BIO1108

LECTURE

ACTIVITY 1. BIOSAFETY PROCEDURES IN THE LABORATORY • Physiology- concerned function of tissue, organs,
COURSE OUTLINE and systems
• Study of Living Organism • Morphology- Concerned with phenotype or
• Scope of Biology appearance of living things
• Characteristics of Living Organisms • Embryology- Studies the developmental pattern of
• Scientific Method organism from zygote to birth.
• Basis of Life CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
• Chemical Basis of Life • made up of units called cells
• Cellular Basis of Life • reproduce
• Tissues • based on a universal genetic code
• Cellular Metabolism • grow and develop
• Cell Cycle • obtain and use materials and energy
• Organismic Structure and Function • respond to their environment
• Support and Locomotion • maintain a stable internal environment
• Nutrition • change over time
• Gas Exchange BIG IDEAS OF BIOLOGY
• Circulation Science as a Way of Knowing
• Excretion and Osmoregulation -Science is not just a list of “facts.”
• Defense -The job of science is to use observations,
• Neural and Chemical Coordination questions, and experiments to explain the natural
world
• Course Outline
Interdependence in Nature
• Reproduction and Development
-All forms of life on Earth are connected together
• Animal Reproduction into a biosphere, which literally means “living
• Plant Reproductive Biology planet.”
• Diversity of Living Organisms Matter and Energy
• Taxonomic Features -Matter serves as nutrients to build body structure
• Ecosystem: Structure and Functions. and energy to fuel the processes of life.
LECTURE 1: BIOLOGY Cellular Basis of Life
-Organisms are composed of one or more cells,
• Biology is concerned with all living things.
which are the smallest units that can be considered
• There are many branches of biology.
fully alive.
• Everyone is study of a group of organisms.
Information and Heredity
-Genetic code is common, with minor variations, to
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY every organism on Earth.
-That information, carried in DNA, is copied
• Zoology- Concerned with animals (Zoologist) Unity and Diversity of Life
• Botany- Concerned with plants (Botanist) -All living things are fundamentally alike at the
• Cytology- Concerned with cells molecular level, even though life takes an almost
• Ecology- is the science which studies the relationship unbelievable variety of forms.
of living things between each other and their Evolution
environment. Also, ecology is concerned with -In biology, evolution, or the change in living things
pollution. Such as air and water pollution through time, explains inherited similarities as well
• Genetics- study of how features are passed to as the diversity of life.
offspring from their parents. Structure and Function
• Anatomy- Study of inner organs of the body -Structures evolve in ways that make particular
• Microbiology- Study of microscopic life functions possible, allowing organisms to adapt to
• Taxonomy- study of the classification of living a wide range of environments.
organisms. Classification is made groups of Homeostasis
organisms. -An organism’s ability to maintain a relatively
• Ornithology- Study of birds stable internal environment.
Science, Technology, and Society
• Entomology- Study of insects
-Science seeks to provide useful information, but
• Parasitology- study of parasites
only a public that truly understands science and
• Bacteriology- Study of bacteria how it works can determine how that information
• Mycology- study of fungi should be applied.
• Virology- study of virus

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SCIENCE
• A body of knowledge gained from studying the
natural world
• It is tested against the natural world
• Does not use supernatural explanations
• Its conclusions are not absolute.
• New discoveries can revise previous conclusions
• It is falsifiable
Conclusion – STEP 5
• HOW DOES SCIENCE SEPARATE MYTHS FROM
REALITY?
Scientific Method
• Process of learning facts by
observations and experimentation from
which in turn, certain conclusions or Communication
principles are drawn.
• It is a logical, orderly way to solve
problems or to answer a question
• The most useful method for the science
of Zoology is the research method.
Observation – STEP 1
• Employing your five senses to perceive objects or
events.
Forming a Problem – STEP 2
• Based on observations; one or more questions are
generated
Forming a Hypothesis – STEP 3 Theories
• A statement is testable if evidence can be collected
that either does or doesn’t support it.
• It can never be proven beyond doubt.
• Often must be refined and revised or discarded
The Hypothesis
• Is a statement made in advance that states the
results that will be obtained from testing the
hypothesis.
Scientific Method cont...
• Often written in the form of an “if-then” statement.
Experimenting – STEP 4
• Testing a hypothesis or prediction by gathering data
under controlled conditions – conducting a controlled
experiment.
• Based on a comparison of a control group with an
experimental group
• Both groups are identical except for one factor
(independent variable)
• Observations and measurements are taken for a
particular factor (dependent variable) in both groups.
• Driven by or results from independent variable
• Measuring Edward Jenner 1749-1823
• Involves quantitative data that can be measured in
numbers &/or qualitative data information that isn’t
numbers.
• Sampling Observation
• Technique of using a sample – a small part – to
represent the entire problem.
• Organizing Data
- Involves placing observations and
measurement (data) in order
- Graphs, charts, tables, or maps
• Analyzing Data
- Collected and organised data must be
analysed
- Princess of determining whether data are
reliable or whether they support or do not
support a hypothesis or prediction
• Conclusions are made on the basis of facts
• Often drawn from data gathered from a study or
experiment
• Should not support the hypothesis
• Should be re-testable
• Scientists must share the results of their studies
with other scientists (peers)
• Publish findings in journals
• Present their findings at scientific meetings
• Scientists must be unbiased
- Should not tamper with their data
- Only publish & report tested & proven ideas
• Sharing of information is essential to scientific
process
• Subject to examination and verification by other
scientists
• Allows scientists to build on the work of others
• A theory may be formed after many related
hypotheses have been tested and supported with
experimental evidence
• A broad and comprehensive statement of what is
thought to be true
• Supported by considerable evidence
• Ties together related hypotheses
• The scientific method as a process takes a lot of time
that in science there is no quick answers to problems.
• All inquiries are answered through the scientific
method.
• Biology as a science; therefore; it follows the method
of scientific inquiry.
• Facts and truths in Zoology have been acquired
through experimentation
• It is not the objective of Zoology to moralized but to
present the facts related to living things so that man
can have a broader understanding of himself and the
world he lives in.
• Smallpox
• Scientific Method
• Smallpox is deadly
• Survivors are immune

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• Milkmaids do not get smallpox • Individual living thing

• Milkmaids get cowpox from cows
Levels of Organization
Hypothesis • Bison
• Cowpox makes you immune to smallpox
Groups of Cells
Prediction • Tissues, organs, andtems
• If you are exposed to cowpox, you will be immune to • Nervous Tissue – Brain – Nervous System
smallpox
Cells
Experiment • Smallest functional unit of life
Results
• Boy did not get smallpox Levels of Organization
• Nerve Cell
Conclusion
• Hypothesis supported Molecules
• Groups of atoms; smallest unit of most chemical
Robert Koch 1843-1910 compounds
• Identified the bacterium that causes anthrax
• Identified the bacterium that causes tuberculosis Levels of Organization
• Water, DNA
Louis Pasteur 1822-1895
• Developed vaccines for rabies and anthrax BIOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
• Demonstrated the existence of germs • More than any other area of study, biology touches
• Invented Pasteurization your life every day.

How can life be studied at different levels?

Some of the levels at which life can be studied include:
• Molecules
• Cells
• Organisms
• Populations
• Communities
• Biomes
• The biosphere

Biosphere
• The part of Earth that contains all ecosystems

Levels of Organization
• Living things may be studied on many different levels.
The largest and most complex level is the biosphere.
The smallest level is the molecules that make up living
things.

Ecosystem
• Community and its nonliving surroundings

Levels of Organization
• Hawk, snake, bison, prairie dog, grass, stream, rocks,
air

Community
• Populations that live together in defined area

Levels of Organization
• Hawk, snake, bison, prairie dog, grass

Population
• Group of organisms of one type that live in the same
area

Levels of Organization
• Bison herd

Organism

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Carbon dioxide Water Oxygen Sugar

4.Responsiveness
LECTURE 2: LIFE ON EARTH • Respond to stimuli in the external environment
• Detect and respond to changes in light, heat, sound
Definition of Life and chemical and mechanical contact
• Sum total of all the physical and chemical changes • Coordinates it’s responses
manifested by living things.
5.Reproduction
• Life per se is a phenomenon, difficult to define.
• All species have the ability to reproduce
• To understand life, one has to understand the various
• Not essential to survival of individual but is
characteristics of living things.
essential for continuation of a species
• These unique sets of characteristics differentiate living
things from non-living things. 6.Evolve/Adaptation
• Ability to adapt to their environment through the
Characteristics of Life process of evolution
1.Organization
• Favorable characteristics are selected for and
• Organized at both the molecular and cellular levels
passed on to offspring
• Take in substances from the environment and organize
• Called adaptations
them in complex ways
• Driven by natural selection or “survival of the
• Specific cell structures (organelles) carry out particular
fittest”
functions
7.Growth and Development
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
• Growth occurs as the result of cell division and cell
Nonliving Levels
1. ATOM (element) enlargement
2. MOLECULE (compounds like carbohydrates • Cell division is the formation of two cells from a
& proteins) preexisting cell
3. ORGANELLES (nucleus, ER, Golgi ...) • New cells enlarge as they mature
• When a cell grows to a size where its surface area
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION isn’t big enough for its volume, the cell divides
Living Levels: • The process by which an adult organism arise is called
1. CELL (makes up ALL organisms) development
2. TISSUE (cells working together • Repeated cell divisions and cell differentiation
3. ORGAN (heart, brain, stomach ...)
4. ORGAN SYSTEMS (respiratory, circulatory ...) 8. Made up of Cells
5. ORGANISM • All living things are composed of cells
• In multicellular organisms, many are specialized to
Living Levels continued: perform specific functions
• POPULATION (one species in an area)
• Cells are always very small
• COMMUNITY (several populations in an area
• The size of multi-celled organisms depends on the
• ECOSYSTEM (forest, prairie...)
number of cells NOT their size
• BIOME (Tundra, Tropical Rain Forest...)
• BIOSPHERE (all living and nonliving things on Earth) 9.Organisms have definite form and size
• Organisms are recognize from one other by their
2. Homeostasis definite appearance.
• Maintain stable internal conditions • Since living things produce offspring similar to
• Temperature, pH, etc. themselves, all organisms belonging to the same
• They maintain a chemical composition different from species are alike with a certain degree of variations
that of their surroundings. or differences.
• Atoms found in living are likewise found in non-living
things but their arrangement differs. 10. Organisms have definite chemical composition
• Organic compounds like proteins, carbohydrates, • All organisms are basically made up of
lipids and nucleic acid are exclusive macromolecules carbohydrates, fats and proteins dissolved in water.
of living things.
LIFE BEGINS ON EARTH
3.Energy Use
• Capable of taking in energy from the environment and • Life arose more than 3.5 billion years ago
transforming this into another form. • First organisms (living things) were single celled
• Use energy in a process called metabolism
- Sum of all chemical processes • Only life on Earth for millions of years
• Require energy to maintain their molecular and cellular • Organisms changed over time (evolved)
organization, grow and reproduce
• New organisms arose from older kinds
6CO2 + 6H2O Light energy CH20% + 602
• Today there are millions of species

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• They inhabit almost every region of Earth today

• Everyone knew that boiling killed microorganisms, so
he proposed to test whether or not microorganisms
Theories of the Origin of Life appeared spontaneously after boiling.
Divine Creation Theory • He boiled chicken broth, put it into a flask, sealed it,
• In this theory, life is believed to have been created by and waited sure enough, microorganisms grew.
some supernatural being. • Needham claimed victory for spontaneous generation

Spontaneous Generation Theory

• Certain living things could rise directly from a non-living
Try Again!
• An Italian priest, Lazzaro Spallanzani, was not
matter.
convinced, and he suggested that perhaps the
Old Belief microorganisms had entered the broth from the air after
• a seventeenth century recipe for the spontaneous the broth was boiled, but before it was sealed.
production of mice required placing sweaty underwear • To test his theory, he modified Needham’s experiment
and husks of wheat in an open-mouthed jar, then he placed the chicken broth in a flask, sealed the flask,
waiting for about 21 days, during which time it was drew off the air to create a partial vacuum, then boiled
alleged that the sweat from the underwear would the broth. No microorganisms grew.
penetrate the husks of wheat, changing them into mice. • Proponents of spontaneous generation argued that
- Although such a concept may seem Spallanzani had only proven that spontaneous
laughable today, it is consistent with the other generation could not occur without air.
widely held cultural and religious beliefs of the
time.
Pasteur to the Rescue!
REDI TRIES TO DISPROVE • The theory of spontaneous generation was finally laid
• Francesco Redi- One of the first to disprove
spontaneous generation. He is an Italian doctor who
proved Maggots came from flies (1668).
• Spontaneous Generation
• The idea that organisms originate directly from
nonliving matter “life from nonlife.”
• abiogenesis-a-not bio-life; genesis origin

Redi’s Problem
• Where do maggots come from?
• Hypothesis: Maggots come from flies.
• Redi put meat into three separate jars. to rest in 1859 by the young French chemist, Louis
•Jar 1 was left open Pasteur.
•Jar 2 was covered with netting • The French Academy of Sciences sponsored a contest
•Jar 3 was sealed from the outside for the best experiment either proving or disproving
Redi’s Experiment Step 1 spontaneous generation.
- Jar-1 • Pasteur’s winning experiment was a variation of the
- Left open Maggots developed methods of Needham and Spallanzani.
- Flies were observed laying eggs on the meat • He boiled meat broth in a flask, heated the neck of the
in the open jar flask in a flame until it became pliable, and bent it into
the shape of an S. Air could enter the flask, but airborne
Redi’s Experiment Step 2
microorganisms could not they would settle by gravity
- Jar-2
in the neck.
- Covered with netting Maggots appeared on
• As Pasteur had expected, no microorganisms grew.
the netting Flies were observed laying eggs
When Pasteur tilted the flask so that the broth reached
on the netting
the lowest point in the neck, where any airborne
Redi’s Experiment Step 3 particles would have settled, the broth rapidly became
- Jar-3 Sealed
- No maggots developed

Still not convinced!

• The debate over spontaneous generation continued for
centuries.
• In 1745, John Needham, an English clergyman,
proposed what he considered the definitive
experiment.

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cloudy with life. & Pasteur had both refuted the theory amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, glycerol
of spontaneous generation and convincingly and nucleotides.
demonstrated that microorganisms are everywhere - - These complex molecules together with rain
even in the air. formed an organic soup of the ancient
seas.
Cosmozoic or Interplanetary Theory - The soup became thicker as new organic
• It was believed that protoplasm in the form of resistant compounds such as proteins including
spores of simple living forms might have reached the enzymes; nucleic acids and ATP were
earth accidentally from some other source in the formed.
universe. - This part of the theory has been proven
possible in the laboratory by the work of S.
Marine Theory
Miller in 1953.
• The first forms of life were form under the sea
- Somehow, the complex organic compounds
Physico-Chemical Theory of Life interacted to form clusters of molecules called
• The earth was formed from a rapidly rotating ball of gas “coacervates” or “probionts”.
about five billion years ago. - The coacervates consist both of organic and
• Free atoms of heavier weight such as iron inorganic compounds.
accumulated in the center of the earth and remains hot. - Glucose, enzymes and some energy from
• Atoms of medium weight such as silicon and ATP were available to them and they
aluminum formed a middle shell. performed anaerobic respiration.
• The lightest elements, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen - They were capable of reproduction since
and carbon remained in the outer layers. they have DNA and nucleotides.
- In Effect, the coacervates are the first
• In the course of many million years, there was gradual
heterotrophs, the original form of life.
cooling of the earth and the free atoms began to bond
into molecules.
• Hydrogen, the most reactive, combined with any of the
three other elements;
• Thus hydrogen with nitrogen formed ammonia, with
oxygen it formed water, and with carbon, it formed
methane.
• As the earth continued to cool, these compounds
interacted with each other and formed simple organic
compounds like simple sugar, fatty acid, glycerol,
amino acid, purine and pyrimidines.
• The compounds formed were nonliving but they
furnished the building blocks or materials from which
living matter could be constructed.
• Genes, the unit of heredity are composed of
combinations of purines, pyrimidines, simple sugar
and phosphate.
• Heterotroph Hypothesis
- This hypothesis by A.I. Oparin considers that
the original atmosphere consisted of mixtures
of the gases ammonia, methane, hydrogen
and water vapor with much higher
temperature and more solar energy than
today.
- In contrast to the atmosphere today which has
79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, and 0.4%
carbon dioxide and with variable amount
of water vapor.
- Water vapor condensed as the earth cooled
and the water vapor condensed to fill the
rock basin and form the ancient seas.
- The rain that fell on the land dissolved the
mineral from the rocks and carried them to
the sea.
- The electrical discharges from the solar and
radiant energy caused gas molecules to
react and form organic substances such as

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LECTURE 3: GEOLOGICAL ERAS

• The record of the Earth’s time scale

What is the Earth’s time scale?

• The Geological time scale is a record of the life forms
and geological events in Earth’s history.
• Scientists developed the time scale by studying rock
layers and fossils worldwide.
• Radioactive dating helped determine the absolute
divisions in the time scale.

Divisions of Geologic Time

• Eras are subdivided into periods...periods are
subdivided into epochs.

Era
|
Period
|
Epoch
E+P=EP
FOUR Eras...
• PRE-CAMBRIAN -88% of earth’s history
• Paleozoic (ancient life)
- 544 million years ago...lasted 300 million yrs
• Mesozoic (middle life)
- 245 million years ago.... lasted 180 million yrs
• Cenozoic (recent life)
- 65 million years ago...continues through
present day

Divisions of Geologic Time

• Geological time begins with Precambrian Time. The
Precambrian’s lower limit is not defined, but ended
about 542 million years ago. Precambrian time covers
approximately 88% of Earth’s history.

The Precambrian Supereon

• The Precambrian Supereon is divided into three Paleozoic Era (Ancient Life)
Precambrian eons; • The Cambrian period is the 1st period of the Paleozoic
- Proteozoic 2.5-.5 BYA; Era. “Age of the Trilobites”
- Archean 3.8-2.5 BYA; and • Explosion of life in the oceans began during this era.
- Hadean 4.5-3.8 BYA. • Most of the continents were covered in warm, shallow
• Represents about 88 of the Earths histories. seas.
- Invertebrates were dominant- Trilobites
Precambrian Era - Fish emerged during this time
- Fish led to the arrival of amphibians
- The end of the Paleozoic era is called the
“Age of Amphibians”
- Early land plants including mosses, ferns and
cone-bearing plants
- The early coal forming forests were also
formed during this time.

Paleozoic Era
• Much of the limestone quarried for building and
industrial purposes, as well as the coal deposits of
western Europe and the eastern United States, were
formed during the Paleozoic.
• The Cambrian (beginning) opened with the breakup of
the world-continent Rodinia and closed with the

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formation of Pangaea, as the Earth’s continents came Mesozoic Era

together once again.
- This event is thought to have caused the
climate changes that led to mass extinction
event.
• The Appalachian mountains were formed during this
time.
Paleozoic Era
• At the end of the Paleozoic, the largest mass extinction
in history wiped out approximately 90% of all marine
animal species and 70% of land animals.
Possible causes of this Mass Extinction Event
- Lowering of sea levels when the continents
were rejoined as Pangaea (convergent
boundary)
- Increased volcanic activity (ash and dust)
- Climate changes– cooler climate
Trilobites
• Lived in Earth’s ancient seas
• Extinct before the dinosaurs came
into existence
• Cambrian Period is known as the
“Age of the Trilobites”
• Dinosaurs were also very active in this era.
- First small dinosaurs appeared in the
Triassic Period.
- Larger and more abundant dinosaurs
appeared in the Jurassic Period.
• Small mammals and birds also appeared during this
era.
- The mammals were small, warm-blooded
animals. Hair covering their bodies.
- These characteristics help them survive in
changing environments.
Mesozoic Era
• The main plant life of this time were Gymnosperms or
plants that produce seeds, but no flowers.
- Pine Trees
• Flowering plants appeared during the END of this era.
Mesozoic Era
• This era ended with a mass extinction event about 65
million years ago.
- Many groups of animals, including the
dinosaurs disappeared suddenly at this time.
• Many scientists believe that this event was caused by
a comet or asteroid colliding with the Earth.

Mesozoic Era – Mass Extinction Event

• Asteroid or Comet collides with Earth.
- Huge cloud of smoke and dust filled the air
- Blocked out sunlight
- Plants died
- Animals that eat plants died
- Animals that eat plant-eaters died.
• However, not all forms of life died during this event.
Many animals that you see today are descendant’s
from the survivors of this extinction event.
Brachiopods
• Marine animals that resemble clams Cenozoic Era – Recent Life
• Began about 65 million years ago and continues
Early Fish today!!
• Early fish did not have jaws. - Climate was warm and mild.
• Some species of sharks. - Marine animals such as whales and dolphins
Were in existence at this time. evolved.
Early Land Plants • Mammals began to increase and evolve adaptations
• Cone bearing Plants that allowed them to live in many different
• Mosses environments – land, air and the sea.
• Ferns - Grasses increased and provided food source
for grazing animals
Mesozoic Era – Middle Life
• Many mountain ranges formed during the Cenozoic
• At the beginning of this era the continents were joined
Era
as Pangaea.
- Alps in Europe and Himalayas in India; Rocky
• Pangaea broke up around the middle of this era. Mountains in the USA
• Reptiles became the most abundant animals because
of their ability to adapt to the drier climate of the Cenozoic Era
Mesozoic Era. • Growth of these mountains may have helped to cool
- Skin maintains body fluids down the climate
- Embryos live in shells - Ice Ages occurred late in the Cenozoic Era
(Quaternary Period).

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• As the climate changed, the animals had to adapt to
the rise and fall of the oceans caused by melting
glaciers.
• This era is sometimes called the “Age of Mammals”
Cenozoic Era
• Marine animal examples:
- Algae, Mollusks, Fish and Mammals
• Land animal examples:
- Bats, Cats, Dogs, Cattle and Humans
- Humans are thought to have appeared
around 3.5 million years ago (during the most
recent period – Quaternary)
• Flowering plants were now the most common plant life.
LECTURE 4: CHEMISTRY BASIS OF LIFE
Chemical and Cellular Basis of Life
• An insight into what living things are made of and the
processes on how cells obtain materials and energy for
carrying out life processes.
• It also presents the mechanism on how cells are able
to self-duplicate to form groups of specialized cells
called tissues
ATOMS AND MOLECULES
• The emergence of biological function starts at the
chemical level
• Everything an organism is and does depends on
chemistry
• Chemistry is in turn dependent on the arrangement of
atoms in molecules
• In order to understand the whole, biologists study the
parts (reductionism)
• Molecules and ecosystems are at opposite ends of
the biological hierarchy
• Each level of organization in the
Biological hierarchy builds on the one below it
• At each level, new properties emerge
• Organisms are composed of a great variety of
chemicals, both simple and complex.
• These chemicals, however, do not of
themselves possess the properties recognized
as life.
• This fact, strongly suggests that some kind of
order is imposed on them; that they are not simply
dispersed in random fashion in an aqueous medium.
Protoplasm
• The “living structure” present inside the cell
referred to as protoplasm, differentiates the
living beings from the non-living beings.
• Felix Dujardin (1835) described this homogenous
jelly like mass of the cell and gave the name
Sarcode.
• Huxley (1868) defined it as “Physical basis of life”.
• In 1839, Purkinje termed it as Protoplasm.
• Protoplasm is the ground substance of living matter
found within membrane of a cell.
• Von Mohl (1946) emphasized its role in cell division
including other metabolic processes of the cell.
• The existence of similarities between the protoplasm of
plants and animals was discovered by Max Schultz
(1861) who proposed the famous “Protoplasm
theory”.
• protoplasm is the main part of the cells, performing
all the physiological activity of the cell.
• Protoplasm is defined as a substance that exhibits the
properties and activities of life
• It has certain physical, chemical and physiological
properties.
Physical Properties of the Protoplasm
• The protoplasm is a colloidal solution. A colloid is a
heterogenous solution in which the particles
dispersed in the medium, range in size from 0.000001
to 0.0001 mm. Due to the size of these particles, they
do not settle as a result of gravity.
• It is viscous. Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow,
depending on certain environmental factors. The
viscosity of the protoplasm may bein the form of sol
(liquid), or a gel (semi-solid), and it can change its
viscosity from sol to gel (gelation), or gel to sol
(solation)
• Basically, the protoplasm is a polyphasic colloidal
system.
• The colloidal structure of protoplasm was explained by
Fisher and Hardy in 1894 and 1899 respectively.
• Viscosity of protoplasm has been found greater than
that of water, because of this reason protoplasm
exhibits Brownian and amoeboid movement
including cytoplasmic streaming (cyclosis).
• The Brownian movement is characterized by the
zigzag motion of the particles occurring due to the
bombardment of one molecule or particle by other.
• The amoeboid movements are the result of viscosity
and continued change of sol gel.
• The cytoplasmic streaming or cyclosis is the
circulation of protoplasm within the cell.
This streaming movement is of two types:
(a) Rotation:
The movement of protoplasm is in one
direction (clock-wise or anticlockwise) around vacuole
inside a cell, e.g., leaf cells of the Hydrilla, Vallisneria
etc.
(b) Circulation:
The protoplasm moves in different directions
around different vacuoles inside a cell e.g.,
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staminal hairs of Tradescantia. The contractility of Importance of water

protoplasm is essential for various vital activities.
The absorption and removal of water by the cells
is due to the contractility of cytoplasm. The
particles of protoplasm are adhered with each
other by Vanderwaal’s forces, that hold long
chains of molecules together.
Physical Properties of the Protoplasm
• The protoplasm is grayish in color. Any other
color is due to colored substances or materials in
it.
• Due to the many suspended particles in it, the
protoplasm is translucent.
Chemical Properties of the Protoplasm
• Protoplasm is composed of elements. The relative
amount of these elements in the protoplasm are
as follows:
• The molecule that Supports All of Life
• Water is the biological medium here on Earth
• All living organisms require water more than any
other substance
Water Facts
• Three-quarters of the Earth’s surface is submerged in
water
• The abundance of water is the main reason the Earth
is habitable
Water is Polar
• Atoms in a covalently bonded molecule may share
electrons equally, creating a nonpolar molecule
• If electrons are shared unequally, a polar molecule is
created
• In a water molecule, oxygen exerts a stronger pull on
the shared electrons than hydrogen

• This makes the oxygen

end of the molecule
slightly negatively
charged

• The hydrogen end of

the molecule is
slightly positively
charged

Life requires about 25 chemical elements • Water is therefore a

• A chemical element is a substance that cannot be
broken down to other substances by ordinary chemical
means
• About 25 different chemical elements are essential
to life
polar molecule
Interaction Between Water Molecules
• Negative Oxygen end of one water molecule is
attracted to the Positive Hydrogen end of another
water molecule to form a HYDROGEN BOND

• Carbon, hydrogen,
HYDROGEN BONDS
oxygen, and nitrogen
make up the bulk of • Hold water molecules together
living matter, but • Each water molecule can form
there is other a maximum of 4 hydrogen bonds
elements necessary • The hydrogen bonds
for life joining water
molecules are weak,
about 1/20th as strong
as covalent bonds.
• They form, break, and
reform with great
frequency
• Extraordinary Properties
that are a result of
Inorganic Compounds hydrogen bonds.
-Cohesive behavior
-Resists changes in
• Compounds that do not contain Carbon are called
temperature
inorganic compounds.
-High heat of vaporization
1. Water
-Expands when it freezes
2. Acids
-Versatile solvent
3. Bases
4. Salts

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 TRANS: Module 1

Water Facts • Capillary action-water molecules will “tow” each other

along when in a thin glass tube.
• At sea level, pure water boils at 100°C and
freezes at 0°C.
• Example: transpiration process which plantsand trees
• The boiling temperature of water
remove water from the soil, and paper towels soak up
decreases at higher elevations (lower
water.
atmospheric pressure).
• For this reason, an egg will take longer to
boil at higher altitudes

Properties of Water
• Cohesion
• Adhesion
• High Specific Heat
• High Heat of Vaporization
• Less Dense as a Solid

Organisms Depend on Cohesion

Hydrogen bonds hold the substance together, a Adhesion Causes Capillary Action
phenomenon called cohesion
Which gives water the ability to “climb” structures
• Attraction between particles of the same
substance (why water is attracted to itself)
• Cohesion is responsible for the transport of the water
column in plants
• Cohesion among water molecules play a key role in
the transport of water against gravity in plants
• Hydrogen bonds hold the substance together, a
phenomenon called cohesion

Cohesion
• Results in Surface tension (a measure of the
strength of water’s surface)
• Produces a surface film on water that allows insects
to walk on the surface of water
• Surface tension, a measure of the force necessary to
stretch or break the surface of a High Specific Heat
liquid, is related to cohesion.
• Water has a greater surface tension than most other • Amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g
liquids because hydrogen bonds among surface water of a substance to change its temperature by 1°C.
molecules resist stretching or breaking the surface. • Water resists temperature change, both for heating
• Water behaves as if covered by an invisible film. and cooling.
• Some animals can stand, walk, or run-on water without • Water can absorb or release large amounts of heat
breaking the surface. energy with little change in actual temperature.
• Surface tension, a measure of the force necessary to
stretch or break the surface of a liquid, is related to • Three-fourths of the earth is covered by water. The
cohesion. water serves as a large heat sink responsible for:
• Water has a greater surface tension than most other
liquids because hydrogen bonds among surface water ➢ Prevention of temperature fluctuations that are
molecules resist stretching or breaking the surface. outside the range suitable for life.
• Water behaves as if covered by an invisible film.
• Some animals can stand, walk, or run-on water without ➢ Coastal areas having a mild climate
breaking the surface.
• A stable marine environment

Adhesion
• Attraction between two different substances. High Heat of Vaporization
• Water will make hydrogen bonds with other surfaces
such as glass, soil, plant tissues, and cotton. • Amount of energy to convert 1 g of a substance
from a liquid to a gas

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 TRANS: Module 1

• In order for water to evaporate, hydrogen bonds must Solvent for Life
be broken.
• Solution
• As water evaporates, it removes a lot of heat with it.
➢ Solute
Evaporative Cooling
➢ solvent
• The cooling of a surface occurs when the liquid
evaporates • Hydrophilic

➢ Ionic compounds dissolve in water

• This is responsible for:
1. Moderating earth’s climate
➢ Polar molecules (generally) are water soluble
2. Stabilizes temperature in aquatic ecosystems
3. Preventing organisms from overheating
• Hydrophobic

• Water vapor forms a kind of global ‘‘blanket” which • Nonpolar compounds

helps to keep the Earth warm.
• Heat radiated from the sun warmed surface of the
earth is absorbed and held by the vapor.

Water is Less Dense as a Solid

• Ice is less dense as a solid than as a liquid (ice floats)
• Liquid water has hydrogen bonds that are constantly
being broken and reformed.
• Frozen water forms a crystal-like lattice whereby
molecules are set at fixed distances.

Density of Water
The density of water:
• The different regions of the polar water molecule can
1. Prevents water from freezing from the bottom up. interact with ionic compounds called solutes and
2. Ice forms on the surface first—the freezing of the dissolve them
water releases heat to the water below creating
insulation.
3. Makes transition between season less abrupt.
Acids and Bases
Homeostasis • Dissociation of water molecules leads to acidic and
basic conditions that affect living organisms
➢ Ability to maintain a steady state despite changing
conditions
• Organisms must maintain homeostasis in the pH of
their internal and external environments
➢ Water is important to this process because:
An acid
➢ Is any substance that increases the hydrogen ion
a. Makes a good insulator
concentration of a solution
b. Resists temperature change
A base
c. Universal solvent
➢ Is any substance that reduces the hydrogen ion
d. Coolant
concentration of a solution (more OH- ions)
e. Ice protects against temperature
extremes (insulates frozen lakes)

The Solvent of Life

➢ Water is a versatile solvent due to its polarity

➢ It can form aqueous solutions

➢ Called the universal solvent because so many

substances dissolve in water

➢ Most biochemical reactions involve solutes

dissolved in water- we need to get stuff in our cells!

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 TRANS: Module 1

Buffers
➢ Weak acids or bases that react with strong
The pH Scale acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden
changes in pH (neutralization).
➢ Scale goes from 0-14 with 7 neutral
➢ Buffers help organisms maintain the pH of
➢ The pH of a solution Is determined by the relative body fluids within the narrow range necessary
concentration of hydrogen ions for life.

➢ Difference of 10X in hydrogen ion concentration ➢ Are combinations of H+ acceptors and donors
between any two pH values forms in a solution of weak acids or bases

➢ Acids have a higher number of H+ ions than a base ➢ Work by accepting H+ from solutions when
they are in excess and by donating H+ when
➢ Acids produce H+ ion in solution they have been depleted.

➢ Bases produce OH- ions in solution ➢ Produced naturally by the body to maintain
homeostasis

3 Major Buffer System

1. carbonic acid bicarbonate buffer system

neutralizes gastric acids and stabilizes

the intra cellular pH of epithelial cells
by the secretions of bicarbonate ions
into the gastric mucosa

2. phosphate buffer system

operates in the internal fluids of all

cells if additional hydroxide ions enter
the cellular fluid, they are neutralized
by the dihydrogen phosphate ion.

3. protein buffer system

helps to maintain acidity in and around

the cells

Organic Compounds

➢ Compounds that contain CARBON

are called organic.

➢ Macromolecules are large organic

Ionic Compound: Salt molecules.

➢ A salt is an ionic compound formed Carbon (C)

when an acid reacts with a base.
Example: NaOH +HCl ——> NaCl ➢ Carbon has 4 electrons in outer
+H2O. shell.

➢ Many salts dissolve into ions that ➢ Carbon can form covalent bonds
serve key functions in cells. with as many as 4 other atoms (elements).

➢ Ex. Nerve function is dependent ➢ Usually with C, H, O or N.

on Na+, K+, Ca+ ions.
➢ Example: CH4(methane)

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 TRANS: Module 1

Carbohydrates
Macromolecules Disaccharide: two sugar unit
Examples:
• Large organic molecules. • Sucrose (glucose+fructose)
• Also called POLYMERS. • Lactose (glucose+galactose)
• Made up of smaller “building blocks” called • Maltose (glucose+glucose)
MONOMERS. Carbohydrates
Examples: Polysaccharide: many sugars units
1. Carbohydrate Examples: starch (bread, potatoes), glycogen
2. Lipids (beef muscle), cellulose (lettuce, corn)
3. Proteins Starch
4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) ➢ Starch is an example of a polysaccharide in
plants
Question: ➢ Plant cells store starch
How Are Macromolecules Formed? for energy
Answer: Dehydration Synthesis ➢ Potatoes and grains are
• Also called “condensation reaction” major sources of starch
• Forms polymers by combining monomers by “removing in the human diet
water”. Glycogen
➢ Glycogen is an example of a
polysaccharide in animals
➢ Animals store excess
sugar in the form of
glycogen
➢ Glycogen is similar in
structure to starch because
BOTH are made of glucose
monomers
Question:
Cellulose
How are Macromolecules separated or ➢ Cellulose is the most abundant organic
digested? compound on Earth
Answer: Hydrolysis ➢ It forms cable-like fibrils in the
• Separates monomers by “adding water” tough walls that enclose plants
➢ It is a major component of
wood
➢ It is also known as dietary fiber

Carbohydrates
Characteristics of Carbohydrates
• Consist of carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen
• Energy containing molecules
• Some provide structure
• Basic building block is a monosaccharide (CH 2O) n
• Small sugar molecules to large sugar molecules.
• Examples:
A. monosaccharide
B. disaccharide Dietary Cellulose
C. polysaccharide ➢ Most animals cannot derive nutrition from
fiber. They have bacteria in their digestive
Monosaccharide: one sugar unit tracts that can break down cellulose
➢ Examples: glucose (C6H12O6), deoxyribose, ➢ Chitin, another important structural
ribose, fructose, galactose polysaccharide
• Is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods
• Can be used as surgical thread
Cellular Fuel
➢ Monosaccharides are the main fuel that cells
use for cellular work

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 TRANS: Module 1

Lipids Fats in Organisms

• General term for compounds which are not soluble ➢ Most animal fats have a high proportion of
in water. saturated fatty acids & exist as solids at
• Lipids are soluble in hydrophobic solvents. room temperature (butter, margarine,
• Remember: “stores the most energy” shortening)
• Examples: ➢ Most plant oils tend to be low in saturated
1. Fats fatty acids & exist as liquids at room
2. Phospholipids temperature (oils)
3. Oils Lipids & Cell Membranes
4. Waxes • Cell membranes are made of lipids called
5. Steroid hormones phospholipids
6. Triglycerides • Phospholipids have a head that is polar & attract water
7. (hydrophilic)
Characteristics of Lipids • Phospholipids also have 2 tails that are nonpolar and
• Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen do not attract water (hydrophobic)
• Greater than 2:1 ratio of H:O Steroids
• Includes fats, oils, phospholipids, and cholesterol ➢ The carbon skeleton of steroids is bent to
• Building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol. form 4 fused rings
• Energy storage molecules ➢ Cholesterol is the “base steroid” from which
• Phospholipids part of cell membrane your body produces other steroids
Six functions of lipids: ➢ Estrogen & testosterone are also steroids
1. Long term energy storage Synthetic Anabolic Steroids
2. Protection against heat loss (insulation) ➢ They are variants of testosterone
3. Protection against physical shock ➢ Some athletes use them to build up their
4. Protection against water loss muscles quickly
5. Chemical messengers (hormones) ➢ They can pose serious health risks
6. Major component of membranes Other examples...
(phospholipids) ➢ Plant leaves are coated with waxes to
Triglycerides: prevent water loss
composed of 1 glycerol and 3 ➢ Honeycomb in a beehive is made of beeswax
fatty acids.
Proteins
Characteristics of Proteins
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur
• Serve as structural components of animals
• Serve as control molecules (enzymes)
• Serve as transport and messenger molecules
• Basic building block is the amino acid

Fatty Acids
There are two kinds of fatty acids you may see these
on food labels:
1. Saturated fatty acids: no double
bonds (bad)
2. Unsaturated fatty acids: double
bonds (good)

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Proteins (Polypeptides)
• Amino acids (20 different kinds of aa) bonded
together by peptide bonds (polypeptides).
• Six functions of proteins:
1. Storage: albumin (egg white)
2. Transport: hemoglobin
3. Regulatory: hormones
4. Movement: muscles
5. Structural: membranes, hair, nails
6. Enzymes: cellular reactions

Tertiary Structure
20 Amino Acid Monomers • Secondary structures bent and folded into a more
complex 3-D arrangement of linked polypeptides
• Bonds: H-bonds, ionic, disulfide bridges (S-S)
• Call a “subunit”.

Quaternary Structure
• Composed of 2 or more “subunits”
• Globular in shape
• Form in Aqueous environments
• Example: enzymes (hemoglobin)

Proteins (Polypeptides)
Four levels of protein structure:
A. Primary Structure
B. Secondary Structure
C. Tertiary Structure
D. Quaternary Structure

Primary Structure Protein Structures or CONFORMATIONS

Amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds
(straight chains)

Secondary Structure
• 3-dimensional folding arrangement of a primary
structure into coils and pleats held together by
hydrogen bonds.
• Two examples:

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 TRANS: Module 1

Examples of Proteins What Affects Enzyme Activity?

• Keratin and hemoglobin- structural proteins • Three factors:
• Actin and myosin- contractile proteins 1. Environmental Conditions
• Enzymes- amylase, maltase 2. Cofactors and Coenzymes
Proteins as Enzymes 3. Enzyme Inhibitors
➢ Many proteins act as biological catalysts or 1. Environmental Conditions
enzymes Extreme Temperature are the most dangerous
➢ Thousands of different enzymes exist in the ➢ high temps may denature (unfold) the enzyme.
body. ➢ pH (most like 6 - 8 pH near neutral)
➢ Enzymes control the rate of chemical ➢ Ionic concentration (salt ions)
reactions by weakening bonds, thus lowering the 2. Cofactors and Coenzymes
amount of activation energy needed for the reaction • Inorganic substances (zinc, iron) and vitamins
(respectively) are sometimes needed for proper
Enzymes enzymatic activity.
• Example:
➢ Their folded conformation creates an area Iron must be present in the quaternary
known as the active site. structure - hemoglobin in order for it to pick up oxygen.

➢ Enzymes are globular proteins.

Two examples of Enzyme Inhibitors
➢ The nature and arrangement of amino acids a. Competitive inhibitors: are chemicals that
in the active site make it specific for only one resemble an enzyme’s normal substrate and compete
type of substrate. with it for the active site.
Inhibitors
Enzyme + Substrate = Product b. Noncompetitive inhibitors:
➢ Inhibitors that do not enter the active site, but
bind to another part of the enzyme causing
the enzyme to change its shape, which in turn
alters the active site.

Nucleic Acids
➢ Store hereditary information.
➢ Contain information for making all the body’s
proteins
Genes

How the Enzyme Works ➢ Are the units of inheritance

➢ Program the amino acid sequence of
polypeptides
➢ Are made of nucleotide sequences on DNA

• Two types:
a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA- double helix)
b. Ribonucleic acid (RNA-single strand)

• Nucleic acids are composed of long chains of

nucleotides linked by dehydration synthesis.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid
• DNA
• Stores information for the synthesis of specific
proteins
• Found in the nucleus of cells, mitochondria
and chloroplast
• Double strand
• Deoxyribose

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 TRANS: Module 1

• Two strands of DNA join together to form a • Within cells, DNA is organized into structures called
double helix chromosomes and the set of chromosomes within a
cell make up a genome.

Physical and Chemical Properties

• DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units
called nucleotides.
• The DNA chain is 20 Ångströms wide (2 nanometres).
• In every 360O turn, there are 10 base pairs.
• Height- 34 Ångströms
• Approximate distance between base pair is 3.4
Ångströms

Nucleotides
• Building block of nucleic acids.
• Nucleotides include:
phosphate group
pentose sugar (5-carbon)
nitrogenous bases:
adenine (A)
thymine (T) DNA only
uracil (U) RNA only
cytosine (C)
guanine (G)

DNA Functions
• Directs RNA synthesis (transcription) Bases
• Directs protein synthesis through RNA Each DNA nucleotide has one of the following bases:
(translation)

Nucleotide

HISTORY OF DNA
• Discovery of the DNA double helix
A. Rosalind Franklin - X-ray photo of DNA.
B. Watson and Crick - described the DNA molecule from
Franklin’s X- ray.

DNA
• Stores and passes on genetic information from one
generation to another. Chargaff’s Rule
• The DNA segments that carry this genetic information • Adenine must pair with Thymine
are called genes. • Guanine must pair with Cytosine
• Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will be about
the same.

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 TRANS: Module 1

Nucleotide Monomers
➢ Form long chains called DNA
➢ Nucleotides are joined by sugars & phosphates on
the side
DNA
➢ Two strands of DNA join together to form a
double helix

DNA by the Numbers

• Each cell has about 2 m of DNA.
• The average human has 75 trillion cells.
• The average human has enough DNA to go from
the earth to the sun more than 400 times.
• DNA has a diameter of only 0.000000002 m.
• The earth is 150 billion or 93 million miles from the
sun.

BASE-PAIRINGS AMAZING DNA FACTS…

• Since DNA from a single human cell extends in a single
thread for almost 2 meters long!!!
• It contains information equal to some 600,000 printed
pages of 500 words each!!!
(a library of about 1,000 books)

Ribonucleic Acid
• Responsible for protein synthesis
• Single strand nucleic acid
• Found in the nucleolus, ribosomes and cytoplasm of
cell
• Ribose
RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
➢ Ribose sugar has an extra –OH or hydroxyl
group
➢ It has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine
(T)
DNA Double Helix

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 TRANS: Module 1

Summary of Key Concepts

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 TRANS: Module 1
CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
Cellular biology is reductionist – based on the view that
knowledge of the parts of the whole can explain the character of
the whole
FOUNDERS
Zacharias Janssen (1590)
• Cell biology began as a result of the discovery that
curved glass surfaces can bend light & form images
Robert Hooke (1665)
• English microscopist
• Described chambers in cork; called them cells
(cellulae) since they reminded him of cells occupied
by monks living in a monastery
• Found them while trying to explain why cork stoppers
could hold air in a bottle so effectively
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1665)
• Dutch seller of clothes & buttons – in spare time, he
ground lenses & made microscopes of remarkable
quality
• He was the first to describe living single cells; his
results were checked and confirmed by Hooke
✓ Cell as seen before the cell theory
Anton van Leeuwenhoek, XVII. century:
algae, bacteria, sperm cells, etc
Mattias Schleiden (1838)
• German lawyer turned botanist – realized that,
despite differences in tissue structures, all plant
tissues were made of cells & that plant embryos
arise from single cell
Theodor Schwann (1839)
• German zoologist – realized cellular basis of animal
life; concluded that plants & animals are similar
structures
Schwann then proposed first two tenets of cell theory
 All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
 The cell is the structural unit of life for all organisms.
Rudolph Virchow (1858)
• German pathologist – Studied the pathology of
cells (ability to cause disease); made good case for &
added third tenet of Cell Theory derived from his cell
division observations;
1. Cells can arise only by division from a preexisting cell.
Cell theory
• All living things are composed of cells
• Cells are the fundamental building block of life
• All cells come from pre-existing cells (life begets life)
Prokaryotes- the first cells
• Cells that lack a nucleus or membrane-bound
organelles
• Includes bacteria
• Simplest type of cell
• Single, circular
Chromosome
❖ Prokaryotic cell
• Nucleoid region (center) contains the DNA
• Surrounded by cell membrane & cell wall
(peptidoglycan)
• Contain ribosomes (no membrane) in their
cytoplasm to make proteins
STRUCTURE
❖ Nucleoid
• DNA in the bacterial cell is generally
confined to this central region.
• Though it isn't bounded by a membrane, it is
visibly distinct (by transmission microscopy)
from the rest of the cell interior.
❖ Ribosome
• Ribosomes give the cytoplasm of bacteria a
granular appearance in electron
micrographs.
• Though smaller than the ribosomes in
eukaryotic cells, these inclusions have a
similar function in translating the genetic
message in messenger RNA into the
production of peptide sequences (proteins).
❖ Capsule
• This layer of polysaccharide (sometimes proteins)
protects the bacterial cell and is often associated with
pathogenic bacteria because it serves as a barrier
against phagocytosis by white blood cells.
❖ Cell wall
• This layer of polysaccharide (sometimes proteins)
protects the bacterial cell and is often associated with
pathogenic bacteria because it serves as a barrier
against phagocytosis by white blood cells.
❖ Plasma membrane
• This is a lipid bilayer much like the cytoplasmic
(plasma) membrane of other cells. There are
numerous proteins moving within or upon this layer
that are primarily responsible for transport of ions,
nutrients and waste across the membrane
❖ Pili
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 TRANS: Module 1

• These are hollow, hairlike structures made of protein • Make up a bilayer where tails point inward toward
allow bacteria to attach to other cells. A specialized each other
pilus, the sex pilus, allows the transfer of genetic • Can move laterally to allow small molecules (O2, CO2,
information from one bacterial cell to another. Pili & H2O to enter)
(sing., pilus) are also called fimbriae (sing., fimbria).

❖ Flagella ✓ The cell membrane is fluid

• The purpose of flagella (sing., flagellum) is motility. • Molecules in cell membranes are constantly moving
Flagella are long appendages which rotate by means and changing
of a "motor" located just under the cytoplasmic
membrane. Bacteria may have one, a few, or many
flagella in different positions on the cell.

Eukaryotes
• Cells that
HAVE a ❖ Cell membrane proteins
nucleus and • Proteins help move large molecules or aid in cell
membrane-
recognition
bound
organelles • Peripheral proteins are attached on the surface (inner
• Includes protists, or outer)
fungi, plants, • Integral proteins are embedded completely through
and animals the membrane
• More complex type
of cells ❖ Glycoproteins
• Glycoproteins have carbohydrate tails to act as
❖ Eukaryotic cell markers for cell recognition
• Contain 3 basic cell structures:
• Nucleus
• Cell Membrane
• Cytoplasm with organelles
• Animal Cell Organelles

❖ Organelles • These proteins include receptors for odors, tastes and

hormones, as well as pores responsible for the
• Very small (Microscopic)
controlled entry and exit of ions like sodium (Na+)
• Perform various functions for a cell
potassium (K+), calcium (Ca++) and chloride (Cl-).
• Found in the cytoplasm
❖ Cytosol
❖ Cell membrane or Plasma membrane • Jelly-like substance
enclosed by cell
• Composed of double layer of phospholipids and
membrane
proteins
• Provides a medium
• Surrounds outside of ALL cells
for chemical reactions
• Controls what enters or leaves the cell
to take place such as
• Living layer
signal transduction
pathways, glycolysis,
intracellular receptors,
and transcription factors.
• This is a collective term for the cytosol plus the
organelles suspended within the cytosol that carry out
specific jobs
• Found in ALL cells

❖ The control organelle- nucleus

❖ Phospholipids
• Contains the DNA in chromosomes
• Heads contain glycerol & phosphate and are • Controls the normal activities of the cell
hydrophilic (attract water) • Bounded by a nuclear envelope (membrane) with
• Tails are made of fatty acids and are hydrophobic pores
(repel water) • Usually the largest organelle

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 TRANS: Module 1

• Each cell has fixed • During animal cell division, the centrioles
number of chromosomes that carry genes replicate (make new copies) and the
• Genes control cell characteristics centrosome divides.
• The result is two centrosomes, each with its
❖ Nuclear envelope own pair of centrioles.
• The two centrosomes move to opposite ends
• Double membrane surrounding nucleus of the nucleus, and from each centrosome,
• Also called nuclear membrane microtubules grow into a "spindle" which is
• Contains nuclear pores for materials to enter & leave responsible for separating replicated
nucleus chromosomes into the two daughter cells.
• Connected to the rough ER
❖ Centrioles and the Mitotic Spindle
• Made of microtubules (tubulin)

✓ Inside the nucleus

• The genetic material (DNA) is found
DNA is spread out and appears as CHROMATIN
in non-dividing cells

• DNA is condensed & wrapped around proteins

forming as CHROMOSOMES
in dividing cells

❖ Centrioles

• Found only in animal cells

• Paired structures near nucleus
• Each centriole is a ring of nine groups
of fused microtubules.
• There are three microtubules in each microtubules in
✓ what does DNA do?
each group
• DNA is the hereditary material of the cell
• Appear during cell division forming mitotic spindle
• Genes that make up the DNA molecule code for
• Help to pull chromosome pairs apart to opposite ends
different proteins
of the cell
• The DNA is similar in every cell of the body, but
• Microtubules (and centrioles) are part of the
depending on the specific cell type, some genes may
cytoskeleton.
be turned on or off - that's why a liver cell is different
• In the complete animal cell centrosome, the two
from a muscle cell, and a muscle cell is different from
centrioles are arranged such that one is perpendicular
a fat cell.
to the other.
Nucleous
❖ Cytoskeleton
• Inside nucleus
• Cell may have 1 to 3 nucleoli • Helps cell maintain
• Disappears when cell divides cell shape
• Makes ribosomes that make proteins • Also help move
• The nucleolus produces ribosomes, which move out organelles around
of the nucleus and take positions on the rough • Made of proteins
endoplasmic reticulum where they are critical in • Microfilaments are
protein synthesis. threadlike & made
of ACTIN
❖ Centrosome • Microtubules are tubelike & made of TUBULIN
• The centrosome, or MICROTUBULE
• The cytoskeleton is an organized network of three
ORGANIZING CENTER (MTOC), is an area
primary protein filaments:
in the cell where microtubules are produced.
1. microtubules
• Plant and animal cell centrosomes play
2. actin filaments (microfilaments)
similar roles in cell division, and both include
3. intermediate fibers
collections of microtubules, but the plant cell
❖ Mitochondrion (plural= mitochondria)
centrosome is simpler and does not have
centrioles. • “Powerhouse” of the cell

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 TRANS: Module 1

• Generate cellular energy (ATP)

• More active cells Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
like muscle cells
have MORE • SER lacks ribosomes
mitochondria on its surface
• Both plants & • Is attached to the
animal cells have ends of rough ER
mitochondria • Makes cell products
• Site of CELLULAR that are USED
RESPIRATION (burning glucose) INSIDE the cell
• Surrounded by a DOUBLE membrane
• Has its own DNA
• Folded inner membrane called CRISTAE (increases Functions of the smooth
surface area for more chemical reactions) ER
• Interior called matrix • Makes membrane lipids (steroids)
• Regulates calcium (muscle cells)
Interesting fact:
• Destroys toxic substances (Liver)
• Mitochondria Come from cytoplasm in the EGG
cell during fertilization ❖ Endomembrane system
Therefore …
• You inherit your mitochondria from your mother!

What do mitochondria do?

• “Power plant” of the cell
• Burns glucose to release energy (ATP)
• Stores energy as ATP

❖ Endoplasmic reticulum- ER
• Network of hollow membrane tubules
• Connects to nuclear envelope & cell membrane
• Functions in Synthesis of cell products & Transport
• Includes nuclear membrane connected to ER
➢ TWO KINDS OF ER- ROUGH AND connected to cell membrane (transport)
SMOOTH
❖ Ribosomes
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
• Has ribosomes on its surface • Made of PROTEINS and rRNA
• Makes membrane proteins and • “Protein factories” for cell
proteins for EXPORT out of cell • Join amino acids to make proteins
• Process called protein synthesis
• Each ribosome comprises two parts, a large subunit
and a small subunit.

• Messenger RNA from the cell nucleus is moved

systematically along the ribosome where transfer
RNA adds individual amino acid molecules to the
lengthening protein chain.

• Can be attached to
Rough ER
• Proteins are made by ribosomes on ER surface • Be free (unattached) in the cytoplasm
• They are then threaded into the interior of the
Rough ER to be modified and ❖ Golgi Bodies
transported
• Making proteins • Stacks of flattened sacs
• Have a shipping side (trans face) and receiving side
(cis face)
• Receive proteins made by ER
• Transport vesicles with modified proteins pinch off the
ends
• Modify, sort, & package

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 TRANS: Module 1

• molecules from ER ✓ Cilia moving away dust particles from the lung
• for storage OR respiratory system
transport out of cell
• Materials are transported from Rough ER to Golgi to
the cell membrane by VESICLES

❖ Lysosomes

• Contain digestive enzymes

• Break down food, bacteria, and worn out cell parts for
cells
• Programmed for cell death (AUTOLYSIS)
• Lyse (break open) & release enzymes to break down
& recycle cell parts)

➢ Lysosome digestion ❖ Vacuoles

• Cells take in food by phagocytosis • Fluid filled

• Lysosomes digest the food & get rid of wastes sacks for
storage
✓ Lysosome: are common in animal cells, but rare in • Small or
plant cells. absent in
o Hydrolytic enzymes of plant cells are more animal cells
often found in the vacuole. • Plant cells
have a large
✓ Peroxisome: Peroxisomes are membrane-bound Central Vacuole
packets of oxidative enzymes.
• No vacuoles in bacterial cells
o In plant cells, peroxisomes play a variety of
roles including converting fatty acids to sugar
❖ Contractile Vacuole
and assisting chloroplasts in photorespiration
o In animal cells, peroxisomes protect the cell • Found in unicellular
from its own production of toxic hydrogen
protists like paramecia
peroxide.
• Regulate water intake
o As an example, white blood cells produce
hydrogen peroxide to kill bacteria. by pumping out excess
o The oxidative enzymes in peroxisomes water (homeostasis)
break down the hydrogen peroxide into • Keeps the cell from
water and oxygen. lysing (bursting)

✓ Secretory Vesicle: Cell secretions - e.g. hormones,

neurotransmitters - are packaged in secretory
vesicles at the Golgi apparatus.
o The secretory vesicles are then
transported to the cell surface for release.

❖ Cilia & flagella

• Made of protein
tubes called
microtubules
• Microtubules arranged
(9 + 2 arrangement)
• Function in moving cells,
in moving fluids, or in small particles across the cell
surface
• Cilia are shorter and more numerous on cells
• Flagella are longer and fewer (usually 1-3) on cells

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 TRANS: Module 1

• Shape
Shapes of Animal Cells o Flagellated
• Source
• Shape o Sperm Cell
o Spider-web like • Function
• Source o Movement/Reproduction
o Bone cell
• Function
o Communication
• Shape
o Round/Circular
o Spherical
• Shape • Source
o Stellate/Star-like o Egg cell
• Source • Function
o Nerve Cell o Movement
• Function o Reproduction
o Communication

• Shape
• Shape o Oval
o Pyramidal • Source
• Source o Frog’s RBC
o Glands • Function
• Function o Transport
o Excretion

• Shape • Shape
o Columnar o Biconcave
• Source • Source
o Stomach/Small o Human RBC
Intestine • Function
• Function o Transport
o Absorption

• Shape • Shape
o Polygonal o Amorphous
• Source • Source
o Liver Cell o WBC
• Function • Function
o Secretion o Protection

• Shape
o Squamous • Shape
• Source o Fusiform
o Skin Cell • Source
• Function o Smooth Muscle
o Covering • Function
o Protection o Contraction
o Relaxation of
muscles

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 TRANS: Module 1

• Shape
o Filamentous
• Source
o Skeletal Muscle
• Function
o Contraction
o Relaxation

• Shape
o Net-like
• Source
o Cardiac Muscle
• Function
o Unity of Movement

Factors affecting Cell Size

• Surface area (plasma membrane surface) is
determined by multiplying length times width (L x W)
• Volume of a cell is determined by multiplying length
times width times height (L x W x H)
• Therefore, Volume increases FASTER than the
surface area

❖ Cell size
• When the surface area is no longer great enough to
get rid of all the wastes and to get in enough food and
water, then the cell must divide

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 TRANS: Module 1

Table 1: Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotes
Table 2: Comparison of structures Eukaryotes
between animal and plant cells

Typical organisms bacteria, archaea protists, fungi, plants, animals

Typical animal cell Typical plant cell

Typical size ~ 1-10 µm ~ 10-100 µm (sperm cells, apart from the tail, are smaller)
Organelles • Nucleus • Nucleus

nucleoid region;o noNucleolus

real (within nucleus) o Nucleolus (within nucleus)
Type of nucleus real nucleus with double membrane
nucleus
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) • Rough ER

• Smooth ER • Smooth ER
DNA circular (usually) linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone proteins
• Ribosomes • Ribosomes

• Cytoskeleton • Cytoskeleton
RNA-/protein- RNA-synthesis inside the nucleus
coupled in cytoplasm
synthesis • Golgi apparatus protein synthesis in cytoplasm• Golgi apparatus (dictiosomes)

• Cytoplasm • Cytoplasm

Ribosomes 50S+30S• Mitochondria 60S+40S • Mitochondria

• Vesicles • Vesicles

very few •structures •

Cytoplasmatic Lysosomes Chloroplast and other plastids
highly structured by endomembranes and a cytoskeleton
structure
• Centrosome o Central vacuole(large)

o Centrioles o Tonoplast (central vacuole

Cell movement flagella made of flagellin flagella and cilia made of tubulin
o Vacuoles membrane)
• Peroxisome
Mitochondria none one to several dozen (though some lack mitochondria)
• Vacuoles

• Glyoxysome
Chloroplasts none in algae and plants
Additional structures • Plasma membrane • Plasma membrane

Organization •
usually singleFlagellum
cells
single cells, colonies, higher• multicellular
Flagellumorganisms with specialized
(only in gametes)
cells
• Cilium • Cell wall

• Plasmodesmata
Mitosis (fission or budding)
Cell division Binary fission (simple division)
Meiosis

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Cell Physiology
➢ The body of an organism is made up of cells that are
arranged into tissues to carry out specialized
functions like support and contraction.
➢ Aside from these specialized functions, cells carry out
vital general functions such as:
o Translocation of materials
o Cellular respiration
o Cellular reproduction

Translocation of Materials Across Membrane

➢ In order to maintain life activities, the cell must have a
precise control over their internal concentrations of
various chemical substances
➢ To regulate these concentrations, the cell must
continually take in and expel substances involved in Isotonic Solution
cellular functioning. o NO NET MOVEMENT OF H2O (Equal amounts
➢ All these materials must pass through the membrane, entering and leaving)
but the rate at which certain substances, pass through
it vary. Hypotonic Solution
➢ The mechanisms involved in this exchange of o CYTOLYSIS
materials include: Hypertonic Solution
o Passive transport o PLASMOLYSIS
o Active transport
o Bulk transport Cytolysis and Plasmolysis

Types of Transport Across Cell Membranes

Simple Diffusion
o Requires NO energy
o Molecules move from area of HIGH to LOW
concentration

DIFFUSION
o Diffusion is a PASSIVE process which means no
energy is used to make the molecules move, they
have a natural kinetic energy

Diffusion of Liquids
a) Dye is dropped in
b) Diffusion begins Cytolysis Plasmolysis
c) Dye is evenly distributed
Three Forms of Transport Across the Membrane
Diffusion through a Membrane Passive Transport
o Solute moves DOWN concentration gradient (HIGH to Simple Diffusion
LOW) o Materials move down their concentration
gradient through the phospholipid bilayer.
Osmosis o Doesn’t require energy
o Diffusion of water across a membrane o Moves high to low
o Moves from HIGH water potential (low solute) to LOW o concentration
water potential (high solute) o Example: Oxygen or water diffusing into a cell
Aquaporins and carbon dioxide diffusing out.
o Water Channels
Facilitated Diffusion
o Protein pores used during OSMOSIS o The passage of materials is aided both by a
concentration gradient and by a transport
protein.
o Doesn’t require energy
o Uses transport proteins to move high to low
concentration
o Examples: Glucose or amino acids moving from
blood into a cell.

Proteins Are Critical to Membrane Function

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 TRANS: Module 1

a) Structural support o Used to engulf large particles such as food, bacteria,

b) Recognition etc. into vesicles
c) Communication o Called “Cell Eating”
d) Transport
Phagocytosis
Types of Transport Proteins o Capture of a Yeast Cell (yellow) by Membrane
o Channel/Integral proteins are embedded in the Extensions of an Immune System Cell (blue)
cell membrane & have a pore for materials to
cross Exocytosis
o Carrier/Peripheral proteins can change shape o The opposite of endocytosis is exocytosis. Large
to move material from one side of the molecules that are manufactured in the cell are
membrane to the other released through the cell membrane.

Facilitated Diffusion Moving the “Big Stuff”

o Molecules will randomly move through the
pores in Channel Proteins.
o Some Carrier proteins do not extend through
the membrane.
o They bond and drag molecules through the lipid
bilayer and release them on the opposite side.
Carrier Proteins
o Other carrier proteins change shape to move
materials across the cell membrane
Active Transport
o Molecules again move through a transport
protein, but now energy must be expended to
move them against their concentration gradient.
o Requires energy or ATP
o Moves materials from LOW to HIGH
concentration AGAINST concentration gradient
o Examples: Pumping Na+ (sodium ions) out and
K+ (potassium ions) in against strong
concentration gradients.
o Called Na+-K+ Pump
Sodium-Potassium Pump
o 3 Na+ pumped in for every 2 K+ pumped
out; creates a membrane potential
Moving the “Big Stuff”
o Large molecules move materials into the cell by one
of three forms of endocytosis.
Pinocytosis
o Most common form of endocytosis.
o Takes in dissolved molecules as a vesicle.
o Cell forms an invagination
o Materials dissolve in water to be brought into cell
o Called “Cell Drinking”
o Exocytosis – moving things out.
o Molecules are moved out of the cell by vesicles that
fuse with the plasma membrane.
o This is how many hormones are secreted and how
nerve cells communicate with one another.
Cell Division
o All cells are derived from pre-existing cells
o New cells are produced for growth and to replace
damaged or old cells
o Differs in prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes
(protists, fungi, plants, & animals)
Keeping Cells Identical
o The instructions for making cell parts are encoded in the
DNA, so each new cell must get a complete set of the
DNA molecules
DNA Replication
o DNA must be copied or replicated before cell division
o Each new cell will then have an identical copy of the
DNA
Prokaryotic Chromosome
o The DNA of prokaryotes (bacteria) is one, circular
chromosome attached to the inside of the cell membrane
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
o All eukaryotic cells store genetic information in
chromosomes
o Most eukaryotes have between 10 and 50 chromosomes
in their body cells
o Human body cells have 46 chromosomes or 23 identical
pairs
o Each chromosome is composed of a single, tightly coiled
DNA molecule
o Chromosomes can’t be seen when cells aren’t dividing
and are called chromatin

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis Chromosomes in Dividing Cells

1) Receptors o Duplicated chromosomes are called chromatids & are
2) Captured molecules held together by the centromere
3) Coated pit
Karyotype
4) Vesicle
o A picture of the chromosomes from a human cell
o Some integral proteins have receptors on their surface
arranged in pairs by size
to recognize & take in hormones, cholesterol, etc.
o First 22 pairs are called autosomes
o Last pair are the sex chromosomes
o XX female or XY male
Endocytosis
o Phagocytosis ➢ Boy or Girl? - The Y Chromosome Decides

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 TRANS: Module 1

Types of Cell Reproduction Late Prophase

o Asexual reproduction involves a single cell dividing to o Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are broken down
make 2 new, identical daughter cells o Chromosomes continue condensing & are clearly
o Mitosis & binary fission are examples of asexual visible
reproduction o Spindle fibers called kinetochores attach to the
o Sexual reproduction involves two cells (egg & sperm) centromere of each chromosome
joining to make a new cell (zygote) that is NOT identical o Spindle finishes forming between the poles of the cell
to the original cells
o Meiosis is an example Review of Prophase
o Nuclear membrane disintegrates, and nucleolus
Cell Division in Prokaryotes disappears
o Prokaryotes such as bacteria divide into 2 identical cells o Chromosomes condense
by the process of binary fission o Mitotic spindle begins to form and is complete
o Single chromosome makes a copy of itself at the end of prophase
o Cell wall forms between the chromosomes dividing the o Kinetochores begin to mature and attach to
cell spindle
1) Parent cell
2) Chromosome replicates Spindle Fibers
3) Cell splits o The mitotic spindle form from the microtubules in
4) 2 identical daughter cells plants and centrioles in animal cells
o Polar fibers extend from one pole of the cell to the
THE CELL CYCLE opposite pole
Five Phases of the Cell Cycle o Kinetochore fibers extend from the pole to the
1) G1 - primary growth phase centromere of the chromosome to which they attach
2) S – synthesis; DNA replicated o Asters are short fibers radiating from centrioles
3) G2 - secondary growth phase collectively these 3
stages are called interphase Metaphase
4) M - mitosis o Chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore fibers,
5) C – cytokinesis move to the center of the cell
o Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator
Interphase - G1 Stage
o 1st growth stage after cell division Anaphase
o Cells mature by making more cytoplasm & organelles o Occurs rapidly
o Cell carries on its normal metabolic activities o Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of
the cell by kinetochore fibers
Interphase – S Stage o Centromeres divide in two. Spindle fibers pull sister
o Synthesis stage chromatids to opposite poles of cell. Each pole (future
o DNA is copied or replicated daughter cell) now has an identical set of genes.
o Original DNA creates Two identical copies of DNA
Telophase
Interphase – G2 Stage o Sister chromatids at opposite poles
o 2nd Growth Stage o Spindle disassembles
o Occurs after DNA has been copied o Nuclear envelope forms around each set of sister
o All cell structures needed for division are made (e.g., chromatids
centrioles) o Nucleolus reappears
o Both organelles & proteins are synthesized o CYTOKINESIS occurs
o Chromosomes reappear as chromatin
Mitosis
o Division of the nucleus Cytokinesis
o Also called karyokinesis o Means division of the cytoplasm
o Only occurs in eukaryotes o Division of cell into two, identical halves called
o Has four stages daughter cells
o Doesn’t occur in some cells such as brain cells o In plant cells, cell plate forms at the equator to divide
cell
Four Mitotic Stages o In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms to split cell
➢ Prophase
➢ Metaphase Daughter Cells of Mitosis
➢ Anaphase o Have the same number of chromosomes as each
➢ Telophase other and as the parent cell from which they were
formed
Early Prophase o Identical to each other, but smaller than parent cell
o Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form visible
o Must grow in size to become mature cells (G1 of
chromosomes
Interphase)
o Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in cytoskeleton or
centrioles (animal) Identical Daughter Cells

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 TRANS: Module 1

o Chromosome number the same, but cells smaller o Homologous chromosomes (each with sister
than parent cell chromatids) Join to form a TETRAD called Synapsis

Eukaryotic Cell Division Crossing-Over

o Used for growth and repair o Homologous chromosomes in a tetrad cross over
o Produce two new cells identical to the original cell each other
o Cells are diploid (2n) o Pieces of chromosomes or genes are exchanged
1) Prophase o Produces Genetic recombination in the offspring
2) Metaphase o Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number of
3) Anaphase different gamete types produced by independent
4) Telophase assortment
5) Cytokinesis
Metaphase I
Uncontrolled Mitosis o Homologous pairs of chromosomes align along the
o If mitosis is not controlled, unlimited cell division equator of the cell
occurs causing cancerous tumors
o Oncogenes are special proteins that increase the Anaphase I
chance that a normal cell develops into a tumor cell o Homologs separate and move to opposite poles.
o Sister chromatids remain attached at their
Meiosis centromeres.
o Preceded by interphase which includes chromosome
replication Telophase I
o Two meiotic divisions --- Meiosis I and Meiosis II o Nuclear envelopes reassemble.
o Called Reduction- division o Spindle disappears.
o Original cell is diploid (2n) o Cytokinesis divides cell into two.
o Four daughter cells produced that are haploid (1n) Meiosis II
o Daughter cells contain half the number of 1) Prophase II
chromosomes as the original cell 2) Metaphase II
o Produces gametes (eggs & sperm) 3) Anaphase II
o Occurs in the testes in males (Spermatogenesis) 4) Telophase II
o Occurs in the ovaries in females (Oogenesis) 5) 4 genetically different haploid cells
Why Do we Need Meiosis? Prophase II
o It is the fundamental basis of sexual reproduction o Nuclear envelope fragments.
o Two haploid (1n) gametes are brought together o Spindle forms.
through fertilization to form a diploid (2n) zygote
Metaphase II
Meiosis I: Reduction Division o Chromosomes align along equator of cell.
1) Early Prophase I (chromosome number doubled)
2) Late Prophase I Anaphase II
3) Metaphase I o Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite
4) Anaphase I poles.
5) Telophase I
Telophase II
Prophase I o Nuclear envelope assembles.
Early prophase o Chromosomes decondense.
o Homologs pair. o Spindle disappears.
o Crossing over occurs. o Cytokinesis divides cell into two.

Late prophase Results of Meiosis

o Chromosomes condense. o Gametes (egg & sperm) form
o Spindle forms. o Four haploid cells with one copy of each chromosome
o Nuclear envelope fragments. o One allele of each gene
o Different combinations of alleles for different genes
Stages of Prophase 1 along the chromosome
➢ Leptotene – chromosomes coil and thicken
➢ Zygotene – pairing of homologous chromosomes Meiosis I
➢ Pachytene – crossing over of genes between non ➢ Reduces the number of chromosomes from diploid to
sister chromatids haploid
➢ Diplotene – chromosomes relax
➢ Diakinesis – chromosomes partially separate but Meiosis II
remain attached in the chiasma (point where there is ➢ Produces four haploid daughter cells
an exchange of genetic information
A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
Tetrads Form in Prophase I

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 TRANS: Module 1

o Meiosis and mitosis can be distinguished from mitosis Reduction Reaction

o By three events in Meiosis l o The gain of electrons to a substance.
o Synapsis and crossing over o Or the loss of oxygen.
o Homologous chromosomes physically connect and
exchange genetic information Tetrads on the
metaphase plate
Breakdown of Cellular Respiration
o At metaphase I of meiosis, paired homologous
Four main parts (reactions)
chromosomes (tetrads) are positioned on the 1. Glycolysis (splitting of sugar)
metaphase plates a. cytosol, just outside of mitochondria.
o Separation of homologues 2. Grooming Phase
o At anaphase I of meiosis, homologous pairs move a. migration from cytosol to matrix.
toward opposite poles of the cell
o In anaphase II of meiosis, the sister chromatids 3. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
separate a. mitochondrial matrix
4. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Oxidative
Mitosis Meiosis Phosphorylation
Number of a. Also called Chemiosmosis
1 2 b. inner mitochondrial membrane.
divisions
Number of Glycolysis
2 4 o Occurs in the cytosol just outside of mitochondria.
daughter cells
Genetically
Yes No Two phases (10 steps):
identical?
A. Energy investment phase
Chromosome # Same as parent Half of parent
a. Preparatory phase (first 5 steps).
Where Somatic cells Germ cells
B. Energy yielding phase
When Throughout life At sexual maturity a. Energy payoff phase (second 5 steps).
Sexual Total Net Yield
Role Growth and repair
reproduction o 2 - 3C-Pyruvate (PYR)
Cellular Respiration o 2 - ATP (Substrate-level Phosphorylation)
o A catabolic, exergonic, oxygen (O2) requiring process
o 2 – NADH
that uses energy extracted from macromolecules
(glucose) to produce energy (ATP) and water (H2O).
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
Definition of Terms o ATP is formed when an enzyme transfers a
Catabolism phosphate group from a substrate to ADP.
o refers to chemical reactions that result in the
o Example: PEP to PYR
breakdown of more complex organic molecules
into simpler substances. Fermentation
o Occurs in cytosol when “NO Oxygen” is present
Catabolic reactions (called anaerobic).
o usually release energy that is used to drive
o Remember: glycolysis is part of fermentation.
chemical reactions.
Two Types:
1. Alcohol Fermentation
Exergonic reactions
o Plants and fungi -> beer and wine
o are spontaneous chemical reactions in which
the products are at a lower energy level than End Products:
the reactants; these reactions release energy. o 2 - ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation)
o 2 - CO2
Plants and Animals
o 2 - Ethanol’s
➢ Plants - Autotrophs: self-producers.
2. Lactic Acid Fermentation
➢ Animals - Heterotrophs: consumers.
o Animals (pain in muscle after a workout).
Mitochondria
End Products:
o Organelle where cellular respiration takes place.
o 2 - ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation)
Redox Reaction o 2 – Lactic Acids
o Transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant
to another.
Grooming Phase
Two types: o Occurs when Oxygen is present (aerobic).
1. Oxidation o 2 Pyruvate (3C) molecules are transported through
2. Reduction the mitochondria membrane to the matrix and is
converted to 2 Acetyl CoA (2C) molecules.
Oxidation Reaction
o The loss of electrons from a substance. End Products:
o Or the gain of oxygen. o 2 - NADH

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 TRANS: Module 1

o 2 – CO2
o 2 – Acetyl CoA (2C)

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

o Location: mitochondrial matrix.
o Acetyl CoA (2C) bonds to Oxalacetic acid (4C - OAA) to
make Citrate (6C).
o It takes 2 turns of the krebs cycle to oxidize 1 glucose
molecule.
o Total net yield (2 turns of krebs cycle)
1. 2 - ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation)
2. 6 - NADH
3. 2 - FADH2
4. 4 - CO2

Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Oxidative

Phosphorylation (Chemiosmosis)
o Location: inner mitochondrial membrane.
o Uses ETC (cytochrome proteins) and ATP Synthase
(enzyme) to make ATP.
o ETC pumps H+ (protons) across innermembrane
(lowers pH in innermembrane space).

TOTAL ATP YIELD

1. 04 ATP - substrate-level phosphorylation
2. 32 ATP - ETC & oxidative phosphorylation 36 ATP
- TOTAL YIELD

Eukaryotes (Have Membranes)

Total ATP Yield
o 02 ATP - glycolysis (substrate-level phosphorylation)
o 04 ATP - converted from 2 NADH - glycolysis
o 06 ATP - converted from 2 NADH - grooming phase
o 02 ATP - Krebs cycle (substrate-level
phosphorylation)
o 18 ATP - converted from 6 NADH - Krebs cycle
o 04 ATP - converted from 2 FADH2 - Krebs cycle
o 36 ATP – TOTAL

How do prokaryotic cells respire without mitochondria?

➢ Bacteria produce ATPs the same way mitochondria
do, with the oxidation machinery place in their plasma
membrane (analogous to the mitochondrial
membrane).

Prokaryotes (Lack Membranes)

Total ATP Yield
o 02 ATP - glycolysis (substrate-level phosphorylation)
o 06 ATP - converted from 2 NADH - glycolysis
o 06 ATP - converted from 2 NADH - grooming phase
o 02 ATP - Krebs cycle (substrate-level
phosphorylation)
o 18 ATP - converted from 6 NADH - Krebs cycle
o 04 ATP - converted from 2 FADH2 - Krebs cycle
o 38 ATP – TOTAL

Catabolism of Various Food Molecules

➢ Other organic molecules used for fuel.

1. Carbohydrates: polysaccharides
2. Fats: glycerol’s and fatty acids
3. Proteins: amino acids

34