A machine element that

constrains relative motion to

only the desired motion, and
reduces friction between • Carry load
moving parts. • Reduce friction & wear
• Limit unwanted motion

• White metal (tin, lead, zinc, and/or bismuth) – high

durability, could withstand high load momentarily, good
friction resistance, good performance even when there is
not much lubrication or when there is a slight
misalignment.
• Copper-lead alloys – high strength, high temperature
resistant, higher load capacity than white metal
• Lead bronzes – have better compatibility than tin
bronze, high hardness and good impact resistance, good
performance even when there is not much lubrication.
• Tin bronzes – high strength and hardness, high load- 1. The weight of the parts i.e. gears &
carrying capacity, good wear resistance and the ability to pulleys, along with the weight of the shaft
withstand pounding, corrosion resistant in seawater and that support the parts.
brines.
• Gun metals (copper, tin, and/or zinc) – corrosion 2.Tension induced by the action of
resistant, can withstand high pressure, high fluidity. belt or chain drives.
• Aluminium alloys (bronze) – high strength, can be heat
treated, excellent corrosion resistance, high temperature 3. The force between machine gear teeth.
strength.
 ➢Electric motors & power tools
➢ Alternators/ ➢Gearboxes & transmissions
starters ➢Pumps & compressors
➢Cooling fans
➢ABS motors

• Equivalent to 2 bearings Applications

mounted back to back • Centrifugal pumps
• Accommodates radial load (good) & • Electric motors
Applications
• Pumps & compressors
• Accommodates radial load &
axial load (fair) axial load in both directions • Blowers & fans
• Metal rolling mills
• Electric motors & generators
• High speed, low friction • One piece outer ring/inner ring • Transmissions & gearboxes • Machine tool spindles
• Automotive hub bearings
• Most commonly used
• A.k.a. Conrad bearings • Accommodates radial load (good) &
axial load (good) in one direction
• Greater axial load capacity than deep
groove ball bearings
Ball bearings – low cost, most • High speed
widely used • Low friction
• Angular ball bearings have • Locating in one direction
higher thrust load capacity in one low cost, most widely used
• Angular ball bearings have higher
direction than radial ball bearings thrust load capacity in one
direction than radial ball bearings
The rotating shaft has a sliding
contact with the
bearing, which is held stationary.
A.k.a. plain bearings

•A.k.a. rolling contact

bearings or rolling bearings.

•Due to less contact area, Due to large contact area, friction between
• Roller bearings have
higher load capacity than rolling friction is much mating parts is high, thus requiring greater
ball bearings. lesser than the sliding lubrication.
friction, hence, these
bearings are a.k.a.
antifriction bearings.

• Very high (excellent) radial load capacity
• Good speed capability
• Separable inner or outer ring
• Limited misalignment capability
• Rings can move axially during operation
(within limits)
• Very robust, long bearing life
Applications
• Large electric motors
• Gearboxes & transmissions
• Machine tool spindles
• Steel mills (rolling mills)
High load carrying capacity:
➢Heavy (excellent) radial loads/
impact loads
➢Moderate (good) axial loads
➢Different series carry different
ratio of
radial & axial loads
• Fair speed capability
• Can take misalignment:
➢Up to 1.50
➢No loss in capacity
• Designed for good radial load, fair axial
load.
• Outer ring is separable:
➢Outer ring is commonly called the
cup
➢Inner ring (with rollers & retainer) is
commonly called the cone
Fixed contact angle:
➢Shallow - larger radial load capacity
➢ Steep - larger axial load capacity
• Limited misalignment capability
application
• Automotive transmissions
• Heavy duty wheel bearings
• Aircraft wheel bearings
• Heavy duty industrial gearboxes
• Steel mill working rolls (roll neck)
• Plastic/metal forming equipment
to handle almost in low-speed
low-weight application.
• Needle roller bearings have high radial load (good) ratings,
require less space and can withstand very high speed (with
cage).
• Needle roller bearing – a special type of roller bearing
which uses long, thin cylindrical rollers resembling needles.
• Compared to ball bearings, needle bearings have a greater
surface area in contact with the races, thus, can support
greater radial loads.
• Since it is thin, it is suitable to be used when there is very
limited space for bearings.
• Applications: automobile components i.e. pumps,
compressors, transmissions.
 • Oil
➢ lubricating agent & cooling agent
➢ E.g. in an automobile engine, the engine
oil lubricates the bearings & other
components while keeping the engine
temperature within an acceptable range for
efficient operation; the oil transfers the
concentrated heat to a larger volume of oil
which is then pumped through heat
exchangers for cooling
➢ Oil is commonly used as cooling agent
in electrical transformers
➢ Used in situations where it is difficult to
apply grease (because oil flows better); e.g.
door hinge: it’s easier to squeeze in a few
drops of oil than removing the hinge pin
and spreading grease on it
#how to lubricate the bearing
• Lubricant for rolling element bearings is
usually oil e.g. mineral oil, fully synthetic oil
or a blend of the two.
• Different types of additives are added to
these oils to influence the corrosion
resistance properties and build layers that
protect the metal surface under extreme
conditions.
• Additives also improve the viscosity
behavior at different temperatures.
• Thickener is used to absorb the oil and
release it in small quantities to the bearing
element over a long period.
• In practice, only a few grams of grease are
used for lubricating rolling element bearings
and this quantity usually lasts a long time.
• Grease is used on rolling element
bearings when the load is low, and their
durability could be increased.
• Grease:
➢ Higher viscosity & thicker than oil
➢ Suitable for applications where oil
would not stay in place or where a
continuous supply of oil cannot be
maintained
➢ E.g. automobile chassis, wheel
bearings, gears
➢ Stay in place:
help preventing debris from entering,
resist washing out when exposed to
water,
provide rust protection
➢ Reduce lubricant loss and
lubrication frequency: very
advantageous in situations where
access is difficult i.e. sealed bearings
on heavy equipment
➢Reduce friction and
prevent overheating &
corrosion
➢facilitates movement
➢avoids wear and premature fatigue
➢reduces internal friction
➢ensures that the bearings are
sealed against external bodies
➢reduces the operating noise
➢protects the bearing against
corrosion
➢Maintains a stable viscosity over a broad range of temperatures
➢Good film strength that can support loads
➢Stable structure that provides for long service life (prolong bearings life)
➢Non-corrosive and compatible with adjacent components
➢Provides a barrier against contaminant and moisture
➢Provide a film of lubricant between the sliding or rolling surfaces
➢Help distribute and dissipate heat
➢Prevent corrosion of the bearing surfaces
➢Protect the parts from the entrance of foreign matters
The choice of lubricants is important
in ensuring the proper functioning
and long service life of bearings.
• If the bearing is subject to high loads,
the operation is continuous and the
rotational speed is fast, then oil lubricant
is the ideal solution to ensure the proper
functioning of your rolling system.
• If the loads are low, the operation is
intermittent, & the speed is limited (slow),
grease will be sufficient.
• Grease - the simplest & most efficient choice
because it provides all the functions mentioned
above & also allows for operation with low
maintenance.
• However, if the bearing is integrated in an oil-
lubricated machine, it is recommended to use the
same lubricant system.
 • Configuring the fuel injector spray nozzle pattern – e.g.
modify the number of orifices in the injector and the
diameter of the orifices for better atomization.
oToo many orifices do not work very well because there is
too many interferences between the spray jets.
oWhen there are more holes, the holes need to be smaller
to get the same amount of fuel into the piston as that
delivered by fewer and larger holes.
oThe smaller the orifice, the better.

• Diesel engines have a bowl shaped cavity in the piston

that helps disperse the fuel as it is injected into the
cylinder prior to combustion – alter its shape.
• Match the bowl shape to the spray pattern to optimize
the combustion process.

• Better atomization will achieve better combustion in the

entire piston cavity because it will utilize the entire volume
of air in the piston more efficiently.
• Most engines work well on low speeds or low loads.
• At higher loads and engine speeds, more soot is formed
because the engine is not burning the fuel efficiently.
• Their goal is to increase efficiency of diesel engines
operating at higher speeds and loads.
 • Reuse the heat from the
exhaust.
• This transfer of heat is called
regenerative heating and the
heat exchanger used for this is
called regenerator.

• Based on the figure, steam

flow on the suction side of the
new nozzle flows more
smoothly than on the
conventional nozzle.
• Development of boundary
layer is controlled, and as a
result, profile loss is smaller.
• If the compression is achieved in two or more
stages, the air delivered by the 1st stage of the
compressor is cooled on its way to the next stage.
• This cooling of air in between the two stages is
called intercooling.
• Usually water-cooled surface coolers are
• Inject water into the working air at the entrance to employed.
the compressor. • This increases the efficiency of the induction
• The compressed air is cooled by absorbing the system by reducing induction air heat created and
latent heat of vaporisation of water from air. promoting more thorough combustion.
• By injecting the water, the total mass flow of the
working medium is increased by the mass of the
injected water and hence the power output of the
cycle is increased.
• The work ratio is also increased in addition to the
lowering of the air rate.

• The stage moisture loss accounts for a large part in low

pressure stages.
• To reduce moisture loss, it is necessary to know the behaviour of
droplets in low pressure stages and remove harmful droplets
effectively.
• The minimum droplet diameter that can be removed by the drain
catcher and the droplet removal ratio vary with the location and shape/
design of the drain catcher.
• Thus, it is possible to reduce the moisture loss by optimizing the
drain catcher i.e. calculating the diameter, distribution, and orbit of
droplets experimentally and theoretically.
 • It uses the wasted hot flue gas to heat feed water on its way
to the boiler.
• It saves fuel and prevent damaging effects of feeding the
boiler with cold water.

• Exposing the valves without insulation to the air causes a lot

of heat loss.
• Insulating them can improve boiler room efficiency.
• It also reduces the risk of burns while still allowing easy access for
maintenance.
• Recover some of heat energy from boiler blowdown for the
boiler
system.
• Using heat recovery to cool down the blowdown and heat up
the make-up water will improve energy efficiency.
• Cooling the blowdown also helps to comply with local codes
limiting the discharge of high-temperature liquids into the
sewer system.