use of the structure and the consequences of failure of that structure
 SANS 10160-2: Self-weight and imposed loads- provide guidelines as to
how these loads are calculated

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
1
Load Takedown

Scope of SANS 10160-2

This part of SANS 10160 covers the design guidance and actions for the
structural design of buildings. It includes the following:
a) densities of construction materials and stored materials;
b) self-weight of construction works; and
c) imposed loads for buildings.
Where a building or structural member can be expected to be subject to
actions not listed in here, the most appropriate information should be used.

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
2
Load Takedown
SANS 10160-2 Loads
The live loads acting on a structure are chosen from table 1 and 2 of SANS
10160-2 as reproduced below.

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
3
Load Takedown
SANS 10160-2 Loads

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
4
Load Takedown
SANS 10160-2
Important tables

• Table 1 — Imposed loads on floors, balconies and stairs in buildings

• Table 2 -Imposed loads on floors due to industrial use and storage
• Table 4 — Imposed loads on traffic and parking areas in buildings
• Table 5 — Imposed loads on roofs (minimum values)
• Table A.1 — Density of concrete, mortar and plaster
• Table A.2 — Density of masonry materials
• Table A.4 — Density of timber and timber products

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
 Load combinations
Partial safety factors
‘Failure’ is defined by a mathematical model comprising of a load variable (S)
and a resistance variable (R). The two variables (R, S) can be any quantities (&
any units) that cancel out each other. Failure occurs when loading exceeds
the resistance.
failure = R < S

p.s.f are applied to so that a designed structure has a higher capacity than
actual loading, as such it should not reach its limit state during service i.e
safety is ensured.

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
 Load combinations
Partial safety factors for loads
Our normal loads (DL, LL, WL) are factored by p.s.fs to ensure that a member is
designed to higher load resistance than would occur under normal loading conditions.
The aim is to safeguard against unpredictable variations during use of the structure and
also help to cover against inaccuracies or some errors in design and construction
practices
The SANS 0160, Table 2 recommended p.s.fs for common applications are given below
i.e structural members (beams, columns, slabs, etc) must be designed to be capable of
supporting the loads as follows:

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
 Load combinations

Partial safety factors for loads

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering
THANK YOU

Faculty of Engineering and the built Environment

Department of Civil Engineering