all the examples so far, we have been able to find the limit of the gradient because h, which has to

(0 ::nd to O in the limit, cancel,s from the denominator. This problem requires some ingenuity. •

. the definition of the derivative gives

using

. f (,x + h) - f Cx)
f'(x)=hm
/i40
h

..fxTTi - ..fx
= h-0
Jim h

The h in the denomin~tor,needs to cancel with the rational number h in the numerator.

We therefore need to rationalise the numerator

-./x-th - ..fx ./x+.1i - ..fx ../xTTz + ..fx
Now h h x ..Jx+h + ..fx

+ h)-x l(
h (-lx+h + ·..fx) = Ii (../x+.h + ..fx)

So f' (x)=~ ../xT/i+.Jx

_1_·
2..fx

Using index notation this prov~s th~t iff (x) = x~, then f '(x) = ½x--!
The proof is beyond the scope of these notes, but the results of example 13.1 suggest the following
RULES In particular
f(x) · _,. f'(x)--
-'
C 0

tr
;'
For all rational values of n
lff(x)=xn
(I)
X

x2 2x
then f' (x) = nx n--l
x3 3x2

xi ½x---1
also

If f (x) and g (x) ,are c~nti!1~ous functions, of x, then

i {f (x) ±.g(x)} f' (x) ,± g ·

I!' ' •

(x) (2) ,

and t, {af'(x)} = acf},{f(x)}

I·
(3)
I

i.e. the derivative of / sum is the sum of the derivatives

213 I
 \ 111
,, I
,:-' . I 1· , • ,
, • . I . , . I

•~ule~ fof ,pro'duc~s and quotiep.ts offun6tio~s be considered later. Rule

. · :will
(2) must only be applied to a se' •
rie 8
of differentiaple functions (at this stage, terms .of powers of 4

Before differen#ating a function, make sure that it is written as a series of powers of

,x (or other functions .whose derivatives you know). This means that brackets must
l be ~ultiplied out before differeritiating, and fractions with x in the denominator and
' ,.
,surds :must be writt,en as negative and fractional powers of x.

. it
, :. ,. E xample 13.2 ,
(a) }:i~1..·f '(x) i,f f(x) = S~L 7x2 + 3x - 4 (b) Find f '(x) if f(x) = (x -;- 3)(x2 + 2)
(c) A Fin~ ·.ID! ' if
••. ~dx y
= x~.±-3.
2x @ Find! if y=..fx + ~2

.' · .' (a),'. > differentiate: f'(x) = 15.x~·- 14x + 3

(b! I >\ m~ltiply out the brackets: , f(xf= x 3 _: 3x2 + 2x - 6
i differentiate: f'(x) = 3x2- 6x + 2
.·<c) I> divide by th~ denominator: y = ,!'.2 t' · .1..
2x

· I:> , -re~rite yas powers of x: s.2 + 23 .r1

> differentiate:· .QJl = l - 3. .x-2

I · dx 2 2 ,
·1 : ·_ .1.. "1.
- 2 2x2
(d) > fewrite y as powers of x: )' = x½ + X -2
> differentiate: ·.QJl = l x~½ - 2.x-3
elf 2 . ·,
__1_ l (this step puts the answer in the same form as the question, but
.. ,, ; - 2./x -;- x3 · is not essential)
f •.

EXE~¢1s~13 A (Remember always to set your work out clearly, and use the notation used in the question)
• • ; I • •. ,, ' I ,, •,

' 1. , Differentiate from 'first principles

(a) x2 + 2 (bf '. 2x- I (c) 3x2
I ,

2. Find t when .
(al. Y =x4 = x9
' I
(b) y=x7 (c) y (d) y = 2x3
,' ' •' /' I )
3
· (~) y ·F 4x8 ·. •. '(±) y = 7x4 (g) y=i (h) y=~
6

(;) ;== ~4' . , . G) y == -3xs (k) y=-9x4 (l) y == mx3

.(m) y= pxi,
'I (n) y = - 'nx4 (o) ,Y = 2x (p) j,=9x
(q) ,y=7 i (r) y ,= 1 (s) y = x2 + 7x + 4 (0 y = x4 - 2x2 + 5
y"" 9x~ + ,2x2 + 3 = ! + j + •f
\ 3 2 ' I '"
(u) y =.:Zx2 + Sx + 4 (v) (w) Y (x) y = ax2 + bx+ c

214
 find f ' (x) when
3,
(a) f (x) = (x + 7) 2
(b) f(x)=(2x+S) 2
(d) f (x) = (2.x + 7)(x + 4)_ (c) f(x)=(x-3)(x+4)
(e) f(x)=(3x-1)(5x+7) (f) f (x) = (4x - 3)(3x - 5)
(g) f(x)=(x 2 + 1)2
(h) f (x) == (x4 _ 5)2

Differentiate w.r.t. (with respect to) x ,.

4.
(a) Y =x3 (b) y=x-1 (c) y == 2x-z (d) y = 3x-3 (e) y= f0 (f) y= 3~2
57
(

(g) y=: (h) y == (i) y == ==xi

G) Y (k) y =xt (1) y = xi
5. Differentiate w.r.t. x

(a) f(x) = (b) f(x) == -:}; (c) f(x) = ¼ (d) f(x) =

(e) f(x) = 3x -~ (f) f(x) = X + 12 (g) y = + J. (h) y= !.=..I

X 3 X X
(i) y = x2 + 5- X; U) y= 4x;9 (k) y=
2
x + 5x-6
(I)
j, (3 -~)(2 -x)
-\ X X

6. Differentiate w.r.t. x'

(a) f(x) = -Ix (b) f(x) = ..1.. . (c) f(x) =-Ix+!, (d) f(x) = x-:rx4
-Ix
x 2 -'- 5x () -_3-x
(e) y = -Ix (f) y = 3xi-x½ g y- xi - 7x½+ --8..
(h) y- xi

TANGENTS AND NORMALS

m The normal to a curve at a given point is the line perpendicular to the tangent. to the curve at that poitJ.t.

Given the curve y = f (x) , f'(x) represents the gradient function and ~of '(a) gives the gradient of the tangent at
the point on the curve where x = a. -
Since the normal is perpendicular to tJ:ie tangent, the gradient of the normal will be f \a).

Example 13.3
Find the equation of (i) the tangent and (ii) the normal to the curve y = x3 - 3 at A (2, 5)
> Find the gradient of the tangent at the general point (x, y): t = 3x2
> (i) Find gradient at A: at A: x = 2 :. gradient= 3 x 4 = 12
> Find equation of tangent: ( y - 5) = 12(x - 2)
y= 12.x-'- 19
> (ii) normal is to tangent: .·. at A gradient -of normal
J_ = -~
> equation of normal: (y - 5) = -~(x - 2)
x + I2y = 62

1'he gradient to the curve y = ax2 + b at the point (2, 11) is 8. Find the values of a and b .
> The point (2, 11) lies on the curve: 11 = 4a + b
>~
d-c == 2ax .-. 8 = 4a

215
 f,
I,••,

' . I
t • ,,
I• '/I'

) ·' '
t,. ' ,
' I, . :_, I I

-· EXERCISE 13_B
., ; :, ,, / • . ,; i~ \. ' , : ' • •

L)Pfu.~ ~~ g'radferit, ~d he,n~ thee·, uation, of the tapgent to each of the following curves at the given point.
. · /. (a)-y '.:::x3 . at(2, '8)
1

.·· ;j ·(b)y ',,;; 4.t3 at 02, .::.34), . ,. <~) y=lx at (9,3)

2.. . .} in4 the .~q~tion o( ~he:tangen to e~ch-~fthe following cunres at the·given poi~t. ,
·, • , .• (a) 'y ,=x2 atx=;=-3 ·1 (b) y '?' x3+ 2.x2+6 at x=2 (c) y=3x4 at x ;,, -2
. . I . . ,
· .(ct) ~ ~J_. l\t.x=3 · 1
(e) y~(3x-l)(2x-2) ~t x ; 2 1 ·(t) y=Slx atx=l6
•• I • ·1'··1 ,\ ', X . '. .
: · {g) .y;:::,~atx=8 l ,.
, . , 1 \ ., :1

3. Fii;ld.t4<f equatieri., ~Kthe normal to ~ach of the follo'wing cui:ves at the given point.
' 'I·::_:· :·· (a)' y=2x3~3· alk•-1) '. J. (b)_~'.,;:=:4l+'; 2 ~t(4,10) (c) y~ ,;2 at :(2,¼)
• . J, 'J,

. . .. ,. ' '. . I . I' '.'

The curve y = px3 , ' 3x2 + qx - rt has gradient 5 at the point_(l', ..,.3) .. Find the values of p and q.
II •~· l ' ' . ' , I I ,

· · The curve' y = ·aJi :f·

b passes ~rough th,e poin~ (9, 3) and has -~ gradient of 1 when~= 4. Find the
values of l1 and b.:··: ··, , · · :; ' '.·· · · · · ·
' , I ( Ir I.'

, • i i ., , .
6. .Show,~hat ~ere _is ~ne -~gent,to the c~e y' "'.'·3x~ + 4 which has gradient 11, and find i~ ~quation.
·. ,, . . . •,· 1 i. . ' . .

7. Find-~e ~ordin~tes ~I the poi~ts on the purvey=, .:!~f-J at wbich :the gradient ofth~ curv~ is 5.
··, ,,- ... ·. , ' . . _-.', :i · '·1 :· ···<·· ';' ,• : .
8: -T he tangent to the curve ·ji = (xi_- 2) 2 ~t.tlie .point.(3, 1) cuts the x-:-axis at M and the Y,:-axis at N. Find
!he c9~fdfuates·_ofM an<l°N he~~e th¢ lertgt~ of MN. · . , , . · .: , ·I ~1
9; -~hid t)Jeeq~tio~~ ~; ~e 'to the ·y = x2 + 2 at the -points P ·and Q wlwse x c~ordinates
.> : . _ar,e} ;~ d ~2 r~s~~ctiv~IY·,. r in~lthe p9i~t Qf in~ersec_tion ~f tangents.

·'; ·.·~:'*
' ~ . ~. ·. ,:, ._:

,' .. ,
: ;I

' !
'·. .. :/_i

DrF~~it~~1AnoN oF si'n x -A~ \. cos x :iiiliM F1RSJ PruNciP:~~ · ' .··

: • '

'
'

'
I • t' .. '
' • ,, ,
''

( J I
.
; '; ,,
'

•
1

.\1 ,
t

. ,.
I I

I 1,. ,
I

.
•
.

• •.'.
/ J· .,

• ''
I

Differentiation'of ·sirJi ·'and cos,x require two results derived earliir:

' ,, , •. ' • I,' ·.: ij (.. '

, _': the _(ac_tor fo~ufa~ f~r ~in P ..;. sin Q and for _cos P- cos Q (see chapter 9)
'~ cf1tlie limit:
,• ,~
litri · l••x • 1 '•(
1·· . ,· ·· '
' ' ,,, '
_,. ,•I ! ' ,\

lf,f (x) = sin X If f (x) = COS X

' · 1.
•
,
t
, ,
1
f r (x) = Inn .
'
· : '{f(x+h) f(x)}
1·~ ; 01, '•
·h
I
·
I >
·
; I
f ' (x) 'c'
h-;+O
lim {f (x + h)
h
I, • ,_: . '.;,, • , ' '''

, . . ,{ sin (x + h) - sinx } -{ cos (x + h) ~osx}

' /1

=hm , - . I
= Iim
Ip-+() _ •. ,
'I
. ~ . h-+o . h
!
, ;, 21-6
I
I '
 == lim
= Jim
• 1 (2x + h) sm2
- 2 sm 2 . ...
{ ···············-·························h ······················
1h}

= cosx = - sin x

ultiple angles can be differentiated from first principles in the same way. For example:
tvf iff (x) == sin 3x

. {f(x + h)- f(x)}

f · (x) = 11m h

= lim {sin 3(x + h) - sin3x}

h-+O h

= Jim J2cos~(2x + h} sin%}

h-+O l h

_ .
- 11m
h-+O
t~~(2x
3
2h
+ h) sin~h} I

= 3cos3x

Generalising these results gives the rules

f(x) ('(x)

u
sin x cosx
I '.'I. cosx -s1nx
sin nx n cos nx
cos nx -n sin nx

The proofs for the di:ff~rentiation of trig. functions are dependent on the fact that Jim fil.!l.A = 1, but this
X

is only true when xis measured in radians.

_g_ (. d
dx sinx) = cos x, dx (cos x) = -sin x etc. are only true when x is measured in RADIANS.

Find f '(x) if f (x) = 3sin x - 2 cos 4x

f '(x) = 3 (cos x) - 2(--4 sin 4x) = 3 cos x + 8 sin 4x.

Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = sin 2x at the point P, where x = t-rr.
> Differentiate to find gradient: y ' == 2 cos 2x
> Find gradient of tangent andy at P: when x = ·h, Y '= 2 cos ½-rr = 1 and y = sin ½1t = ½J3
> Find gradient of nonnal P: gradient of tangent is I, .·. gradient of normal is -1
217
 , .

'.> ·°Find.equation ~r'no~al:

0(

• • I
EXERqsE pc
,. 1.,
1
l. · ·-.~ itfer~ntiate the fo)lowing functions w.r.t. x
(c) f(x)=2x-cosx
·(a) f(x)=cos3x · '. ,· (b) f(x)=2sin2x
(t) f (x) = 2x3 + 7cos x
·. (d) , f(x)=sinx+S (e) f(x) =3cosfX+Ssinx
(i) Y = bsin ax
., '(g) ,y = 2sin 4x + x2 - 3· (h) y = 4 - cos 3x
• , I.,
2. · Find .the equation of the tangent to the •curve y = sin x at the origin.

3. Fi~~ !he_equat;ion'of'the.tangent to the curve y "". 2cos x at the point where x = -rr.

4. Find'the equati'on' of the n'onnal to µie curve y = sirt 2x at the point where x = -rr

PRODU€'.f AND OUOTIENi RULES

Th~/1~les for ditfe)enti~tio~·we have learnt so far .enable the differentiation of simple functions. Using these rules,
. a functi~n which i~ the pro~uct or quotiept of two functi9ns, like f(x) =x sin'. x c_annot. A new rule is required.
/ . • ; ' ' •. ' • ) •

,If y uv, where u and v ~efllp.ctions of ,f, and' if a small jncremendix in x produces corresponding increments
=:=

flu, fo, _
and;6y . in u, and,y, then · · ..
, y + 6y = (u + 6~)(v + 6v)
= tlV ;+- v,6u .:P u6v + 6u6v
'fui. -· (y +:fui} -,-y i' ,

& - ' ]&

v6u 4- u6v + Bu.6v
= I 6x
. I ,

• I V l u 6x: .' 6x
ful .Ji & + "
6x :
• = 1·lffi fui I
. .
~ • . 6-t . . ,. .
,. . Bu · . 6v . 6u.6v
1m t:
.. = v 1&,...O µ,\
+ u 1fu-..,()
1m ·rn ~- + 11m
h,~o rn
lim~~O' so~ =v.d!l+udv ,
' ·pow tit../J i, 6x ·' dx , dx dx
I

lify=µv, =v .!:l.u +u dv
dx dx dx
-·-·--·· -· ~rI·····---.- ____ _j , .

this ·is •known as,the rod~c.rriile, and the quotient rule can be proved in a: similar way:.

1· if y = u , dv =
vt - udxdv
---""'-'----......:-1!.d.
:, v dx v~

218
pifferentiate w.r.t. x (a) y = x sin x (b) y=ll2
2.x-3
make substitutions for u, v: Let u = x and v = sin x
(a)
differentiate u, v: ID!
dx = 1 and dx =cosx
substitute in the formula: = vdu + u~
dx dx dx
=sinx x 1 +xcosx
= sin X + X cos X
(b) make substitutions for u, v: Let u = x + 5 and v = 2x - 3
differentiate u, v:
t = 1 and t =2

d vID! - u~
substitute in the formula: ~ - dx dx
dx - v2

= (2x - 3) X l - (x + 5) X 2
(2.x- 3)2

-13
(2x- 3)2

EXERCISE 13 D

In questions 1 - 2, differentiate w.r.t. x

I. (a) (x + 4)(x2 + 3) (b) x cos x (c) (x2 + 1) sin x (d) (x - 1) sin 3x
(e) (3 + .fx) cos x (t) cos x (1 + sin x) (g) 5x sin 2x (h) (3x2 - 4) cos 3x

2. (a) *3 (.b) li...!

4-x (c) _k_
x+l (d) 4-x
1 _:k_ (g) sinx2+ cosx (h) 2x3 -1
(e) 9-4x2 (f) 2x + 1 x +1 cosx

= x ! 2 at the point (2, 1).

2
3. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve Y

4. Find the equation of the normal to the curve Y = 2: 4

1 at the point where the curve meets the x-axis.

5. Use the identity tan x = sin x to show that ..d..dx (tan x)

COS X
= sec2 x.

Tut CHAIN RULE

Sometimes three variables are related in such a way that, for instance, y is a function of u, and u is a function
of x. For example the composite function Y = (2x2 -1)5 could be seen as y = u5 where u = 2x2 _ l.

The rules we have learnt for differentiation so far. do not ~How us t~ diffe~entiate f (x) = (2x2 _ 1)5 as it stands,
and multiplying it out would be cumbersome, but mtroducmg the third. vanable u (making a substitution) enables
f (x) to be differentiated. The rule for this, often known as the chain rule is

219
 . i , ,·. ·:

and it is proved' as follows:

:idx\s,a•Sfi1;all irtdrem~ntip. X
, ' .•. • I '
and Ou ~d oyare the correspondi~~ increments ip u andy,
• •

then

l : : /-

. (this ~*es the

assumption that 6u 0 ~s fix 0,
dy . clu which is true ifu is a continuous fundio~ of~)
=.- x -
· I·:,.• ,I ,.1•·
' -du dx

\ I,
A,usb'iul corollary is found by putting ,"y = ·x, ',, ,'
I \ {

which giv~~ · ;d: ~ - x .!U:'. . i.e. -~ x ·fut .= 1.

dx d.x ·. d.x du , , dx
.,, .
,b ' •

· i.e: the reciprocal. o~ . is· . t

( .
l

! 4!. _._·J..:
, dy- ~ --
·.d.x
,,
Example
'
· 13.8 ., i. •. /· ,, "
DJfferentiate, y ,,;:-,'(2x2.:.... })~ W.r.t. X . , . '
- ' - · l ,, · . ' ., I

· · >-· Thi~ ,i~ ii c9mpo~ite :'fimction in which Y,,= u where u = ~2 ..:. 1

5

>' Make ~-substit1;ition; · Let u 2x2 - l then y = us

•.. ~-· ;t)ifter~~tia~e bot(i functiont ·t = 4x anq t = 5u4
' I
. ·., , ,, ,_ •. . . - - l ., . .
.Ql'._dl'.x-91!
.>.-'- Apply
. the chain
. rut¢:
l . , dx , - ~u:, dx = 54
U X
4
X
I• 1 :I·"
. •, / ._,j . • , ,.,• ,· / , 1 ' I

. ·>·. Give the answer, in terms

I .of x: : = 20x (2~2-1)4
\ I '_j -l l

Ex~mple 13.9: '.,, l:. ·

i. 2
·oj,:ff~tentiate = ·cos,x · ~.r. t. y x
. • Make
', ',.:.' ::.> . '
a substitution: '. ' Let u = x2, then y = cos u
·> Diffe:i;entiate \:)q,th .functions·:
ID£ 'I dJL
dx =; 2x and du = -sin u
•'' '
:. _:,• .

.Ql'. = .Ql'. x -91!

,'

>. Apply the ch_ain rute: . dx du dx = -2xsinu

> Give the answer in terms of x: dx -- -' 2x ·· ' 2

,, , SU~

220
pifferentiate y = sin 3 x w.r.t. x
> Make a substitution:
Let u sin x, theny = u3
> Differentiate both functions: t = cos x and t = 3u2

> Apply the chain rule: = X -91:£ = 3u2 X COSX

dx du dx
> Give the answer in terms of x: = 3sin2xcos x
dx

EXERCISE 13 E

1. Differentiate the following 'functions w.r.t. x-

(a) (3x-1)4 (b) (x3 -2)7 (c) (2x2-4x)5 (d) (3 - 5x)8 - ( e) (2x - x 3)~
(t) ./(_x2 - 1) (g) x2 (h) 2x (i) 4x + (2x - 7)5 (j) 2 - (1 + x 2)-2

2. Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x

(a) sin x 2 (b) sin2 x (c) cos (x + hr) (d) sin (¼1r - x)
(e) 2 cos x5 (t) cos (2.x2 + ½-rt) (g) cos (sin x) (h) (3 + 2sin x)~

RATES OF CHANGE

t expresses the rate of increase of y with respect to x. It is a measure of how fast y increases by co111-parison

with x at a p~icular point: the larger the magnitude of t=, the.steeper the curve.
If y is increasin$ as x increases, t= is positive, representing a positive gradient on the graph ·of y = f (x);. if

y is decreasing as x increases, t is negative, representing a negativi gradient on the graph of y = f (x).

Whenever a variable (the dependent variable) is expressed as a function of another variable (the independent
variable) the derivative gives the rate of increase of the dependent variable w.r.t. the independent variable.
· of tts
So if the volume, V, ofa solid is a funct10n . rad"ms, r, ddrV gives
. th e rate o f mcrease
. of the volume w.r;t.
the radius.

Many quantities are expressed as functions of time, e.g. the height of the tide above/below sea level, the radioactivity
of carbon, the velocity of an aeroplane as it accelerates along the runway, the temperature of a cup of tea as it
cools, etc.

When time is the independent variable, we usually omit 'w.r.t. time', so that velocity is simply rate of change of
distance t, acceleration is rate of change of velocity and so on. ·

221
 . '. -
,'
· Relatetl Raie_s of Change

If you (blow·up ·a balloon, pumping ifl air at a steady rate, the balloon seems to grow fast to begin with, but th ·
slower and slower. Clearfr although _the volum;e .is increasing uniformly, the radius is also increasing but at a di~ ,
fere~t rate. This is an example of related rates 'of change. f.

th~ chain rule we ~an _se~ that the ,relationship between the rates of c~ange ,is given by the fonnuJa
t -~:f x . ~r
. I ' ... l :; •
So -as·lo1g:·~ we ~ow t~e relationship between V and r~ which 'We do for a sphere,
. ··.: '
we can
cf~ar~. the 'rates of ¥h~ge. of the vol~e and the radius.
'' ' ,' ' :: :_, . ' ' ,' :
~~-~pi;_b.i1 . · '· : , · .
~ir :i s being pumped -into, a spherical ballqon at a rate of 54 ~m3 s-1; Find the rate ~t which the'radius is increas'in~
"1he1{ ~he .ia;dius o~ the \?~loon is (i) 1 cm (ii) 5 _cm . ,
. : '> · "::Translate the question into math~m~tical notatjon: .
= 54, dr
find dt ~i
·· >. W!iat· is the connectiot;t 'between V an4 r? f = 41tr2

> Apply the. chain.mle: dV = !i.fx ,dr

~" ..
dt' dr . dt
dr '
54 := 41tr2 X dt
,J .

'dr 54
, 1_ dt. = 41tr2 ·
> C,omplete·th_e question: , ·: .
,( \ • . .dz: 54
i .; "( , ) ,when.r =; 1, • dt . ":' · 1\' . :::::: 4-:3 cm/ sec.
4
_' ,; ;::, : . 1 , . •clj-.' 54 ~ I .
·., . (11) when r = 5, -: dt · = 4 x 25 1\'· ':",. 0.17 cm/ sec.

E~i cisE 13F

. '
1. . fh~ sid~ of a. square is increasing at the rate of 2 cm s-1. Find the rate of increase of the area when the
1
· :' length· of a side _is 5 c~.
'• . '

2. :: The. radiu~ of a circle·

, . ' is increasing at the rate of·½cm s- • Find the rate of increase of the area when the
,
1

, ·ra~fos ~s 4 cm.

3. The· area of a ·square is increasing at the ~ate of 4 cm2 s-1. .Find ,the rate of increase of the length of a s_ide
. when the _area is cm~; · · · 's1
I I '

·· area of a citcle· is···

; 4. ··. The
· · .· · . a· whenthe
increasing at the rate of 21t cm2 s-1 . .Find the rate o( increase of the ra ms
. . I • •
) -radius is 7 cm.

5. · ; The volume i
of a cube; is .increasing
, .
at the rate of24 cm1 s-1. Find .
the rate ofincrefl,se ofte Iength of a side
~hen the volume. i~ 64 cm . 3 · ·
I ' • • I
. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . when the
6. • Ifithe radius of a sphere is increasing at 2 cm s- 1; find the rate at which the volume ts 1~creaSmg
' ' , I
! ,
radius is 3 'crp. ' I,

222
,,
 l'ure Mathematics for CAPE

3
7. The volume, V cm , of liquid in a bowl, when the depth of liquid is x cm, is given by
V = 2(x + 4)2 - 32
Given that the liquid enters the bowl at a rate of 50 cm3 s·I, find
(i) the rate of increase in the depth ofliquid when x = 16
(ii) the value of x when the rate of increase of the depth of liquid is 0.8 cm s·I

8. Mario is inflating a spherical balloon at a rate of IO cm3 s- 1. Find the rate of increase of the surface
area of the balloon when the radius is 4 cm. (For a sphere, v = lrrr3, S = 41\'r2)

:MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TURNING POINTS

ffiCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS .,

For a function y = f (x), if y is increasing as x increas.es, the gradient of a graph is positive (see fig. 13 .3), and if ·
y is decreasing as x increases, the gradient of a graph is negative (see fig. 13.4):

Fig. 13.3 Fig. 13.4

f '(x) > O ,e:> f (x) is increasing f '(.x) > 0 ,e:> f(x}is decreasing

E..xample 13.12
> Find the range of values of x for which the function f (x) == x3 + 3x2 - 9x + 2 is decreasing.
> Find f '(x) : f '(x) = 3x2 + 6x - 9
> f (x) is decreasing when f '(x) < 0: 3x2 + 6x - 9 < 0
x2+2x-3<0
(x + 3)(x - 1) < 0
> Answer: f (x) is decreasing when -3 < x < 1

SJanONARY POINTS
At the points on the curve where the gradient is 0, the t~gent is paralle! to the x- axis. These points are
lfh called stationary points or critical points, and when this occurs there 1s usually a local maximum or
minimum value for y _ turning points - (see 'fig. 13.5), though there might be a point of inflexion (i.e.
a point ~ here the curve crosses its tangent) (see fig. 13.6).

223
 Fig. 13.6
'Fig. 13.5

Fig. 13.8
Fig. 13.7

As we cart'se~ from fig. 13.7,'~t a maximum point, the gradient, f '(x), of the curve, is changing frompositiv~
a
to negative; and. similarly (fig. 13.8) at min:imum point, the gradient of the CI.ITT'.e is changing from negative to
i : positi~e. ,At a point :of inflexion .f '(x} = 0, but is either positive on either side of the point,of infle~ion (fig) 13.6),

:to
'Qr 'negative on either side of tli~i P,Oint ·o f inflexion. · These facts .~nable us find the turning points for. ,y = f'(x),
and to de~ine 'wbethe~ ~ese turning points are maximum, miQirpum or points of inflexion. .

, •critical/~tatfon~(turning p~ipt~, ~qcur when f_'(i) = ·t 1

=_0. , ..
At a tlii;-ning point, ffx) is maximum if f '(x) is chruiging fr9m positive.to negative,
and f(i) is minim~ if f '(x) is changing from .negative t~ positive.' · · '

The value ~f'f(x) at acritical point is called a critical value.

1··
.
. . .'•... ...\
' ·-
: :· ·~. Example 13~13
. , Fi?.d, the stationary poi~ts on the curve y '7. x4 ·.- 8x2 and determine whether they are maximum or minimutn•
·~15.eteh the curve, marking the coordinates o:t: the turning points a:nd the intersections with the axes.
: ·> Differenti;te y: = 4xi3 - 16x = 4x(x2 - 4)
= 4x(x - 2)(x + 2)
' ,> ..Find -stationary points: these occur wli; p. t= .0 i.e. wh~ x = o, x =2 and x = -2
., . _, ·· '. Statii:marypoihtsareA(-2,-1'6),- _B (0'. .0) 'and.C (2,-16)
> To find whicJi"are max. and which are min_
. consider.f '(x): ,
'
' ''
224
 between A and 'B {=2<x<O) + .. I
••.1..••.•. ·•••·•···••·•
' +
between Band C .(0 < .x<2) ·· · ··· ····· · ··········· · ·· · · · · ······· · · · · ··· · · ········· ···· ······· ... .j . +
!right of C (.r > 2) · · ·························· ············ ··· ·· ····· · ··· ···· · ············ ··· ·· · ·· · · · · · · ····· · ··· ' + +
+ + I

,,
AtA f' (x) Ch anges tirom -ve to +ve at A, soy is minimum at A
At B f'(x) ch anges from +ve to. -ve at B, soy is maximum at B
AtC f' (x) c h ~nges from -ve to +ve at C, soy is minimum at C
I I

We will look at sketching !curves

, later in this chapter
. , .bu t th'1s one 1s
· qm·t e stra1'gh uorward. :
l .&.
' . !
l

Intersection with x~axis when y = ff

x4-8.x2 = 0
x2(xL-8) = 0
i = 0 (double root), x =c
.: Fig. 13.9
I'

' . ~1
A (-2, - 1'6) C (2, -16)

Example 13.14 1
..: . • .

Find the .statiGnary-points r n the curve ,Y = x4 +j_2x3, and dete:'~ne th.e ir p.ature
di! = 4x3 + 6~2 · !
> ctt . ·.. .· . · ' · • ·· ·
f ·. .

') stationary points oc~u; when : = 0, i.e. ~ hen '4x3 + 6x2 = 2x2(2x + 3) = . O
> stationary point~ are~ (~ J, '-;~) 111:1d B (.0, 0)
> when xis .j ust less than ·-:-~ .(say, -2) = -8 < 0
t
' .
when x is just greater thiµi -h say, -1) = .2 > 'O .: ; .
,-_ at A the gradient dh~ges from negative to positive, -so there js a minimum pou{t :·

> when· xisjust -l essth~O(say," -0.l)t ~ o . \

when ·xis just greatlr ,t han O (say, +0.1) i> 'O

.·. at B the gradient ~hanges from +veto O t? +ve so there is a point :o·f
inflexion :
. -1

A
Fig. 13.10
225
 EXERCISE pG
1. Using differentiation, determine the range of real values of x for which the function
(a) f: x t-t 5x2 - 20x is decreasing
(b) g : x t-t 2x3 + 3x2 - 36x + 5 is increasing
(c) h : x t-t 5 + 9x2 - 2x3 is increasing

2. Find the stationary points on the following curves and determine the nature of each stationary point.
(a) y=x2 (b) y=x2-4x (c) y=6-2x2
(d) y x 3 - 3x2 + 3x + 1 ( ~) y = x3 - 3x (f) y = x 5 - 5x
(g) Y = (x - 3)(x + 2) (h) y = x4 + 4x3 - l6x - 3 (i) y = (2x - 1)(2x + 3)

G) y = -f- 2x + 3x
2 (k) y = x3 - Sx2 + 3x

An Alternative Method for Finding the Nature of Stationary Points

Using the sign of the derivative to determine the nature of stationary points wi)l always work, but it can often be
either tedious or tricky. So, is there an easier way? The answer is that there is, although occasionally it is incon-
clusive and the sign of the derivative has to be used .

. _If we put together two ideas we have met in the last few pages we can find this alternative method.

1) An i~creasing. function has a positive derivative, and a decreasing function has a neg~tive derivative.

2) At a maxim~ point tne gradient is decreasing and at a minimum point the gradient is increasing.

This tells us that at a maximum point on the curve y = f (x), f '(x) is dec,reasing, and therefore its derivative is
negativ~, likewise at a minimum point f '(x) is increasing and so its derivative is positive.

Sirice-:t;· '(x) is a function of x, it can be differentiated, and we call the derivative off '(x) the second derivative
. . ). . d . . f "( ) d2y
of f(x , ·an we wnte 1t as x ~r dx2 •

We can therefore rewrite the rule concerning stationary points:

=t== O.
J

Stationary/turning points occur when f'(x)

At a turning point, iff"(x) = £f < 0, the turning point is a maximum,

, 2
At a turning point, iff "(x) = > 0, the_turning point is a minimum,

.
f
d' . . .
If both and dx2 are O this method breaks down, and the sign of the derivative must be used.

uet's look again at examples 13.12 and_13.13

226
 (ex~ple 13.13 revisited) : , _ .. . '
find the stationary pomts on the curve y = x4 _ 8 2 . . · .
. • , x and detennme whether they are maximum onriini,l-l)wn, .
== 4x3 - 16x which led to stationary . .-
dx pomts A (-2, -16) B (0, 0) and C (2, -16)
1f we differentiate again we get ~1 = 12x2_ 16
- d2y
At A, x - -2 so dx2 = 48 - 16 > O so A·
,
· ·
is a mm1mum point
d2y
At B' X = 0 SO dx2
-- 0 - 16 <· Q' so B is a maximum point
. .
' At C, x =2 so c1x2 = 48 - 16 > 0, so C is a minimum point

E.Jample lJ.16 (example 13.14 revisited)

Find the stationary points on the curve Y = x4 + 2x3, and determine their natu;e
41:dx =. 4x
.
3
+ 6x2 which led to stationary
;
points
·
A (-1.2' _ 21)
16
and B (0, 0)
d2y
Now d.x2 =: 12x2 + 12x

At A, x ==-~so ·- ~ = 27 + 18 > o]soA is <l- ~iriimum point ,

? ,

At B, x ;== 0 so = 0 which is inconclusive.

To find the nature of the s~tionary p~int at B t~e sign o;: must th~re;ore be considered, ~d this leads to
a point of inflexion as we saw in example 13)4.
. ,

It:might be tempting to suppose that-~ = o at a stationary point implies that the point is a point of inflexion,
IT] .
but thifl .is not automatically so - consider t~is example:
' ..
. ',

Example 13.li
Find the stationary points on the cµrv_e f (x) = x6 - 6x4 , ~nd determ'ine their nature
2
f (x) = ,x6 - 6x4 ._·. f" (x) = 6x5 - · 24x3 , f "(x) = 30x4 - 72x
stationary points.occut when f '(,x.) = 0
i.e. when 6x3(x2 - 4) 1= O x = 0, ±2. .
stationary points are A (-2, ..,. 32),: B (0, 0) and C (2, -32?
at A, x =-2, so f''(x) = 192 > o,· so A is a minimum r~mt
at C, ~-= 2, so f "(x) = 192 :;,- o, so C is a minimum pomt
at B, .x=O,sof"(x) =O . -2 2

now consider the sign off '(x) close to B:

when xis just less than O (say, -0.1) f '(x) < O
Wh(\n xis ju.s t greater.'than O (say, +0.1) f '(~) _> 0
near the orig~ the gradient ·changes from pos1t1ve to O to
neg~tive; so,:there is a m~imum point (see fig. 13 · 11 )
;.'1 i
. . hink 't hat if there are 2 or more stationary points''you can determine their,·nature
Another temptation 1s to t ' · dI · •
OJ. . . d" t . _ higher points must be maximum an ower ones mmnnum - but this
by looking at their y-<;:ooi: ma es , . . . . th
. '··a11·. 1"fthere are discontmwties m e curve. , ,
1s not always so, espec1 Y ,
1
227
 Example i3.18
Find the coo;dinates and' nature ofthe·stationary points on the curve y =x + t -6
y = x·+ - 6 t = -72 l

, At stationary points t = O, .·. I - x;, = O, i.e. x2 = 4, : . x= ±2

S_tationary points are (-2, -6) and (2, -2)
:adx2-
zy = -8..
x3 ' when
4~ < O
- -x =- -2' dx2 ' .. , y
1·s m'·- a· X

when x = 2 __4.~y > 0

' ,dx2 ' ..· ,y 1·s m·1·n
Once· again, I give a sketch of the curve (in fig. 13.12) but
· ,:'Yill e~plain how to do the sketch in example i 3. 21
, ' \ , -
"Fig. 13.12

Calculating Second Derivativ(!s .;

•i As -we have seen, f1nding the set ond derivative is ~imply ·a matter of differentiating the first derivative; this is
·often ,quite straightforw~d, but for·complicated fu\lc;tions, such as products and ·quotients, it is: important to sim-
plify the first deriv_ative as _m uch as possible befure differentiating the second time. Also care needs to be taken,
when a question involves repeated use of chain, product and/or quotient rules, that no confusion arises from
re~suig the same 'letter for different substitution~.

"Example 13.19
.' x - d2y· ,2y
- ,Ify -- Sm - titnd· 'd"
=-
dx an d -cfr2 an d h t:DCe j'.)roVe_ that X ·d
dx2
,1,.
dx + xy~ 0 .
+ l4t-
, -, X - .,. , .
> Use quotient rule: let u = sin X. V =X
> _ Differentiate: - gu = cosx fil- = l
dx · dx

d vdx -udx
rur dv
-> '.- Substitute in formula: ~=--=--~
2
dx v
xcos x - -sinx (no simplification needed)
x2

> · Us~.quotjent Tll}e again: ·(new substitutions) u = xcos x - sin J v = x2

> ·I>ifferentiate: (pr<>duct rule for xcosx) t = cos x - xsin x - cosx

= x sin x

>
--~- t{:l
Substitute .in formula:

= vt-u~ v2
-x3 sin x-{xcosx- sinx). 2x
x4 ,
-x2 sin x - 2xcosx + 2sinx
x3

228
 d2y
To prove that x dx2 + 2 dx +
xy == 0, substitute for S,
d
:i
2 .
~nd y in L/H.S . .
&
dx2 + 2dx + xy == -x
2 . .
X SIU x - 2xcosx + 2xsinx + 2xcosx . 2sinx + x 2sin.x
x2

~TCHING CURVES 1 · • . • : . , .

· A sketch is not the same as a plott~d graph, it should show the main 'features of the curve, including•wh~t-happens
whenx !UldY get very large, so individual values are only calculated for a,few particular points. These po_ints must
be cl¢ai;ly marked on the sketc~.; You will usually need to consider mo.s f of the followi~g features: 1 ' , ·. • · •
. i .
1. The general shape of the curve. . .
For well-known fuµctions ·you have ~ome idea what the curve should look like: A polynomial 11;sua\ly h~ '
ohe turning-point less than the highest power of x in it's equation (figs. 13.13, 13.14). e.g. ,a cu'bic( e,quati9.n . · ·:
(powyr 3) has 2 turning points. But beware, sometimes turning p~ints coincide, in w~ich;ca~e ypuimay get ·.
a point of ~flexion for an even 'n umber of combined turning points e.g.y =x3 +1 (fig. ,13.15).or .a :11).aximµ~ I '
or .minimum due to an odd number of combined-turning points e.g. Y= (x- 1)4 - 2 (fig. J3.~6) i .,: ,-.. :
J'= ;3 -3x -I' 1 y = 2x4 - 4x3 - :zx2 + 4x y = x;J + 1 . y = x4 4x3 + 6~ - 4x :.._ .l

·J_
:' -~ {

-~------
. -2 2 -1
2 3

Fig. 13.13 Fig. 13.14 Fig. 13.15 ' · Fig. 13.,16

. ,
2. Where the curve cuts the coordinate' axes . , ., . ,
Put x = 0 to fi~d where the curve cuts the y-~is, and y = 0 td find where 1t Cu1$-the x ax1s. ~ abe\ the~e"
points. ·. . · . 7' '
3. Where the curve bas staµonary points _ . . . '.;
·
Use calculus to fim d sta110n
· ·ary· points and · their nature.
. . ,. L abel these • pomts too. . ,. .; . . , ;' _
4. ·h . ery large (both positive and negative) · _ .. ·. ·. .
What happens w en x IS v · · . . , b h . · · d. · • ·. · , fi. ·d
. · "d th highest power of x when ·
x 1s very 1arge, ot .negative an ·pos1t1ve; pr .p. ,
For a polynomial, cons1 er e .. . · ·, .· fl h -· , " . ·· ' . ·
•
}!ill,f'(x) . , (x). .M ake su
aJJ,d _!!¥1_,,l · re·'the . sketch re ect t ese
. edges of. your . resu1ts. , .. , ·,. . •· . .
s. Where the function is undefined/discon tinuous · . . . '. ; t
. ·' , .'
r.
. ; . x = a .the line x = a may be an asymptote to the curve: ..
If f (x) is undefined for. h h w the curve behaves on either side of the asymptote.
Jim f (x)
lim f{x) and x-+u+- ,
wills ow o . .
!'
.
Rememb.er, sketch · . c arry ;a lot of marks. To get all the· marks· yoti must mark all ·'.th~
· . stions
que ·
features carefully. /
!. 'I
En.mple 13.20 1) E JR
The function g is given by g (x) = (x2 - l)(x - 'x ·
(a) Find g(0), g(l) and g(-l). .· . g ' (x) of g at x Ent. 1
(b) . Obtain an expression for tlie denvative , ' . , . 1I
(c)
(d)
Find the stationary points of g. h (") a local maximum, (ii) a local ·minimum
Determine the value(s) of x where g as 1 i,
229
 (e) Using the aboye, ~nd any other information, sketch the graph of g.
. '

(a) g(O) = 1 [intercept on y-axis], g(l) = O, g(-1) = 0 [roots of g (x) = O]

(b} g(x)=x3-x2-x+l .·.g'(x)=3x2-2x-1
(c) stationary points occur when g '.(x) = O, i.e. when 3x2 - 2x- I =0
(3x + 1)(x - I) 0 .·. x = -½ and x = 1
. stationary points are (-½. 32/27) and (I, O)
(d)' To. find the nature of stationary points, consider g "(x)
· •g "(x) = 6x - 2
When x = -½. g "(x) = -4, which is negative, .·. y is maximum at (-½, 32/27)
'Yhen x = 1; g "(x) = 4, which is positive :. y is minimum at (1, 0)

·(e) Start by marking the intercepts and truning points then join them up

I using the fact that the. curve is

c~:mtinuous and' knowing the
shape you expect the curve to be,
also that when ~ -00, y--+_.oo and
-2 (I, 0) 2
when .x-ttOO, y--++oo.

When the curve is complete, label

/ the points.

Example 13.21 (example 13.18 revisited)

· (a)._· Find the coordi~ate~ and nature of the stationary points on the curve y = x + ~- 6
(b) ·_' ,f i~d where the curve cuts the coordinate axes, arid what happens to the curve when x is large.
· Bence sketch. the ·curve.
_(a) see ex .. 13.18 A(-2, -6) max and B (2, ,- 2) min
· (b) : (i) When x = 0, y is undefined (does not cross y-axis)
(ii) When y = 0, x = 3 ±J5
'(111
'") .As 4 0, · :. 6
i.e. when x is very large, the curve gets very.close to
· the, straight line y = x - 6
First
I
mark intersections with x-axis ( b ii) and •

turning points (a)

Then draw in asymptotes (b i & iii) x = 0 and y = x - 6
Then sketch the curve

,I

EXERCISE 13 H

I. For each of the following curves:

use calculus to •:• find the stationary points and determine their nature, find the points of intersection of
e11ch curve with the coordinate axes, consider the behaviour of the curve as ±oo, sketch the curve.
(a) y=9-x2 2
(b) y=x +x-6 (c) y=(x-2)3 (d) y=3x-x3
(e) y=x4-2x3 (f) y=-x2 +2x-9 ~g) y=5x4-4x5 (h) y=2x3-3x2

230