EDC-

17PCSED2-FUNDAMENTALSOFCOMPUTERSANDCOMMUNI
CATI
ONSCr
edi
ts:4

UNI
T-I

Computer:Int
roducti
on–Component sofComput ers–AdvantagesandDisadvant
agesofusingcomputer
s
–Comput erSoftware–Cat egor
iesofComputer
s- El
ement
sofani nfor
mationSyst
ems.TheComponent s
oft
heSy stemsUni t
:Processor–Datarepr
esent
ation–Memor y–Ex pansi
onSlotandAdapterCards–
Por
tsandConnect ors-Buses–Bay s–PowerSuppl y–MobileComput er
sandDev i
ces.

UNI
T–I
I

I
nputandOut putDevi
ce::
Whati sinput-whatareinputdevi
ces–key board–point
ingdevice–mouse–
otherpoi
ntingdev i
ces–control
lersforgamingandmedi aplayer
s–Voi ceinput–InputforPDAs,Smart
phonesandTabl etPCs-Digi
talCamer as–Vi deoi
nput–Scanner sandReadingdev i
cesTerminal
s–
Biometri
cinput-Inputdevi
cesforphy si
cal
lychall
engedusers-Output:
Whati sout
put–di spl
aydevi
ces–
Fl
atpanel displ
ays–CRTmoni t
or s–Print
ers–Speaker s,
HeadphonesandEarphones–otherout put
devices–out putdevi
ceforphysical
lychal
lengedusers–St or
agedev i
ces.

UNI
T-I
II

Oper ati
ngSyst
emsandUt i
lit
yPrograms:Syst
em sof
twar
e–Oper ati
ngsystem –Operati
ngsyst
em
functions–operat
ingsyst
em util
i
typrogr
am s–typesofoper
ati
ngsy st
ems–st andaloneoper
ati
ng
systems–net workoperat
ingsystems–embeddedoperati
ngsystem –Standal
oneutil
it
yprogr
ams.
Applicati
onSoft
ware:Appl
icati
onsoftwar
e–Businesssoft
ware–Gr aphi
csandMulti
medi aSof
tware–
Applicati
onsoft
wareforCommuni cat
ion

Uni
t-
IV

Int
ernetandWor l
dWideWeb: Internet–Histor yoftheInternet–Howt heI nt
ernetworks–WWW –E-
commer ce–Ot herI
nter
netSer v
ices–Net iquette.Communi cat
ionsandNet works:Communicat
ions–
UsesofComput erCommuni cati
ons–Net wor ks–Net wor kcommuni cati
onstandards–Communi cat
ion
soft
war e–Communi cati
onov erthetel
ephonenet work–Communi cationdevices–Homenet works–
Communi cat
ionsChannel–Phy sicaltr
ansmi ssionmedi aandWi r
elesst r
ansmissionmedia.

Uni
t-
V

DatabaseManagement :Databases,DataandInf
ormati
on,TheHierarchyofdat
a–Mai ntai
ningdat
a–File
processi
ngversusdat abases–dat abasemanagementsy st
ems–r el
ati
onal
,obj
ectori
entedand
multi
dimensionaldatabases–webdat abases–databaseadminist
rati
on.ComputerSecuri
ty:Comput
er
securi
tyri
sks–I nt
ernetandnet workattacks–Unauthori
zedaccessanduse.

TEXTBOOK

1.GaryB.Shel
l
y,Thomasj
.Cashman,
Mist
yE.
Ver
maat
,"I
ntr
oduct
iont
oComput
ers,
"CengageLear
ning,
2008

REFERENCEBOOKS

1.ReemaThar
eja,
“Fundament
alsofComput
ers,
”Oxf
ordUni
v.Pr
ess,
2015

2.Debor
ahMorley
,Char
lesS.Parker
,“Under
standi
ngComput
ers-TodayandTomor
row”
,14t
hEdi
ti
on,
ThomsonCour
seTechnology
,2012

3.Alex
isLeon,Mat
hew‟sLeon,
“Fundamental
sofComput
erSci
enceandCommuni
cat
ionEngi
neer
ing”
,
VikasPubl
ishi
ngHouse,
NewDel hi
,1998.
 Comput
er:I
ntr
oduct
ion:
Acomput eri
sanel ect
roni
cdev i
cet
hatisusedtocar
ryoutsequencesofarit
hmeti
cor
l
ogicaloper at
ionsaut omati
cal
ly
.Acomputerisanel
ect
roni
cdevicethatcani
mplementa
programmedl istofinstr
ucti
onsandalsorespondt
onew i
nstr
uctionsthati
tisgi
vento
perform somet ask.
Inputdevi
ceisahardwarecomponentthati
susedtoent
erdatainthecomput
erwhi
l
e
outputdev
icepr
ovi
destheresul
taf
terar
it
hmet
icandl
ogi
cal
operat
ions.
Memor
yisusedf
orst
ori
ngdat
aandi
nfor
mat
iont
empor
ari
l
yorper
manent
ly.
Acomput
erper
for
msf
ourf
unct
ions:
1.Accept
sdat
a
2.Pr
ocessesdat
a
3.Pr
oducesout
put
4.St
oresr
esul
ts
Moderncomputer
sar
ebothelectr
oni
canddigi
tal
.Theinst
ruct
ionsanddat
aarecal
l
ed
sof
twar
e;wher
easwir
es,
transi
stor
sandci
rcuit
stoget
herformthehardwar
e.
Gener
all
y,al
lcomput
ershav
ethef
oll
owi
nghar
dwar
ecomponent
s:

Memor
y:Enabl
esacomput
ert
ost
oredat
aandpr
ogr
ams

Massstoragedev
ices:
All
owacomput
ert
okeeplargeamount
sofdat
a.Di
skdr
ivesand
t
apedr
ivesaret
hecommonmassstor
agedev
ices.
I
nputdevi
ce:Theinputdev
icei
sthemedi
um t
hroughwhi
chdat
aandi
nst
ruct
ionsent
era
computer
,usual
lyakeyboar
dandamouse.
Out
putdevi
ce:Adi
splayscr
een,
pri
nterorsomeot
herdev
icet
hatl
etsy
ouseewhatt
he
comput
erhasachi
eved.
Central ProcessingUni t(
CPU):Theheartofthecomput ert
hatactuall
yexecut
es
i
nstructionsandpr ocessesdat
a.Inaddit
iontot hese,
manyot hercomponentsmakeit
possiblef orthemai ncomponentstowor ktogethereff
ici
ent
ly.Forexample,
thebushel
ps
ever
ycomput ertot r
ansmitdat
af r
om onepar tofthecomputertoanother
.
Comput
erscanmai
nlybecl
assi
fi
edbypowerandsi
ze.Thesear
easf
oll
ows:
Personalcomputer:A smallandsingle-
usercomputerbasedonami cr
oprocessoris
popular
lyknownasPer sonalComputer( PC).Besi
desthemi cr
oprocessor,apersonal
comput erhasakeyboard(helpst
oent erdata),amonit
or(hel
pst odispl
ayinfor
mat i
on)
andalsoast or
agedevi
cetostoredat
a.
Workst
ation:
Itisal
soasingle-userandapower f
ulcomputer
.Aworkst
ati
onisl
ikea
per
sonalcomputerwhichconsistsofahigher
-qual
it
ymonitorandamorepowerf
ul
mi
cropr
ocessor
.
Mini
computer
:Amul
ti
-usercomput
ert
hatcansuppor
ttent
ohundr
edsofuser
satt
he
sametime.
Mainf
rame:Apowerfulmul
ti
-usercomput
erwhi
chcansuppor
thundr
edsandt
housands
ofuser
ssimul
taneousl
y.

Supercomputer
:Anextremel
yfastcomput
ercapabl
eofi
mpl
ement
ingmi
l
li
onsof
i
nst
ructi
onsev
erysecond.

TheComponent
sofaComput
er:

I
nputUni
t
Inputuniti
susedf ort
ransfers’raw Dataandcontr
olsi gnal
sintotheinfor
mationprocessi
ng
system bytheuserbef
orepr ocessi
ngandcomput at
ion.Alltheinputunitdevi
cesprov i
dethe
i
nstruct
ionsanddataar
et r
ansf or
medi nt
obinar
ycodest hatisthepri
mar ymemor yacceptabl
e
format.
ExampleofI
nputuni
tdev
ices:key
boar
d,mouse,
scanner
,joy
sti
ck,
MICR,
Punchedcar
ds,
Punched
papert
ape,Magnet
ict
apeetc.

Memor
yorSt
orageUni
t
MemoryorStor
ageuni ti
susedf
orstor
ingDat
adur
ingbef
oreandaf
terpr
ocessi
ng.Thecapaci
ty
ofst
oragei
sexpressedinter
msofBy
tes.
Thetwoter
msMemor yorStor
ageuni
tar
eusedinter
changeabl
y,soi
tisi
mpor
tantt
ounder
stand
whati
sthedif
fer
encebet
weenmemoryandst
orage?
Memor
y
Thisunitr
etai
nst
empor
aril
yresul
tsti
l
lfur
therprocessi
ng,Forexampl
e,Random AccessMemor
y
(RAM).Thi
smemoryi
svolat
il
e,whichmeansdataisdisappear
swhenthepowerislost
.

St
orage
Thestorageor"secondarystor
age"isusedf orretai
ndi
git
aldataaft
erpr
ocessi
ngforpermanentl
y.
Forexampl eharddrive.TheStoragei snon-volati
l
einnature.CPUdoesnotaccessdi r
ectl
yt o
secondarystorage memor i
es,instead t
heyaccessed v iainput-
out
putunit.The cont
ents of
secondarystor
agememor i
esaref ir
sttransferredtothemai nmemor y(RAM)andt henCPU
accessit.

Out
putUni
t
OutputUnitrecei
vesinf
ormati
onf r
om t
heCPUandthendeli
ver
sittheexter
nalstor
ageordevice
i
nthesof torhardprocessedform.Thedevi
ceswhi
char
eusedt odispl
ayoutputtotheuserare
cal
l
edout putdevi
ces.TheMonitororpr
int
eri
scommonoutputdev
ice.

Cent
ralPr
ocessi
ngUni
t
Themai nchipi nacomput erist hemi croprocessorchip,whichisalsoknownast heCPU( central
processinguni t)
.TheCPUi smount edonapr intedcircui
tboardcalledthemai nboardormot her
board.Thi schipisconsideredt obet hecont r
oll
ingchipofacomput ersyst
em sinceitcontrolsthe
acti
vit
iesofot herchipsaswel lasout sidedev i
cesconnect edtothecomput er
,suchasmoni tor
andpr inter.I
naddi ti
on,itcanal soper forml ogicalandcomput ationaltasks.Microprocessors
workonapar all
elsystem.Thev ari
ousact ivi
ti
est hatami cr
oprocessorperforms,suchasst or
ing
data,doingar i
thmeticcalculations( addit
ion,subt r
acti
on,multi
pli
cat i
on,divi
sion,etc.
),aret he
resul
tofi nstr
uct i
onsgiventot heCPUi ntheform ofsequencesof0sand1s.
Ar
it
hmet
icl
ogi
cuni
t(ALU)
Ari
thmet
icLogi
calUni
tisusedforpr
ocessi
ngdataaf
teri
nputt
ingdataisst
oredintopri
maryunit.
Themajoroper
ati
onsofArithmet
icLogi
calUni
tareaddi
ti
on,subt
racti
on,mult
ipl
icat
ion,di
vi
sion,
l
ogicandcompari
son.
Cont
roluni
t(CU)
Iti
slikeasuper
visor
,thatchecksor
dai
ningoper
ati
onsorchecksequencei
nwhi
chi
nst
ruct
ions
areexecut
ed.
Adv
ant
agesandDi
sadv
ant
agesofusi
ngcomput
ers
Adv
ant
agesofComput
erSy
stems
 Speed&Accur
acy
 St
oreshugeamountofdat
a
 Onl
inet
radi
ng,
Onl
i
needucat
ion&Di
stanceLear
ning
 Resear
ch,
For
ecast
ingweat
her
,andpr
edi
cti
ngear
thquakes,
vol
canoer
upt
ions
 Pr
oduceEmpl
oyement
 I
nter
net
Di
sadv
ant
agesofComput
erSy
stems
 Heal
thI
ssues.&Spr
eadofpor
nogr
aphy
 Vi
rusandhacki
ngat
tacks
 Comput
ercannott
aket
hei
rowndeci
sionNOI
Q
 Negat
iveef
fectonEnv
ironment
  Cr
ashednet
wor
ks
 Comput
ercannotwor
koni
tsel
f
 Spr
eadofv
iol
ence,
hat
red
 Onl
ineCy
berCr
imes
 Dat
aandI
nfor
mat
ionv
iol
ati
on
Comput erSoft
ware
 Computerhardwareisusel
esswi thoutsoft
ware.
 Soft
wareisthesetofinst
ructi
onsandassoci at
eddatathatdirectthe
computertodoatask.
 Soft
warecanbediv i
dedintotwocat egori
es:
 syst
em softwar
eandappl i
cationsoftware.
 Syst
em softwar
ehelpsthecomput ertocarr
youti
tsbasicoperatingtasks.
 Appli
cat
ionsoft
warehelpst heusercarryoutavari
etyoftasks.

Sy
stem Sof
twar
e
• Managesthef undamentaloperati
onsoft hecomputer,suchasl
oadingprograms
and dat
ai nt
o memor y,ex ecuti
ng progr
ams,saving datato disks,di
splayi
ng
i
nfor
mationont hemonit
or,and t
ransmit
ti
ngdatathroughaporttoaperi
pheral
devi
ce.
• Sy
stem sof
twar
e:oper
ati
ngsy
stems,
uti
l
iti
es,
dev
icedr
iver
s.
 Oper
ati
ngSy
stem:
 Col
lect
ion ofcomputerpr
ogr
amst
hatcont
rolt
hei
nter
act
ion oft
he userand t
he
computerhar
dware.

 Responsi
blef
ordi
rect
ingal
lcomput
eroper
ati
onsandmanagi
ngal
lcomput
err
esour
ces.

 Contr
olsbasici
nputandoutput,al
l
ocat
essystem r
esour
ces,managesst
oragespace,
maint
ainssecur
it
y,anddet
ectsequi
pmentf
ail
ure.

 Apartoft
heoper
ati
ngsy
stem codei
sst
oredi
naROM andt
her
estofi
tresi
desona
di
sk.

 Loadi
ngt
heoper
ati
ngsy
stem i
ntomemor
yiscal
l
edboot
ingt
hecomput
er.

LanguageTr
ansl
ator
s:
 INTERPRETERisacomputerpr
ogram thatdi
rectl
yexecutesi
nst
ruct
ionswri
tten
i
napr ogr
ammingorscri
pti
nglanguage,withoutrequi
ri
ngthem previ
ousl
yt o
havebeencompil
edi
ntoamachinelanguageprogr
am.
 COMPI LERi saspecialpr
ogram t hatpr
ocessesstat
ementswr i
tt
eninapart
icular
programmi nglanguageandt urnst hem i
ntomachinelanguageor"code"thata
comput er
'sprocessoruses.Typicall
y,aprogr
ammerwr it
eslanguagest
atement s
i
nal anguagesuchasPascal orConel ineatati
meusinganedi t
or.
 Int
erpretersandcompilersareverysimilarinstructur
e.Themai ndif
fer
enceisthat
aninterpreterdi
rect
lyexecutestheinstr
ucti
onsint hesourceprogr
amminglanguage
whil
eacompi l
ertr
ansl
atesthoseinst
ruct
ionsint
oef f
ici
entmachi
necode.

Appl
i
cat
ionsof
twar
e
 Developedf
oraspeci
fict
ask,suchaswordprocessi
ng(MSWord/WordPer
fect
),
accounti
ng(Lot
us1-
2-3/Excel
),ordat
abasemanagement(
Access/DBASE)
.
 Weal
sousegr
aphi
csandpr
esent
ati
onsof
twar
e.
 Mostappl
i
cat
ionsar
epur
chasedondi
sket
teorCD-
ROM.
 Theyareinst
all
edbycopy
ingt
hepr
ogr
amsf
rom t
hedi
sket
tes/
CD-
ROM t
othe
harddi
sk.

Ty
pesofComput
ers
Mi
crocomput
er
 Aper
sonal
comput
er;
desi
gnedt
omeett
hecomput
erneedsofani
ndi
vi
dual
.
 Pr
ovidesaccesstoawidevar
iet
yofcomput i
ngappl
i
cat
ions,
suchaswor
d
pr
ocessing,
photoedi
ti
ng,e-
mail
,andint
ernet.
Deskt
opMi
crocomput
er
 Ami
crocomput
ert
hatf
it
sonadeskandr
unsonpowerf
rom anel
ect
ri
cal
wal
l
 outl
et.
 TheCPUcanbehousedi neit
heravert
ical
orahori
zontal
case.
 Hasseparatecomponent
s(keyboar
d,mouse,
etc.
)thatar
eeachpl
uggedi
nto
thecomputer.
Lapt
opComputer
 Aportabl
e,compactcomput ert
hatcanrunonanelect
ri
cal
wallout
letora
batt
eryuni
t.
 All
components(keyboard,mouse,et
c.)ar
einonecompactuni
t.
 Usuall
ymoreexpensivethanacompar abl
edeskt
op.
 Sometimescall
edaNot ebook.

Wor
kst
ati
on
 Power
ful
deskt
opcomput
erdesi
gnedf
orspeci
ali
zedt
asks.
 Cant
ackl
etaskst
hatr
equi
real
otofpr
ocessi
ngspeed.
 Canal
sobeanor
dinar
yper
sonal
comput
erat
tachedt
oaLAN(
local
area
net
work)
.
Super
comput
er
 Acomput
ert
hatwast
hef
ast
esti
nthewor
ldatt
het
imei
twasconst
ruct
ed.
 Cant
ackl
etaskst
hatwoul
dnotbepr
act
ical
forot
hercomput
ers.
 Ty
pical
uses
 Br
eaki
ngcodes
 Model
i
ngweat
hersy
stems
Mai
nfr
ame
 Largeexpensiv
ecomput ercapabl
eofsi
mul
taneousl
ypr
ocessi
ngdat
afor
hundredsorthousandsofusers.
 Usedt
ost or
e, manage,andprocesslar
geamountsofdatathatneedtobe
rel
i
abl
e,secure,andcentral
i
zed.Usuall
yhousedi
naclosetsizedcabi
net
.
Ser
ver
 Pur
posei
sto“
ser
ve.
”
 Acomputert
hathast
hepurposeofsuppl
yi
ngitsuser
swi
thdat
a;usual
l
y
t
hrought
heuseofaLAN(localar
eanetwork)
.
Handhel
d
 Al
socal
l
edaPDA(
Per
sonal
Digi
tal
Assi
stant
).
 Acomputert
hatfi
tsi
ntoapocket
,runsonbat
ter
ies,
andi
susedwhi
l
ehol
ding
t
heuni
tinyourhand.
 Ty
pical
l
yusedasanappoi
ntmentbook,
addr
essbook,
cal
cul
ator
,andnot
epad.
 Canbesy
nchr
oni
zedwi
thaper
sonal
micr
ocomput
erasabackup.
El
ement
sOfI
nfor
mat
ionSy
stem
AnInformation sy stem is a combi nati
on of har dware and sof t
war e and
tel
ecommuni cationnet worksthatpeopl ebuil
dt ocollect
,creat
eanddi stri
bute
usefuldata,
typicall
yinanor gani
sati
onal,Itdefi
nesthef l
owofinformati
onwi t
hin
thesy st
em.Theobj ect i
veofani nformat i
onsy st
em i stoprovideappr opri
ate
i
nformation tot he user,to gathert he data,processing oft he data and
communi cateinformationtotheuseroft hesystem.

El
ement
soft
hei
nfor
mat
ionsy
stem ar
easf
oll
ows:
1.Comput erHar dware:
Physicalequipmentusedf orinput,out
putandpr ocessing.What
hardwaretousei tdependsupont hetypeandsizeoft heor gani
sation.I
t
consistsofinput,anoutputdevice,operat
ingsy
st em,pr ocessor,and
mediadev ices.Thisal
soincludescomput erper
ipheral devices.
2.Comput
erSof
twar
e:
 Thepr ograms/appl
icationpr
ogram usedtocontr
olandcoordinat
et he
hardwarecomponent s.Iti
susedforanaly
singandprocessi
ngoft he
data.Theseprogramsi ncl
udeasetofinstr
ucti
onusedforprocessing
i
nformat i
on.
Sof
twar
eisf
urt
hercl
assi
fi
edi
nto2t
ypes:
Sy
stem Sof
twar
e,Appl
i
cat
ionSof
twar
e
3.Dat
abases:
Dataaret herawf act
sandf igurest hatareunorganisedthatareandlater
processedt ogenerateinfor
mat ion.Sof t
waresar eusedfororganisi
ng
andserv i
ngdat atotheuser, managi ngphysicalstorageofmediaand
vi
rtualresources.Asthehardwar ecan’tworkwi thoutsoft
warethesame
assoftwar eneedsdat aforprocessi ng.Dat
aar emanagedusi ng
Databasemanagementsy stem.
Databasesof twareisusedf oreffici
entaccessf orrequir
eddata,andto
manageknowl edgebases.
4.Net
wor
k:
Networksresourcesrefertot het elecommunicat
ionnetworksli
kethe
i
ntranet,extr
anetand t he i
nternet.
These r esour
ces f
acil
i
tatethe fl
ow of
i
nformat i
on i
nt he or
ganisat
ion.Net wor ksconsistsofbot hthephy si
cal
s
devisessuchasnet workscards,routers,hubsandcablesandsoftwaresuch
asoper at
ingsyst
ems,webser vers,dataser ver
sandappli
cat
ionserver
s.
Telecommuni cat
ions net
works consist of computer
s, communicat
ions
processors,andotherdev
icesint
erconnect
edbycommuni cat
ionsmedi
aand
control
ledbysoftware.
Networksincl
udecommunicat
ionmedia,andNetwork
Support.
5.HumanResour
ces:
Itisassociatedwi t
ht hemanpowerr equiredt or unandmanaget he
system.Peoplear etheenduseroft heinformat i
onsy stem,end-useruse
i
nformation produced fort hei
rown pur pose,t he mai n pur
pose oft he
i
nformation system ist o benefitthe end user .The end usercan be
accountant
s,engi neer
s,salesper
sons,cust omer s,clerks,ormanager setc.
Peoplearealsoresponsibl
etodev el
opandoper ateinformat i
onsystems.They
i
nclude systems anal y
sts,comput eroper ators,pr ogrammer s,and other
cl
ericalI
Spersonnel,andmanager i
altechni
ques.
TheComponent
soft
heSy
stem Uni
t
Syst
em uni
t:
Casethatcontai
nsel
ectr
oniccomponent
soft
hecomput
erused
topr
ocessdat
asometimescal
ledt
hechassi
s
 Commoncomponent
sinsi
det
hesy
stem uni
t:
 Pr
ocessor
 Memor
y
 Adapt
ercar
ds
o Soundcar
d,Modem car
d,Vi
deocar
d,Net
wor
kcar
d
 Por
ts
 Dr
ivebay
s
 Power
suppl
y
Mot
her
boar
d:
 Mai
nci
rcui
tboar
dinsy
stem uni
t
 Cont
ainsadapt
ercar
ds,
processorchi
ps,
andmemor
ychi
ps
 Al
socal
l
edsy
stem boar
d
Chi
p:Smal
lpi
eceofsemi
-conduct
ingmat
eri
alonwhi
chi
ntegr
atedci
rcui
tsar
e
et
ched
Integrat
edcircui
tscontai
nmanymi cr
oscopi
cpathway
scapableofcarry
ing
electr
icalcur
rentChipsarepackagedsotheycanbeattachedt
oacircui
t
boar d

Regi
ster
:
 Tempor
aryhi
gh-
speedst
oragear
eat
hathol
dsdat
aandi
nst
ruct
ions
Dat
aRepr
esent
ati
on:
Howdocomput
ersr
epr
esentdat
a?
Mostcomput
ersar
edi
git
al
 Recogni
zeonl
ytwodi
scr
etest
ates:
on
orof
f
 Useabi
nar
ysy
stem t
orecogni
zet
wo
st
ates
 UseNumbersy
stem wi
tht
wouni
que
di
git
s:0and1,
cal
l
edbi
ts(
shor
tforbi
nar
ydi
git
s)
By
te:
 Ei
ghtbi
tsgr
oupedt
oget
herasauni
t
  Pr
ovi
desenoughdif
fer
entcombi
nat
ionsof0sand1st
orepr
esent256
i
ndi
vi
dualchar
act
ers
 Number
s,Upper
caseandl
ower
casel
ett
ers,
Punct
uat
ionmar
ks

Memor
y:
 El
ect
roni
ccomponent
sthatst
orei
nst
ruct
ions,
dat
a,andr
esul
ts
 Consi
stsofoneormor
echi
psonmot
her
boar
dorot
herci
rcui
tboar
d
 Eachbyt
estoredinuni
quel
ocat
ioncal
l
edanaddr
ess,
simi
l
art
o
addr
esses
onapassengertr
ain
 Memoryconsist
sofel ect
roni
ccomponentsthatstorei
nstruct
ions
wai
ti
ngtobeexecut edbytheprocessor
,dataneededbyt hose
i
nst
ruct
ions,
andt heresult
sofprocessi
ngtheinfor
mat i
on.
 Thereare2ty
pesofmemor
y,Vol
ati
l
eist
empor
aryandnonv
olat
il
eis
permanentmemory
.
 Bit(
Binar
yDi
git
):Abi nar
ydigi
tisl
ogi
cal0and1repr
esenti
nga
passi
veoranacti
vest
ateofacomponenti
nanel
ectri
cci
rcui
t.
  Ni
bbl
e :Agr
oupof4bi
tsi
scal
l
edni
bbl
e.
 Byt
e :Agr oupof8bit
siscal
l
edbyte.Abyteist
hesmal
l
estuni
t,
whi
chcanr
epresentadat
ait
em oracharact
er.
 Wor d :Acomput erwor d,
li
keaby t
e,i
sagr oupoffixednumberofbits
processedasauni t
,whichv ar
iesf
rom computert
ocomput erbuti
s
fi
xedf oreachcomput er
.Thelengt
hofacomput erwor di
scall
edwor d-
si
z eorwor dl
ength.I
tmaybeassmal las8bitsormaybeasl ongas96
bi
ts.Acomput erstorestheinf
ormati
onintheform ofcomputerwords.
 Ki
l
oby
te(
KB) :1KB=1024By
tes
 Megaby
te(
MB) :
1MB=1024KB
 Gi
gaBy
te(
GB) :
1GB=1024MB
 Ter
aBy
te(
TB) :
1TB=1024GB
 Pet
aBy
te(
PB) :
1PB=1024TB
Memor y :i sjustlikeahumanbr ai
n.Itisusedt ostoredataandinstruct
ions.Computer
memor yisthest oragespaceint hecomputer,wheredatai st
obepr ocessedandi nst
ruct
ions
requi
redforprocessingarestor
ed.Thememor yisdivi
dedint
olar
genumberofsmal lpar
tscall
ed
cell
s.Eachlocationorcellhasauni queaddress,whichvari
esfr
om zerotomemor ysizeminus
one.Forexampl e,i
ft hecomputerhas64kwor ds,thenthi
smemor yunithas64*1024=65536
memor ylocat
ions.Theaddressoft hesel
ocati
onsv ari
esfr
om 0to65535.
Memor
yispr
imar
il
yoft
hreet
ypes−

 CacheMemor
y

 Pr
imar
yMemor
y/Mai
nMemor
y

 Secondar
yMemor
y

Ty
pesofMemor
y
CacheMemor
y
Cachememor yisaveryhi
ghspeedsemiconductormemorywhichcanspeeduptheCPU.I
tact
s
asabuf ferbetweentheCPUandt hemainmemor y.I
tisusedtoholdthosepar
tsofdat
aand
progr
am whi charemostf requent
lyusedbyt heCPU.Thepar t
sofdat aandprogr
amsare
tr
ansfer
redf r
om thedisktocachememor ybyt heoperat
ingsyst
em,fr
om wheretheCPUcan
accessthem.
Adv
ant
ages
 Cachememor
yisf
ast
ert
hanmai
nmemor
y.

 I
tconsumesl
essaccesst
imeascompar
edt
omai
nmemor
y.

 I
tst
orest
hepr
ogr
am t
hatcanbeexecut
edwi
thi
nashor
tper
iodoft
ime.

 I
tst
oresdat
afort
empor
aryuse.
Di
sadv
antages
 Cachememor
yhasl
i
mit
edcapaci
ty.

 I
tisv
eryexpensi
ve.

Pr
imar
yMemor
y(Mai
nMemor
y)
Pri
mar ymemor yholdsonlythosedat aandi nst
ructi
onsonwhicht hecomput eri
scur r
entl
y
working.I
thasal i
mitedcapacityanddataislostwhenpowerisswit
chedoff.Iti
sgener
all
ymade
up ofsemi conductordevice.Thesememor i
esar e notasfastasr egi
sters.Thedata and
i
nstructi
on requi
red to be processed r
esides int he mai
n memory.Itis divi
ded i
ntot wo
subcategor
iesRAM andROM.

Charact
eri
sti
csofMai
nMemor y
 Thesearesemi
conduct
ormemor
ies.I
tisknownast
hemai
nmemor
y.

 Usual
l
yvol
ati
l
ememor
y.

 Dat
aisl
osti
ncasepoweri
sswi
tchedof
f.
  I
tist
hewor
kingmemor
yoft
hecomput
er.

 Fast
ert
hansecondar
ymemor
ies.

 Acomput
ercannotr
unwi
thoutt
hepr
imar
ymemor
y.

Secondar
yMemor
y

Thistypeofmemor yisalsoknownasext ernalmemor yornon-

volat
il
e.Iti
sslowerthanthemain
memor y.Thesear eusedf orst
ori
ngdata/infor
mat i
onpermanent
ly.CPUdirectl
ydoesnotaccess
thesememor ies,i
nsteadt heyar
eaccessedv i
ainput-
out
putrout
ines.Thecontent
sofsecondary
memor iesarefir
sttransf
er r
edtothemainmemor y,andthent
heCPUcanaccessi t.Forexample,
disk,
CD- ROM, DVD,etc.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofSecondar
yMemor
y

 Thesear
emagnet
icandopt
ical
memor
ies.

 I
tisknownast
hebackupmemor
y.

 I
tisanon-
vol
ati
l
ememor
y.

 Dat
aisper
manent
lyst
oredev
eni
fpoweri
sswi
tchedof
f.

 I
tisusedf
orst
orageofdat
ainacomput
er.

 Comput
ermayr
unwi
thoutt
hesecondar
ymemor
y.

 Sl
owert
hanpr
imar
ymemor
ies.
RAM :
Random AccessMemor yisthei
nternalmemoryoftheCPUf orst
ori
ngdat
a,pr
ogram,and
pr
ogram resul
t.I
tisaread/
wri
tememorywhi chst
oresdat
aunt
ilt
hemachinei
sworki
ng.Assoon
asthemachineisswit
chedoff
,datai
serased.
Accessti
mei nRAM isindependentoftheaddress,thatis,eachst
oragel
ocat
ioni
nsidet
he
memor yi
saseasyt or
eachasot herl
ocati
onsandt akesthesameamountofti
me.Dataint
he
RAM canbeaccessedr
andomlybutiti
sveryexpensi
ve.
RAM isvolat
il
e,i
.e.dat
astor
edini ti
slostwhenweswit
choffthecomputerori
fther
eisapower
fai
l
ure.Hence,abackupUninter
rupti
blePowerSyst
em (
UPS)isoftenusedwit
hcomputer
s.RAM
i
ssmal l
,bothint
er msofi
tsphysicalsi
zeandint
heamountofdataitcanhol
d.
RAM i
soft
wot
ypes−

 St
ati
cRAM (
SRAM)

 Dy
nami
cRAM (
DRAM)

St
ati
cRAM (
SRAM)

Thewor dstati
cindicat
est
hatthememor yret
ainsi
tscont
entsasl
ongaspoweri sbeingsuppl
i
ed.
Howev er
,dataislostwhenthepowergetsdownduet ovolat
il
enat
ure.SRAM chipsuseamat r
ix
of6-t
ransi
storsandnocapacitor
s.Transi
stor
sdonotrequi
repowertopreventl
eakage,soSRAM
neednotber efr
eshedonaregularbasi
s.

Char
act
eri
sti
cofSt
ati
cRAM
  Longl
i
fe

 Noneedt
oref
resh

 Fast
er

 Usedascachememor
y

 Lar
gesi
ze&Expensi
ve

 Hi
ghpowerconsumpt
ion

Dy
nami
cRAM (
DRAM)

DRAM,unl
ikeSRAM,mustbeconti
nual
lyrefr
eshedinordert
omai ntai
nthedat
a.Thi
sisdoneby
pl
aci
ngthememor yonarefr
eshci
rcui
tthatrewr
itest
hedatasev eralhundr
edti
mespersecond.
DRAM i
susedf ormostsyst
em memor yasi ti
scheapandsmal l.AllDRAMsaremadeupof
memorycell
s,whi
char
ecomposedofonecapacitorandonetransistor
.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofDy
nami
cRAM

 Shor
tdat
ali
fet
ime

 Needst
ober
efr
eshedcont
inuousl
y

 Sl
owerascompar
edt
oSRAM

 UsedasRAM

 Smal
leri
nsi
ze

 Lessexpensi
ve

 Lesspowerconsumpt
ion

ROM :ReadOnl yMemor y.Thememor yfr

om whi chwecanonl yreadbutcannotwri
teonit.This
ty
peofmemor yisnon-
volati
l
e.Theinfor
mationi sstoredpermanentl
yinsuchmemor iesduring
manufactur
e.AROM storessuchi
nstr
ucti
onst hatarerequir
edtostar
tacomput er
.Thi
soperation
i
sr ef
erredtoasbootstrap.ROM chipsarenotonl yusedi nthecomput erbutalsoinot her
el
ectr
onicit
emslikewashingmachi
neandmi crowav eov en.

PROM (
Progr
ammabl
eReadOnl
yMemor
y)
PROM i sread-
onlymemor ythatcanbemodi fi
edonl
yoncebyauser.Theuserbuysabl ank
PROM andent ersthedesi
redcontent
susingaPROM progr
am.I
nsi
dethePROM chi
p,ther
ear e
smallfuseswhichareburntopenduringprogr
amming.I
tcanbepr
ogr
ammedonl yonceandi s
noterasabl
e.

EPROM (
Erasabl
eandPr
ogr
ammabl
eReadOnl
yMemor
y)
EPROM canbeer
asedbyexposingi
ttoult
ra-
viol
etl
ightf
oradurati
onofupto40mi nut
es.
Usual
l
y,anEPROM er
aserachi
evest
hisf
uncti
on.Dur
ingprogr
amming,anel
ect
ri
calchargeis
trappedinaninsulatedgateregion.Thechargeisret
ainedf ormorethan10y earsbecauset
he
chargehasnol eakagepath.Forer asi
ngthi
scharge,ul
tra-v
ioletl
i
ghtispassedthroughaquart
z
crystalwi
ndow( l
id).Thi
sexposur etoult
ra-
viol
etl
ightdissi
patesthecharge.Duri
ngnormaluse,
thequartzl
idi
sseal edwithasticker.

EEPROM (
Elect
ri
cal
lyEr
asabl
eandPr
ogr
ammabl
eReadOnl
yMemor
y)
EEPROM i sprogr
ammedander asedelect
ri
cal
l
y.Itcanbeerasedandreprogrammedaboutt en
thousandtimes.Botherasi
ngandprogrammingtakeabout4to10ms( mil
l
isecond).InEEPROM,
anylocati
oncanbesel ecti
vel
yerasedandprogrammed.EEPROMscanbeer asedoneby teata
ti
me, r
atherthanerasi
ngtheenti
rechi
p.Hence,
theprocessofr
eprogr
ammingi sfl
exibl
ebutslow.
Theadv
ant
agesofROM ar
easf
oll
ows−

 Non-
vol
ati
l
einnat
ure

 Cannotbeacci
dent
all
ychanged

 Cheapert
hanRAMs

 Easyt
otest

 Mor
erel
i
abl
ethanRAMs

 St
ati
canddonotr
equi
rer
efr
eshi
ng

 Cont
ent
sar
eal
way
sknownandcanbev
eri
fi
ed
Por
tsandconnect
ors:
A porti
saphy si
caldockingpoi ntusingwhichanexter
naldevi
cecanbeconnect
edtothe
computer
.Itcanal
sobepr ogrammaticdockingpoi
ntt
hroughwhichi
nfor
mat
ionf
lowsf
rom a
progr
am t
othecomputerorov ertheI
nternet
.
Apor
thast
hef
oll
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs−
 Ext
ernal
dev
icesar
econnect
edt
oacomput
erusi
ngcabl
esandpor
ts.
 Por
tsar
esl
otsont
hemot
her
boar
dint
owhi
chacabl
eofext
ernal
dev
icei
spl
uggedi
n.
 Exampl
es ofext
ernaldev
ices at
tached v
ia por
ts ar
ethe mouse,key
boar
d,moni
tor
,
mi
crophone,
speaker
s,et
c.
 Por
tconnect
sext
ernal
dev
icest
osy
stem uni
t
 Connect
orj
oinscabl
etoper
ipher
al
 Aporti
sthepoi
ntatwhichaperi
pher
alatt
aches/
communicat
eswit
ha
sy
stem uni
tsot
hattheperi
pher
alcansenddatat
othecomputer
.
 Aj
acki
susedt
oident
if
yaudi
oandv
ideopor
ts.
 Aconnect
orj
oint
sacabl
etoapor
t.
 Uni
ver
sal
ser
ial
buspor
t(USB)
 Fi
reWireportcanconnectmul
ti
plet
ypesofdev
icest
hatr
equi
ref
ast
er
dataspeeds.
  Fi
reWirehubpl
ugsinaFir
eWi
reportonthesy
stem uni
tandcont
ains
mult
ipl
eFireWi
report
sinwhi
chyouplugcabl
esfor
mt heFi
reWir
e
devi
ces.
 SCSIpor
t

Ser
ialPort
 Us edforexter
nalmodemsandol dercomput
ermouse
 Twov ersions:9pin,
25pinmodel
 Da tat
ravelsat115kilobi
tspersecond
Par
allelPort
 Us edforscannersandprint
ers
 Alsocalledpri
nterport
  25pi
nmodel
 I
EEE1284-
compl
i
antCent
roni
cspor
t
PS/2Por t
 Us edf orol dcomput erkey boar dandmouse
 Al socal ledmousepor t
 Mo stoft heol dcomput erspr ovidet woPS/ 2por t,
eachforthemouseandkey board
 I EEE1284- compl i
antCent ronicspor t
UniversalSer ialBus( orUSB)Por t
 I tcanconnectal lki ndsofext ernal USBdev icessuchasext ernalhar
ddisk,pri
nter
,scanner
,
mouse, key boar d, etc.
 I twasi nt roducedi n1997.
 Mo stoft hecomput erspr ovidet woUSBpor tsasmi ni
mum.
 Da tatrav elsat12megabi tsperseconds.
 USBc ompl iantdev icescangetpowerf rom aUSBpor t.
VGAPor t
 Co nnect smoni t
ort oacomput er'sv i
deocar d.
 I thas15hol es.
 Si mi l
art ot heser ialpor tconnect or.Howev er,seri
alportconnectorhaspins,VGApor thas
holes.
PowerConnect or
 Th ree-pr ongedpl ug.
 Co nnect st ot hecomput er'
spowercabl et hatplugsintoapowerbarorwal lsocket.
Fi
rewi r
ePor t
 Tr ansf er sl argeamountofdat aatv eryfastspeed.
 Co nnect scamcor dersandv ideoequi pmentt othecomput er.
 Da tatrav elsat400t o800megabi t
sperseconds.
 I nventedbyAppl e.
 I thast hr eev ari
ant s:4-Pi nFireWi re400connect or,6-
PinFir
eWi r
e400connect or,
and9-Pin
Fi
reWi re800connect or.
Modem Por t
 Co nnect saPC' smodem t ot het elephonenet work.
Et
her netPor t
 Co nnect st oanet wor kandhi ghspeedI nter
net.
 Co nnect st henet wor kcabl et oacomput er.
 Th i
spor tr esi desonanEt hernetCar d.
 Da tatr av elsat10megabi tst o1000megabi t
spersecondsdependi ngupont henetwork
bandwi dt h.
GamePor t
 Co nnectaj oy stickt oaPC
 No wr epl acedbyUSB

Digi
talVi
deoI nterf
ace,DVIport
 Co nnectsFlatpanelLCDmonit
ortothecomputer'
shigh-
endvideogr
aphi
ccar
ds.
 Ve rypopularamongv i
deocar
dmanuf act
urer
s.
Sockets
 So cket
sconnectt hemicr
ophoneandspeakerstothesoundcardoft
hecomputer
.

Buses:Channelt
hatal
lowsdev
icesi
nsi
decomput
ert
ocommuni
cat
ewi
theach
other
 Sy stem busconnect sprocessorandRAM
 Buswi dthdeter
minesnumberofbi tstr
ansmitt
edatonet i
me
 Wor dsizeisthenumberofbi t
sprocessorcaninterpretandexecuteatagiv
en
ti
me
 Busesar eusedt otransferbit
sf r
om inputdevicest omemor y
,from memoryto
the processor,f r
om t he processor to memor y
,and f rom memor yt o
output/st
oragedevices.
 Wor dsizeisthenumberofbi tstheprocessorcaninterpr
etandexecuteata
giv
ent i
me.
Bay s:
 Abayi sanopeningi nsi
det hesyst
em unitinwhichy oucaninst
all
additi
onal
equipment.
 Dr
ivebayi
sar
egul
aropeni
ngt
hatt
ypi
cal
l
yhol
dsdi
skdr
ives.
 Ext
ernal
bayal
l
owsusert
oaccessopeni
ngi
nthebayf
rom out
sidet
hesy
stem
uni
t.
I
nter
nal
bayi
sconceal
edent
ir
elywi
thi
nthesy
stem uni
t.
PowerSuppl
y:
 Apowersuppl
yist
hecomponentoft
hesy
stem uni
tthatconv
ert
sthewal
lout
let
ACpowerint
otheDCpower
.
 ACadapterisanexter
nal
powersuppl
y.Anexampl
ewoul
dbeacabl
emodem,
speaker
s,oraPri
nter.
Pr
ocessor
 The cent
ralprocessi
ng uni
t( CPU) i
nter
pret
s and car
ri
es outbasi
c
commandsthatrunacomputer.
 Mult
i-
cor
epr
ocessori
sonechi
pwi
tht
woormor
esepar
atepr
ocessor
cor
es.
 Dual
cor
epr
ocessori
sachi
pthathast
wosepar
atepr
ocessorcor
es.
 Quadcor
epossessori
sachi
pwi
thf
oursepar
atepr
ocessorcor
es.
 Acontroluni
tisthecomponentofthepr
ocessort
hathel
pst
odi
rectand
coor
dinatemostofthef
unct
ionsi
nthecomputer
.
 Ari
thmet
iclogic uni
t(ALU)is al
so a componentofthe pr
ocessor
,it
per
formsar
ithmetic,
compar
ison,
andotheroper
ati
ons.
 Apr
ocessorcont
ainssmal
l
,hi
ghspeedst
oragel
ocat
ions,cal
l
edr
egi
ster
s
 t
hatt
empor
ari
l
yhol
dinst
ruct
ionsanddat
a.
 Theprocessorreli
esonasy
stem cl
ockt
hatcont
rol
sthet
imi
ngofal
lthe
computeroper
ations.
 Thecl
ockspeedi
smeasur
edbyt
henumberoft
ickspersecond.

Mobi
leComput
ersandDev
ices
Today'
smobiledevi
cesar emulti
-f
unct
ionaldevi
cescapabl
eofhost
inga
br
oadrangeofappl
i
cat
ionsforbothbusi
nessandconsumeruse.

 Today'
smobi l
edev i
cesar emul t
if
uncti
onaldevi
cescapableofhostinga
broad range of appl icat
ions for both business and consumer
use.Smart
phonesandt ablet
senablepeopletousethei
rmobi ledev
iceto
accesstheInt
ernetforemail,i
nst
antmessaging,t
extmessagingandWeb
browsi
ng,aswellaswor kdocuments,cont
actl
ist
sandmor e.
 Mobil
edev i
cesareoftenseenasanextensiont
oyourownPCorl apt
op,
and i
n some cases newer,more powerfulmobi
le dev
ices can even
complet
elyr
eplacePCs.
Ty
pesofMobi
l
eComput
ingDev
ices:
Theter
m mobil
edevicer
efer
stoawi der
angeofconsumerelect
ronics.Mobil
e
dev
icet
ypical
l
yisusedt
odescri
bepor
tabl
edevi
cest
hatcanconnectt
ot heInt
ernet
.
Per
sonalDi
git
alAssi
stant(
PDA):
 Somet
imescal
l
edpocketcomput
ers,
 PDAsarehandhel
ddev i
cesthatcombi
neelement
sofcomput
ing,t
elephone/
fax,
I
nter
netandnetwor
kinginasingl
edevi
ce.
 Atypi
calPDAcanf unct
ionasacel
l
ularphone,f
axsender
,Webbr
owserand
per
sonalor
gani
zer
 SomePDAscanalsor
eacttovoi
cei
nputbyusi
ngvoi
cer
ecogni
ti
ontechnol
ogi
es.
ThePDAsoftodayareavail
abl
einei
therastyl
usorkey
boardversi
on(cal
l
ed
adat
apad)
.
Smar
tphones:
 Smartphonescombi
neamobi
l
ephoneandahandhel
dcomput
eri
ntoasi
ngl
e
dev
ice.
 Smar
tphonesal
lowuser
stoaccessandst
orei
nfor
mat
ion(
e.g.e-
mai
l
)andi
nst
all
pr
ogr
ams( appl
i
cati
ons)
.
 Forexampl
e,asmar
tphonecoul
dbeamobi
l
ephonewi
thsomePDAf
unct
ions
 Exampl es of smart
phones ov er the year
s hav e incl
uded t heApple
i
Phone, SamsungGal
axy,Micr
osoftandNoki
aLumia,SonyEri
csson,Palm Tr
eo,
Blackberr
y,Noki
aT-
MobileSi
deki
ck,Torq,
Motor
olaQ,E-
Ten,HPiPaqandI -
mate.
Tabl
etPCs:
Tabl
etPCsar eanev ol
uti
onoft henotebookcomput erwi t
ht ouchscr
eenLCD
screensthatcanbeut il
i
zedwi t
hyourfingerti
psorwit
hast yl
us.Thehandwr i
ti
ng
withastylusi
sdi gi
ti
zedandcanbeconv ert
edt ost
andar
dt extthroughhandwri
ti
ng
recogni
ti
on,oritcanremainashandwri
tt
ent ext.
Thestyl
uscanalsobeusedtotypeonapen-basedkeylayoutwher
ethelet
tered
keysarear
rangeddi
ff
erent
lyt
hanaQWERTYkey boar
d.TabletPCsmayalsooffera
removabl
ekeyboar
dasanadditi
onali
nputopt
ion.
Examples of t abl
et PCs hav e i
ncl
udedAppl
e iPad,Mi
crosof
t
Sur
faceandSurf
ace Pro, Samsung Gal
axy Tab, Samsung Nexus,
AmazonKindl
eFireHDandLenov
oYoga.
Mobi
leOper
ati
ngSy
stems(
Mobi
leOS):
Li
keacomput eroperat
ingsy st
em,amobil
eoperati
ngsystem i
sthesoftware
pl
atf
ormformobil
edevicesontopofwhichot
herpr
ogramsrun.Whenyoupurchase
amobil
edevice,t
hemanuf act
urerwil
lhav
echosenthemobil
eOSf ort
hatspecifi
c
devi
ce.
Themobileoperat
ingsyst
em isr esponsibl
efordetermi
ningthefuncti
onsand
featur
es avail
abl
e on y our devi
ce,such as t humbwheel,keyboards,WAP,
synchroni
zat
ionwit
happli
cati
ons,e-
mai l
,textmessagingandmore.
Themobil
eoperati
ngsystem wil
lalsodet
ermi
newhi
chthi
rd-
par
tyappl
icat
ions
canbeusedony ourdevi
ce.Someoft hemorecommonandwell
-knownmobi l
e
oper
ati
ngsy
stemsincl
udethefol
lowing:
Appl
eiOS:
Appl e'
siOSmobile operati
ng system powersthe company 'sl i
ne ofmobil
e
deviceslikethei
Phone,iPad,iPodtouch,andAppleTV.Appl eiOSwasor igi
nal
l
y
call
edt heiPhoneOSbutwasr enamedi n2010tor efl
ecttheoper at
ingsyst
em'
s
evolvi
ngsupportforaddit
ionalAppledevi
ces.Appl
eupdat ediOStoiOS9i n2015i
n
conjuncti
onwitht
hecompany '
sOSXEl Capi
tanoperat
ingsystem rel
ease.
Googl
eAndr
oid:
 GoogleAndr oidi
samobi l
eoper ati
ngsystem basedonLi nuxt hathasqui ckly
becomet hebiggestcompetit
ort oAppleiOSint hemobi l
edev i
cemar ket
.Googl e
ori
ginal
l
yr el
easedAndroi
d'ssourcecodeunderopensour celi
censes, andtodaythe
companycont inues t
o develop the mobi
le OS pri
vatel
ypr i
ort o maj orupdat e
rel
easesthataremadeav ail
abletoOEMsandt hepubl
ic.ManufacturersofAndroid-
poweredsmar tphoneandt abletdevi
cesincl
udeSamsung,Sony ,Asus,Amazon,
HTC andLG,as well as
Googleit
self
.
 UNI
T–I
I

InputandOut putDev i
ce:Whati sinput-whatar ei nputdevi
ces–key board–pointi
ngdev i
ce–mouse–
otherpoint
ingdev i
ces–cont rol
lersforgami ngandmedi aplay
ers–Voi ceinput–I nputforPDAs,Smar t
phonesandTabl etPCs-Di gi
talCamer as– Vi deoi nput– ScannersandReadi ngdev icesTerminals–
Biometri
cinput-I nputdevicesforphy si
call
ychallengedusers-Output:Whati soutput–di splaydev
ices–
Flatpaneldisplays–CRTmoni tors–Pr int
ers–Speaker s,HeadphonesandEarphones–otherout put
devices–out putdev i
ceforphysical
lychall
engeduser s–St or
agedev i
ces.
*
*

Whati
sinput:Anyi
nfor
mati
onordatasentt
oacomput
erf
orpr
ocessi
ngi
sconsi
der
edi
nput
.Inputoruser
i
nputi
ssenttoacomput
erusi
nganinputdev
ice.

I
nputdevice :Thedeviceswhichareusedtogivedat
aandi nst
ructi
onstot hecomput
erar
ecall
edI
nput
Devi
ces.Vari
oustypesofinputdevi
cescanbeusedwi ththecomput erdependi
nguponthety
peofdata
youwanttoenteri
nthecomputer,e.
g.,
keyboar
d,mouse,j
oyst
ick,
lightpen,
etc.

Keyboar
d: I
tisthemostcommonl
yusedinputdevi
ce.Iti
susedtoenterdat
aandinst
ruct
ionsdi
rect
lyi
nto
thecomput
er.Therear
e101to106butt
onsont hekeyboar
dwhicharecall
edkey
s.

Typi
ngKeys:Thesekeysi
ncl
udethel
ett
erkey
s(A-
Z)anddi
gitkey
s(0-
9)whi
chgener
all
ygi
vet
he
samelay
outasthatoft
ypewr
it
ers.

NumericKeypad:Iti
susedtoentert
henumer
icdataorcursormov
ement.Gener
all
y,i
tconsi
stsof
asetof17keysthatarel
aidouti
nthesameconf
igurat
ionusedbymostaddi
ngmachinesand
cal
cul
ator
s.
 Functi
onKeys:Thetwel
vefunct
ionkeysarepresentonthekeyboar
dwhichar
earrangedi
narow
atthetopoft
hekeyboar
d.Eachfunct
ionkeyhasauni quemeaningandi
susedforsomespeci
fi
c
purpose.

Cont
rolkeys:Thesekey sprov
idecur
sorandscreencont
rol
.Iti
ncl
udesf
ourdi
rect
ionalar
rowkey
s.
Cont
rol
key sal
soincludeHome, End,
Inser
t,Del
ete,
PageUp,PageDown,Cont
rol
(Ctr
l)
,
Al
ter
nate(Al
t)
,Escape(Esc).

Speci
alPur
poseKeys:Keyboar
dalsocont
ainssomespeci
alpur
posekey
ssuchasEnt
er,
Shi
ft
,
CapsLock,
Num Lock,
Spacebar,Tab,
andPrintScr
een.

Poi
nti
ngdev
ice:

Sometimescalledapoint
ingtool
,i
sahar dwareinputdev
icethatal
l
owst heusert
omov ethe
mousecursorinacomput erprogr
am orGUIoperat
ingsystem.Usingapointi
ngdev
ice,youcanpoi
ntator
manipul
ateanyobjectortextonthescreen.Forexample,usingapoint
ingdevi
ceyoucouldpointatand
sel
ectaniconfrom al
istofi
cons.

Fordesktopcomput
ers,t
hemostcommonpointi
ngdevi
ceisthecomput ermouse.Forl
apt
opcomput
ers,
themostcommonpoi nti
ngdevi
cei
sthet
ouchpad.Fi
nal
l
y,f
orsmartphonesandtablet
s,t
hemostcommon
point
ingdevi
cesi
syourfi
ngeronat
ouchscr
een.

Mouse:
Mouseisanotheri
nputdevi
cewhichiscommonlyfoundconnectedwit
hthecomput
ers.I
tisbasi
cal
l
y
apoi
nti
ngdevicewhichworksonthepri
ncipl
eofPoi
ntandClick.Whenthemouseismovedonthemouse
pad,
ali
ghtbeam underneat
href
lectt
ogivemoti
ontothepointeronthescr
een.

Mostofthelatestmouses,thesedays,
incl
udeawheel i
nthemi ddl
eoftwobuttonsthathel
pustoscrol
l
thr
oughdocument smor eeasil
y.weuseourf or
efi
ngertomov ethewheeltoscrol
lupordowni na
document.Opticalmouseusesr edl
i
ghttotrackthemov ementofmousef ormovingthepoi
nteront
he
computerscreen.Thi
stypeofmousei smoreaccur at
eandreliabl
ethanthetr
adit
ionalmouse.

Nowadayscor
dlessmouseisverypopul
ar.i
tdoesn’
thavewir
es.i
tei
therusesBl
uet
oothtechnol
ogyt
o
sendst
hedatathrought
heairt
oar ecei
ver,
usual
lypl
uggedi
nUSBpor toft
hecomputer
.

Ot
herpoi
nti
ngdev
ices:

Tr
ackbal l
 I tisapoi nti
ngdev i
ceconsist
ingofabal lhousedi nasocketcontaini
ngsensorstodetectrotati
on
oft heballaboutt woaxes,simil
artoanupsi de-downmouse:ast heuserroll
stheballwit
hat humb,
fingers,orpalmt hepoint
eront hescreenwillal
somov e.
 Tr ackerbal
lsarecommonl yusedonCADwor kstati
onsforeaseofuse,wheretheremaybenodesk
spaceonwhi cht ouseamouse.
 Somear eablet ocli
pontot hesideofthekey boardandhav ebut
tonswi t
hthesamef uncti
onali
tyas
mousebut tons.Therearealsowi r
elesstr
ackbal l
swhichofferawiderrangeofergonomicpositi
ons
tot heuser.

LightPen:Lightpeni
sanot
herpoi
nti
ngtypeinputdev
ice.I
tisapenshapeddevi
cewhichcanbeusedby
direct
lypoi
nti
ngtheobj
ect
sonthescreen.I
tcanalsobeusedformakingdrawi
ngsdi
rect
lyonthemoni
tor
screen.

Poi
ntingsti
ck:i
sapr essur
esensiti
vesmall
nubusedl i
keaj oyst
ick.I
tisusual
lyfoundonlapt
ops
embeddedbetweenthe'G',
'H'
,and'B'key
s.I
toperatesbysensingtheforceappli
edbytheuser.The
cor
respondi
ng"mouse"buttonsarecommonlyplacedjustbelowthespacebar.Iti
salsof
oundonmi ceand
somedesktopkeyboards.

St
ylus:Smal
lmet
alorpl
ast
icdev
icet
hatl
ooksl
i
keabal
l
poi
ntpen,
butusespr
essur
einst
eadofi
nkt
o
wri
te,
draw,
ormakeselect
ions.Asty
lusi
sasmal
lpen-
shapedi
nst
rumentt
hati
susedt
oinputcommands
t
oacomput erscr
een,
mobiledevi
ceorgr
aphi
cst
abl
et.

Thestyl
usisthepri
maryinputdevi
ceforpersonaldi
git
alassist
antsandsmartphonesthatrequi
reaccur
ate
i
nput,
althoughdevi
cesfeatur
ingmult
i-
touchfinger
-i
nputwithcapaci
ti
vetouchscreensarebecomingmore
popul
arthanstyl
us-
dri
vendev i
cesi
nthesmar tphonemarket.

Touchpad : Touchpadortrackpadisaf l
atsur
facethatcandetectfi
ngercontact.It
'sast
ati
onarypoi
nti
ng
device,
commonl yusedonlaptopcomput er
s.Atl
eastonephy si
calbuttonnormallycomeswiththe
touchpad,buttheusercanalsogenerateamouseclickbyt appi
ngont hepad.Adv ancedf
eaturesi
ncl
ude
pressuresensit
ivi
tyandspecialgest
uressuchasscroll
ingbymov i
ngone' sf
ingeralonganedge.

I
tusesatwo-l
ayergri
dofel
ect
rodestomeasurefingermovement:
onelay
erhasv
ert
icalel
ectr
odestri
ps
t
hathandl
evert
icalmovement
,andtheot
herlayerhashori
zont
alel
ect
rodest
ri
pstohandlehor
izont
al
movements.

Touchscreen: Touchscreeni
saspeci al
computerscr
eenthatt
akestheinputbysensi
ngthetouchofa
humanf i
nger,glovedhand,st
ylus,penoranyot
herpoint
ingdev
ice.Theusergiv
esinst
ruct
ionstothe
computerjustbytouchingthescreen.

Cont
rol
ler
sForGami
ngAndMedi
aPl
ayer
s:

Joystick:Joyst
ickarealsoinputdev iceswhichar
ealsoinputdeviceswhi char eusedtocontrolt
he
mov ementofobjectonthescr een.Justlikemouse,t
hesearealsopoi nti
ngdev i
ces.Mostl
ytheyareused
forplayi
nggamesont hecomput er.Thejoysti
ckhasav er
ti
calsti
ckwi that rackballati
tsbottom.Whil
e
playi
ngt hegamesont hecomput er,theuserneedstomov etheobjectsqui cklyonthescreen.Witht
he
mov ementofthi
sv er
ti
cal st
icktheobj ectscanbemov edinall
thedirecti
onseasi ly.

Game-
pad:Agame-padisatypeofgamecont
rol
lerhel
dintwohands,wher
ethef
ingers(
especi
all
y
t
humbs)ar
eusedt
oprovi
deinputbypr
essi
ngbutt
onsonit.I
tisal
soknownasControl
Pad.

Dancepad: alsoknownasadancemat ,danceplatf

or m, orf
litt
erdecki
saflatel
ectr
onicgame
contr
oll
erusedforinputi
ndancegames.Mostdancepadsar edivi
dedi
ntoa3×3mat ri
xofsquarepanels
fort
heplayertostandon,wit
hsomeoral l
ofthepanel scor r
espondingtodi
recti
onsoracti
onswithi
nthe
game.Somedancepadsal sohaveext
rabutt
onsout sideoft hemai nst
eppi
ngarea,suchas"St
art"and
"Sel
ect"
.Pair
sofdancepadsar eoft
enjoi
nedside-by-sideforcertai
ngameplaymodes.

Li
ghtGun:usedt
oshoott
arget
sandmov
ingobj
ect
saf
tery
oupul
lthet
ri
ggeront
heweapon.

TouchSensi
ti
vePads:foundonportabl
emediaplay
ers;
aninputdevicet
hatenabl
esuser
st oscr
oll
thr
oughandplaymusi
c,vi
ewpict
ures,watchv
ideosormovi
es,adjustvol
umeandcustomizesett
ings

Wheel:st
eer
ing-
wheel
-t
ypei
nputdev
iceusedf
orst
eer
ingv
ehi
cleson-
scr
een

Moti
onSensi ngGameCont r
oller:all
owst heusertogui deon-screenelement sbymov i
ngahandhel dinput
dev
iceinpredetermineddirecti
onst hrought heair
* *
Voi
ceinput:
 Adev iceinwhi chspeechi susedt oinputdataorsy stem commandsdi rectl
yintoasystem.Such
equipmenti nvolvestheuseofspeechr ecogniti
onpr ocesses,andcanr eplaceorsupplementot her
inputdev i
ces.
 Somev oiceinputdev i
cescanr ecognizespokenwor dsfrom apr edef
inedv ocabul
ary.
 Whent heoperatoruttersav ocabul ar
yitem,themat chingdatai nputi
sdi splayedascharacter
sona
screenandcant henbev eri
fi
edbyt heoperator.
 Thespeechr ecogniti
onpr ocessdependsont hecompar isonofeachut terancewithwor ds
appear i
nginast oredv ocabularytable.Thetablei screatedormodi fi
edbyusi ngthevoiceinput
equipmentt ogetherwi t
hakey board.
  Adat ai
tem orsy stem commandi stypedandt her el
atedspokenwor di sutt
er ed,sev er
alti
mes.The
spokenwor di sthenanal yzedandconv er
tedintoapar ti
cul
arbitpatter nthatisst oredinthe
v ocabularytable.
*
*
Audi
oinput:
 Dev icesar eusedt ocapt uresound.Insomecases, anaudiooutputdev i
cecanbeusedas
aninputdev ice,inor dertocapt ureproducedsound.Audi oinputdev icesal l
owausert o
sendaudi oinfot oacomput erforprocessing,recordi
ng,orcarr
yingoutcommands.
 Mi crophones, amongt hemostcommondev icesforaudioinput,ar
eusedwi thline-inormi cr
ophone
-i
nset t
ingswi thinar ecordingsof t
war epackage.Mostoper ati
ngsy st emscomewi thabasi c
recordi
ngcapabi li
tybui l
tin.Userscanar chivespokenmessages, v
er bal notes,gener ateaudio
j
our nal
sormakepodcast s.
 I VRS: Interactiv
ev oi
cer esponsesy stems( I
VRS)ar eprovi
dedbyv irtual l
yallbusi nessesand
governmentor ganizationst hathavecustomer sormember sthatneedt oobt aininformationby
phone.

I
nputf
orPDAs,
Smar
tphonesandTabl
etPCs

Per
sonalDigi
talAssistants:
 Ahandhel ddev icethatcombinescomput ing,telephone/f
ax,Inter
netandnetwor ki
ngfeatures.
 At y
pical
PDAcanf uncti
onasacel l
ularphone, faxsender,Webbr owserandper sonalorganizer
.
 PDAsmayal sober efer
redt
oasapal mtop, hand-heldcomput erorpocketcomput er
.
 Theyuseaf orm oftouchscr
eent echnology,usingal i
ghtpenorst ylusasaninputdevicerather
thanakey board.Inadditi
on,
adet achablekey boardorav oicerecordercanbeused.

Smar
tphone:
 mobi l
edev i
cethatcombinescell
ularandmobi l
ecomput i
ngfunctionsintooneunit.
 They ar e di sti
ngui
shed f r
om feat ure phonesby t heir stronger har dware capabil
it
ies and
extensivemobi l
e oper ati
ng sy stems, whi ch f acil
itate wi dersoftware,i
nter
net(incl
udingweb
browsingov ermobilebroadband) ,andmul ti
mediaf unct i
onali
ty( i
ncl
udi ngmusic,video,cameras,
andgami ng),al
ongsidecorephonef unctionssuchasv oicecall
sandt ex tmessaging.
 Ani nputmechani sm t o al l
ow t he user t o i nter
act wi t
h t hephone. The most
commoni nputmechanism is a key pad,butt ouch scr eens ar e also found in smartphones.
Basicmobi l
ephoneser vi
cestoallowuser stomakecal lsandsendt extmessages.

 Shor tMessageSer vice(SMS):SMSi sthesi mplestandmostcommont ypeoft extmessageandi s

suppor tedbyal ar genumberofmobi l
ephones.SMSt y pi
call
yallowsf ortex tmessageswi tha
max imum of160char acterspermessage.
 Smar tMessagi ng:Thesemessagesmaycont ainnon-textcontent,theystil
luseSMSt extdata
stream t ocommuni catet hedat a.Smar tMessagingwasdev elopedbyNoki aandi sfoundonlyon
Noki aphones.
 ExtendedMessageSer vice(EMS) :TheEMSst andardal l
owsnon- textcontentsi mil
artoSmar t
Messagi ng,buti naddi tion, EMSaddst heabi l
it
ytof or
matt hetextmessagesi ncludingthefontsize,
fontcol or,fontsty l
eandt ex tandpi ctureplacementwi t
hinamessage.
 Mul ti
medi aMessagi ngSer v i
ce(MMS):MMSst andardincludestheabi l
it
ytocr eatemessageswi t
h
text,picture,musi candot hercont ent.MMSmessagesmayconsi stofmul ti
plepages,eachpage
withitsownt ext
, picture,musi c,etc.
 Mobi leEmai l:Mostoft henewermobi l
emodel shav etheopt i
ontosendandr ecei v
eemail.Infact,
whencomposi ngapi cturemessagewi thamobi l
ephone,mostwi l
loffert
heabi l
it
ytosendt hi
s
picturemessaget oanemai laddressaswel lastoaphonenumber( usi
ngMMS) .

Tabl
etPCs:
  At abl etcomput er ,commonl y shor t ened t ot abl et ,is amobi le dev ice,t y pical l
y wi th amobi l
e
oper at i
ng sy stem andt ouchscr eendi splay pr ocessi ngci rcui try,and ar echar geabl e bat teryi na
singl e, thinandf latpackage.
 Tabl et s,bei ngcomput er s,dowhatot herper sonalcomput er sdo,butl acksomei nput / out put( I
/O)
abi l
ities t hatot her s hav e.Moder nt abl etsl ar gelyr esembl e moder nsmar tphones,t he onl y
differ encesbei ngt hatt abl etsar er elat i
velyl argert hansmar tphones, withscr eens7i nches( 18cm)
orl ar ger ,measur eddi agonal lyandmaynotsuppor taccesst oacel lularnet wor k.
 Ear lyt abl etdev icesusedl i
ghtpensorast y l
usast hei rinputdev ice.Howev er,t odayal ltabl etsuse
at ouchscr eenast heirpr imar yinputdev icewi tht heopt iont oconnectex ternaldev ices,suchas
akey boar d.
 Mostt abletsonl yhav eaf ewphy sical buttons; t heback, power ,andv olumebut tons.
**
Di
git
alCamer as:
 Adi gital camer aordi gi cam i sacamer at hatcapt ur esphot ogr aphsi ndi gitalmemor y.
 Mostcamer aspr oducedt odayar edi gital andwhi let herear est illdedi cateddi gitalcamer as,many
mor ecamer asar enowi ncor poratedi nt omobi ledev i
cesl i
kesmar tphones, whi chcan, amongmany
otherpur poses,uset hei rcamer ast oi nitiatel ivev ideo- t
el ephonyanddi rect lyedi tandupl oad
imager yt oot hers.
 Howev er,high-end, high- def init
iondedi catedcamer asar est illcommonl yusedbypr of essi onal sand
thosewhodesi ret ot akehi gher -
qual i
typhot ogr aphs.
**
Vi
deoinput :
 Vi deoi nputdev icesar eusedt odi git
iz eimagesorv ideof rom t heout sidewor l
di nt ot hecomput er.
 Thei nf or mat i
oncanbest oredi namul t
itudeoff or mat sdependi ngont heuser 'sr equi rement .
 Ex ampl esoft ypesofav ideoi nputdev icesi nclude: Digi t
al camer a.Di gital camcor der .
 Av ideoi nputdev icei sanydev i
cet hatsendsv ideo.Ther ear esev er alt ypesofv ideoi nputdev i
ces
thatal lowy out opl ayv ideof rom anext ernal dev iceonav i
deodi splay .
 Ex ampl esoft ypesofv ideoi nputdev icesi ncl ude:
o Di git
al camer a/Di gital camcor der
o Por t
ablemedi apl ay er
o Webcam
o I magescanner
o Fi ngerpr i
ntscanner
o Bar coder eader
o 3Dscanner
 PCv ideocamer a:
o A webcam i sacamer athatconnect st oacomput er.I tcapt uresei therst illpi ct uresor
mot i
onv ideo, andwi t
ht heai dofsof twar e, cant r
ansmi ti
t sv ideoont heI nt erneti nreal -ti
me.
o Today ,mostwebcamsar eei therembeddedi ntot hedi spl aywi thl apt opcomput ersor
connect edt ot heUSBorFi reWi repor tont hecomput er .

 Webcam :
o Webcamsar etypicallysmal lcamerasthatsitonadesk,at tachtoauser '
smonitor
,orare
builtintothehar dwar e.
o Webcamscanbeuseddur i
ngav i
deochatsessi oni nvolvingtwoormor epeople,wi
th
conv ersationsthati ncl
udeliveaudioandv i
deo.
o I tsmai nfunct i
onist otr
ansmi tpi
cturesovertheInternet.
o I tispopul arl
yusedwi t
hinstantmessagingser v
icesandf orrecordingi
mages.
o Webcam,t hesmal lbug-eyedcamer amount edont hecomput ercapt
uresl
ightt
hroughthe
frontsmal l l
ensusi ngagr i
dofmi cr
oscopicli
ght-detectors.
o Thesel ightdetector sarebui l
tint
otheimage-sensingmi crochip.

Scanner
sandReadi
ngdev
icesTer
minal
s
OutputDevi
ces:Thedeviceswhichareusedtodi
spl
aytheresul
tsori
nfor
mati
onarecal
ledOutputDev
ices.
Youcanv i
ewtheoutputonthemonitororyoucanpr
inti
tonapaperusingapr
int
er.Monit
orandthepr
int
er
ar
et hecommonlyusedoutputdevi
ces.

Monitor:Thisisthemostcommonout putdevi
ceconnect edwit
hthecomputert
odispl
ayt
heprocessed
i
nfor
mat ion.I
tlooksl
ikeaTVandi sal
soknowasVDU( VisualDi
splayUni
t)
.Pict
uresar
edi
splay
edbyusing
alar
genumberofv er
ysmalldotsonscreencal
ledpixel
s.Thenumberofpixel
sthatamoni
torcanshowon
i
tsscreenisreferr
edtoastheresol
uti
onofthescreen.

Print
er:Thi
sisanimportantoutputdevi
ceofthecomput ersy
stem.I
tgi
vesapri
ntedoutputoft
heresul
ts
thatappear
sonthemonitorscreen.Pri
ntedoutputisal
socall
edHardCopyout
putbecauseunli
kemonit
or,
thi
soutputcanbepreser
v edevenifthecomputerisswit
chedoff.

Char
act
erPr
int
er:Char
act
erpr
int
erpr
int
sonechar
act
eratat
ime;
itpr
int
satt
hespeedofar
ound30t
o
600char
act
erspersecond.DotMat
ri
xpr
int
eri
sanex
ampl
eofachar
act
erpr
int
er.

DotMatri
xPri
nter: Thi
stypeofpri
nterworksli
keatypewr
iter
.Itcreat
esanimpressi
ononthepaperby
pr
essingt
heendofpi nsfi
xedi
nitsprintheads,
agai
nstaninkedribbon.Thi
spr
interi
snoi
sywit
hal ow
pr
intqual
i
ty.I
tsspeedismeasuredinCPS( Char
act
ersPerSecond) .

Li
nePrinter:Thi
sishighspeedpri
nterthatpri
ntsoneli
neatat i
me.Itisusedwhenlargequant
it
yofoutput
i
srequir
edasi tpr
oducesthequickoutput.ExamplesofaLinepri
nterareDrum pr
int
erandtheChai
n
pr
int
er.Thenoiselev
el oft
hesepri
nter
si shighandspeedrangesfrom 200to2000LPM( Li
nesPerMinute)
.

PagePri
nter:PagePri
nterpr
int
sawhol epageatat
ime.Examplesofthesepr
int
ersar
einkj
etpr
int
erora
Li
nepri
nterbecausei
thastostoreeachpageinmemorybefor
eprint
ingit
.

InkjetPri
nter:Thi
sty
peofprinterpri
ntsbyspr
ayi
ngti
nyinkdroplet
sonthepaper.I
tcanpri
ntinboth,
color
aswel lasblackandwhi
te.Thepr i
ntqual
it
yofthi
spr
int
erisbettert
hant
hatofDotMat r
ixPri
nterandit
printswit
houtmakinganynoise.It
sspeedismeasur
edinPPM( PagesPerMinute).

Laserpr i
nter:
Int
histy
peofprinter
,laserbeam t
echnol
ogyi
susedtopri
ntt
hetextorgraphi
csonthe
paper.Thespeedofthi
spri
nterisveryfastanditgi
vesoutv
eryf
inequal
i
typri
nts.I
t’
sspeedisal
so
measur edinPPM.

Speaker
:Speaker
sar
ecategor
isedasoutputdev
ices.Thesear
eusedtoli
stentothemusicandsounds
pl
ayedbythecomput
er.Normall
ytheycomeinapairandhavedif
fer
entshapesandsizes.

Pl
ott
er:Wecangetthepr
intofaphot
ograph,
drawi
ng,i
magest or
edinthecomputer
,byusi
ngaplot
ter
.It
i
sanoutputdev
icewhi
chprovi
desahighqual
it
yofpri
ntedout
put.I
tisgener
all
yusedbyengi
neer
sand
ar
chi
tect
s.