Skeletal system

The Human Body ▪ Consists of b

cartilages,
Anatomy ligaments, and
▪ Study of the structure and shape of the ▪ Provides mus
body and its parts attachment for
▪ Observation is used to see sizes and ▪ Protects vital
relationships of parts ▪ Site of blood
Protects and supports
Gross anatomy body organs; provides a
▪Large structures framework the muscles
▪Easily observable use to cause movement;
blood cells are formed
DIGESTIVE within bones; stores
SYSTEM minerals
Breaks food down
Muscular system
into absorbable ▪ Skeletal muscles contract
nutrients that (or shorten)
enter the blood for ▪ Produces movement of
distribution to bonesAllows manipulation of
body cells;
the environment,
indigestible
Microscopic anatomy locomotion, and facial
expression; maintains
▪ Structures are too small to be seen posture; produces heat.
with
the naked eye
▪ Cells and tissues can be viewed
only
Physiology
▪Study of how the body and its parts Nervous system
work or function ▪ Fast-acting control system
▪ Structure determines what functions ▪ Consists of brain, spinal
can occur cord, nerves, and sensory
▪ For example, the air sacs of the lungs receptors
have very ▪ Responds to internal and
thin walls, a feature that enables them external stimuli
Levels of Structural Organization ▪ Sensory receptors detect
1. Atoms 4. Organs changes
2. Cells 5. Organ ▪ Messages are sent to the
Fast-acting control system of
3. Tissuessystems the
6. Organisms body; responds to internal
and external changes by
activating appropriate
Endocrine system
▪ Secretes chemical
molecules, called hormones,
into the blood
▪ Body functions controlled
by hormones include:
▪ Growth, Reproduction,
Pituitary gland, Thyroid and
parathyroids
,Adrenal glands, Thymus,
Glands secrete hormones that
Pancreas, Pineal gland
regulate processes such as
growth, reproduction, and
nutrient use by body cells.
 Cardiovascular system
▪ Includes heart and
▪ Includes heart and
blood vessels Digestive system
blood vessels
▪ Heart pumps blood ▪ Includes the oral
▪ Heart pumps blood
▪ Vessels transport cavity (mouth),
▪ Vessels transport
blood to tissues esophagus,
blood to tissues
▪ Blood transports: stomach,
▪ Blood transports:
▪ Oxygen and carbon small and large
▪ Oxygen and carbon
dioxide, Nutrient intestines, rectum,
dioxide, Nutrients,
and accessory
Hormones
organs
▪ Blood also contains
▪ Breaks down
white blood cells and
food
chemicals that
▪ Allows for
provide protection
nutrient absorption
from foreign invaders
Lymphatic system into blood
▪ Includes ▪ Eliminates
lymphatic vessels, indigestible material as feces
lymph nodes, and
lymphoid organs
▪ Complements the Urinary system
cardiovascular 
system by ▪Includes the
returning kidneys, ureters,
leaked fluids back urinary
to bloodstream bladder, and urethra
▪ Lymph nodes and ▪Eliminates
other lymphoid nitrogenous wastes
organs cleanse ▪Maintains acid-
theblood base balance
▪ Houses white blood cells, which are ▪Regulates water
involved in immunity and electrolyte
balance
Respiratory system ▪Helps regulate
▪ Includes the nasal normal blood
passages, pharynx, pressure
larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs
▪ Gases are
exchanged with the Reproductive system
blood through air ▪ For males, includes the testes, scrotum, penis,
sacs in the lungs accessory glands, and duct system
▪ Testes produce sperm
▪ Supplies the body ▪ Duct system carries sperm to exterior
with oxygen ▪ For females, includes the ovaries, uterine tubes,
▪ Removes carbon uterus, and vagina
dioxide
▪ Ovaries produce eggs
▪ Uterus provides site of development for fetus
Maintaining boundaries: necessary
life functions
Maintaining boundaries
Boundaries separate the “inside” from
the “outside”
Movement
▪ Locomotion
▪ Movement of substances
Responsiveness (irritability)
▪ Ability to sense changes and react
Digestion
▪ Breakdown and absorption of
nutrients
Metabolism—chemical
within the body
▪Breaks down complex
molecules into smaller ones
▪ Builds larger molecules from
smaller ones
▪ Produces energy (ATP)
▪ Regulated by hormones
▪ Excretion
▪Eliminates excreta (waste) from
metabolic reactions
Reproduction
▪ Occurs on cellular level or
organismal level
▪ On cellular level—new cells are
used for growth and repair
▪ On organismal level—the
reproductive system handles the
task
▪ Growth
▪ Increases cell size or body size
(through increasing the number of
Survival Needs
Nutrients
▪Chemicals used for energy and cell
building
▪Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
vitamins, and minerals
Oxygen
▪Required for chemical reactions
▪Made available by the cooperation of
the respiratory and cardiovascular
systems
Water
▪60 to 80 percent of body weight
▪Most abundant chemical in the human
body
▪Provides fluid base for body secretions
and excretions
▪Normal body temperature
▪37ºC (98.6ºF)
▪Below this temperature, chemical
reactions slow and stop
▪Above this temperature, chemical
reactions proceed too rapidly
Atmospheric pressure
▪ Must be appropriate for gas exchange
reactions
The Language of Anatomy
▪ Special terminology is used to prevent
misunderstanding
▪ Exact terms are used for:
▪ Position
▪ Direction
▪ Regions
▪ Structures
Anatomical position
▪ Standard body
position used to avoid
confusion
▪ Terminology refers to
this position regardless
of actual body position
▪ Stand erect, feet
parallel, arms hanging
at the sides with palms
facing forward and thumbs pointing Deep (internal): away from the body
away from the body surface;
more internal
Directional terms
Explain location of one body structure in Regional Terms
relation to another Anterior (ventral) body landmarks

Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward

the head or upper part of a structure or Posterior (dorsal) body landmarks
the body; above
Inferior (caudal): away from the head
or toward
the lower part of a structure or the body;
below
Anterior (ventral): toward or at the
front of the
body; in front of
Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the
backside of
the body; behind
Medial: toward or at the midline of the
body; on
the inner side of

Lateral: away from the midline of the Body Planes and Sections
body; on the Sections are cuts along imaginary lines
outer side of known as
Intermediate: between a more medial planes. Three types of planes or sections
and a more exist as right angles to one another
lateral structure
Proximal: close to the origin of the ▪ A sagittal section divides the body (or
body part or organ) into
point of attachment to a limb to the body left and right parts
trunk ▪ A median, or midsagittal, section
Distal: farther from the origin of a body divides the body
part or the (or organ) into equal left and right parts
point of attachment of a limb to the body ▪ A frontal, or coronal, section divides
trunk the body (or
Superficial (external): toward or at the organ) into anterior and posterior parts
body ▪ A transverse, or cross, section divides
surface the body
(or organ) into superior and inferior
parts
Body Cavities
▪Cavity inferior to the
Two internal body cavities
diaphragm
▪ Dorsal
▪Superior abdominal
▪ Ventral
cavity contains the
Body cavities provide varying degrees
stomach, liver, and other
of
organs
protection to organs within them
▪Protected only by trunk
muscles
▪Inferior pelvic cavity
contains reproductive
organs, bladder, and
rectum
▪Protected somewhat by
bony pelvis
▪No physical structure
separates abdominal from
pelvic cavities
Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions
▪ Four quadrants
Dorsal body cavity has two
subdivisions
1. Cranial cavity
▪ Houses the brain
▪ Protected by the skull
2. Spinal cavity
▪ Houses the spinal cord
▪ Protected by the vertebrae

Ventral body cavity has two ▪ Nine regions

subdivisions
separated by the diaphragm
1. Thoracic cavity
2. Abdominopelvic cavity
Thoracic cavity
▪ Cavity superior to the
diaphragm
▪ Houses heart, lungs, and other Other body cavities include:
organs ▪ Oral and digestive cavities
trachea, and other organs ▪ Nasal cavity
▪ Protected by the rib cage ▪ Orbital cavities
Abdominopelvic cavity ▪ Middle ear cavities

Homeostasis
maintenance of relatively stable internal
conditions
▪ A dynamic state of equilibrium, or
balance
 ▪Necessary for normal body ▪ Increases the original stimulus to push the
functioning variable farther
▪Reaction occurs at a faster rat▪ In the body,
and to sustain life positive feedback occurs in blood clottingand
Main controlling systems during the birth of a baby
▪ Nervous system Matter and Energy
▪ Endocrine system
Homeostatic imbalance Matter anything that occupies space and
▪ A disturbance in homeostasis results has
in disease mass. Matter may exist as one of three
states
Maintaining Homeostasis ▪ Solid: definite shape and volume
All homeostatic control mechanisms ▪ Liquid: definite volume; shape of
have at least container
three components: receptor, control ▪ Gaseous: neither a definite shape nor
center, and volume
Effector
Matter may be changed
Receptor
▪ Responds to changes in the environment Physically
(stimuli) ▪ Changes do not alter the basic nature
▪ Sends information to control center along an of a substance
afferent ▪ Examples include changes in the
Pathway state
of matter (solid,liquid, or gas)
Control center Chemically
▪ Determines set point
▪ Analyzes information
▪ Changes alter the chemical
▪ Determines appropriate response composition
of a substance
Effector
▪ Provides a means for response to the stimulus Energy—the ability to do work
▪ Information flows from control center to ▪ Has no mass and does not take up
effector along
efferent pathway
space
▪ Kinetic energy: energy is doing
work
▪ Potential energy: energy is inactive
or stored
Forms of energy
▪ Chemical energy is stored in
chemical bonds of
substances
▪ Electrical energy results from
movement
Feedback Mechanisms of charged particles
▪ Negative feedback ▪ Mechanical energy is energy directly
▪ Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms involved in
▪ Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its
intensity moving matter
▪ Works like a household thermostat ▪ Radiant energy travels in waves;
energy of the
Positive feedback electromagnetic spectrum
▪ Rare in the human body
Energy form conversions
 ▪ATP (adenosine triphosphate) traps ▪ Protons (p+) are positively charged
the chemicalenergy of food in its bonds ▪ Neutrons (n0) are uncharged or neutral
▪ Electrons (e–) are negatively charged
Composition of Matter
▪ Elements—fundamental units of matter
▪ 96 percent of the body is made from
four elements:
1. Oxygen (O)—most common;
65% of the body’s mass
2. Carbon (C) ▪ All atoms are electrically neutral
3. Hydrogen (H) ▪ Number of protons equals numbers
4. Nitrogen (N) of electrons in an atom
▪ Positive and negative charges
cancel
each other out
Periodic table contains a complete ▪ Ions are atoms that have lost or gained
listing of electrons
elements Planetary and Orbital Models of an
Atom
Planetary model
▪ Portrays the
atom
as a miniature
solar system
▪Protons and
neutrons are in
nucleus
▪Electrons are in
orbitals around the
nucleus

Orbital model
▪Electrons are depicted by an
electron cloud, a haze of negative
charge, outside the nucleus
▪Electrons determine an atom’s
chemical behavior and bonding
properties
▪Although outdated, the planetary
model is simple and easy to
understand and use

Atoms
▪ Building blocks of elements
▪ Atoms of elements differ from one
another
▪ Atomic symbol is chemical shorthand
for each element

The Basic Atomic Subparticles

Identifying Elements ▪ Chemical bonds are energy
To identify an element, we need to know relationships
the: involving interactions among the
▪ Atomic number electrons of
▪ Atomic mass number reacting atoms
▪ Atomic weight
Role of Electrons
Atomic Weight and Isotopes ▪ Electrons occupy energy levels called
Isotopes electron
▪ Atoms that have the same number shells (or energy levels)
of protons and electrons but vary in ▪Electrons closest to the nucleus are
the number of neutrons most strongly
▪ Isotopes have the same atomic attracted to its positive charge
number but different atomic masses ▪ Distant electrons further from the
nucleus are
likely to interact with other atoms
Each electron shell has distinct
Molecules and Compounds properties
Molecule—two or more atoms of the ▪ How to fill the atom’s electrons shells
same ▪ Shell 1 can hold a maximum of 2
elements combined chemically electrons
Example of a chemical reaction, shown ▪ Shell 2 can hold a maximum of 8
as a electrons
chemical equation, resulting in a ▪ Shell 3 can hold a maximum of 18
molecule: electrons
H (atom) + H (atom) → H2 ▪ Subsequent shells can hold more
(molecule) electrons
▪ The reactants are the atoms on the left ▪ Bonding involves interactions only
▪ The product is the molecule on the between
right, represented by a molecular electrons in the outermost (valence)
formula shell
▪ Atoms with full valence shells do not
Compound—two or more atoms of
different
elements combined chemically to form a
molecule of a compound
▪ Example of a chemical reaction
resulting in a
compound:
4H + C → CH4 (methane) form bonds
Rule of eights
▪The key to chemical reactivity
▪Atoms are considered stable when their
outermost (valence) shell has 8 electrons
▪ Atoms with 8 electrons in the valence
shell are
considered stable and chemically
▪ Chemical reactions occur when atoms inactive (inert)
combine ▪ The exception to this rule of eights is
with or dissociate from other atoms shell 1, which
can hold only 2 electrons
Reactive elements
▪ Atoms will gain, lose, or share
electrons to complete their outermost
orbitals when fewer than 8 electrons are
in the valence shell
▪ Chemical bonding helps atoms
achieve a stable
alence shell
Types of Chemical Bonds
Ionic bonds
▪Form when electrons are completely
TRANSFERRED from one atom to
another
▪Allow atoms to achieve stability
through
the transfer of electrons
Ions
▪ Result from the loss or gain of
electrons
▪Anions have negative charge due to
gain of electron(s)
▪Cations have positive charge due to loss
of electron(s)
▪Tend to stay close together because
opposite charges attract
Covalent bonds
▪ Atoms become stable through shared
electrons
▪ Electrons are shared in pairs
▪ Single covalent bonds share one pair of
electrons
▪ Double covalent bonds share two pairs
of electrons
Covalent bonds can be described as
either
nonpolar or polar
▪ Nonpolar covalent bonds
▪ Electrons are shared equally
between the atoms of the molecule
▪ Electrically neutral as a molecule
▪ Example: carbon dioxide
▪ Polar covalent bonds
▪ Electrons are not shared equally
between the atoms of the molecule
▪ Molecule has a positive and negative
side, or pole
▪ Example: water

Hydrogen bonds
▪ Extremely weak chemical bonds
▪ Formed when a hydrogen atom is
attracted to the
negative portion, such as an oxygen or
nitrogen atom, of a polar molecule
▪ Responsible for the surface tension of
water
▪ Important for forming intramolecular
bonds, as in
protein structure
Patterns of Chemical Reactions
Exchange reaction
AB + C → AC + B
and
AB + CD → AD + CB
▪Involves simultaneous synthesis and
decomposition reactions as bonds are
both made and broken
▪Switch is made between molecule parts,
and different molecules are made

Patterns of Chemical Reactions

Synthesis reaction (A + B → AB)
▪ Atoms or molecules combine to
form
a larger, mor complex molecule
▪ Energy is absorbed for bond
formation
▪ Underlies all anabolic (building)
activities
in the body
Decomposition reaction (AB → A + B)
▪ Molecule is broken down into
smaller molecules
▪ Chemical energy is released
▪Underlies all catabolic (destructive)
activities in the body
▪ Most chemical
reactions are reversible
▪ Reversibility is indicated by a double
arrow
▪ When arrows differ in length, the
longer arrow
indicates the more rapid reaction or
major direction of progress
▪ Factors influencing the rate of
chemical reactions

Biochemistry: The Chemical

Composition of
Living Matter

Inorganic compounds
▪ Lack carbon
▪ Tend to be small, simple molecules
▪ Include water, salts, and many (not all) Cushioning
acids and ▪ Water serves a protective function
bases ▪ Examples: cerebrospinal fluid protects
the brain from physical trauma, and
amniotic fluid protects a developing
Organic compounds fetus
▪ Contain carbon
▪ All are large, covalent molecules Salts
▪ Include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, ▪ Ionic compound
and nucleic acids ▪ Contain cations other than H+ and
anions other than OH–
Inorganic compounds ▪ Easily dissociate (break apart) into ions
Water in the presence of water
▪ Most abundant inorganic compound in ▪ Vital to many body functions
the body Example: sodium and potassium ions
▪ Accounts for two-thirds of the body’s are
weight essential for nerve impulses
▪ Vital properties include: ▪ All salts are electrolytes
▪ High heat capacity ▪Electrolytes are ions that conduct
▪ Polarity/solvent properties electrical currents
▪ Chemical reactivity
▪ Cushioning

High heat capacity

▪ Water absorbs and releases a large
amount of heat before it changes
temperature
▪ Prevents sudden changes in body
temperature

Polarity/solvent properties
▪ Water is often called the “universal
solvent”
▪Solvents are liquids or gases that
dissolve smaller amounts of solutes
▪Solutes are solids, liquids, or gases that
are dissolved or suspended by solvents
▪ Solution forms when solutes are very
tiny
Chemical reactivity
▪ Water is an important reactant in some
chemical
reactions
▪ Reactions that require water are known
as hydrolysis reactions
▪ Example: water helps digest food or
break down
biological molecules
Acids
▪ Electrolytes that dissociate (ionize) in
water and
release hydrogen ions (H+)
▪ Proton (H+) donors
▪ Example: HCl → H+ + Cl–
▪ Strong acids ionize completely and
liberate all their protons
▪ Weak acids ionize incompletely
Bases
▪ Electrolytes that dissociate (ionize) in
water and
release hydroxyl ions (OH–)
▪ Proton (H+) acceptors
▪ Example: NaOH → Na+ + OH–
Neutralization reaction
▪ Type of exchange reaction in which
acids and bases react to form water and
a salt
▪ Example: NaOH + HCl → H2O +
NaCl pH

pH
▪measures relative concentration of
hydrogen (and hydroxide) ions in body
fluids
▪ pH scale is based on the number of
protons in a
solution
▪ pH scale runs from 0 to 14
▪ Each successive change of 1 pH unit
represents a
tenfold change in H+ concentration
Neutral
▪ 7 is neutral
▪ Neutral means that the number of
hydrogen ions exactly equals the
number
of hydroxyl ions
▪ Acidic solutions have a pH below 7
▪ More H+ than OH–
▪ Basic solutions have a pH above 7 ▪ Water is removed at the site where
▪ Fewer H+ than OH– monomers join (dehydration)
▪ Buffers—chemicals that can regulate
pH change ▪ Dehydration synthesis—monomers
are joined to
form polymers through the removal of
Organic Compounds water
▪ Polymer: chainlike molecules made of molecules
many ▪ A hydrogen ion is removed from one
similar or repeating units (monomers) monomer while a hydroxyl group is
▪ Many biological molecules are removed from the monomer it is to be
polymers, such as joined with
carbohydrates and proteins ▪ Water is removed at the site where
▪ Dehydration synthesis—monomers monomers join (dehydration)
are joined to
form polymers through the removal of
water
Molecules

▪ A hydrogen ion is removed from one

monomer while a hydroxyl group is Hydrolysis—polymers are broken
removed from the monomer it is to be down into
joined with monomers through the addition of water
molecules
▪ As a water molecule is added to
each bond, the bond is broken, and the
monomers are released
▪ Too large to pass through cell
membranes
Polysaccharides
long, branching chains of linked
simple sugars
▪ Large, insoluble molecules

Carbohydrates
▪ Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ▪ Function as storage products
▪ Include sugars and starches ▪ Examples include starch and
▪ Classified according to size and glycogen
solubility in water
▪Monosaccharides—simple sugars Lipids
and the structural units of the ▪ Most abundant are the
carbohydrate group TRIGLYCERIDES,
▪ Disaccharides—two simple sugars PHOSPHOLIPIDS, and STEROIDS
joined by ▪ Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
dehydration synthesis
▪Polysaccharides—long-branching
chains of
Linked simple sugars

Organic Compounds
▪ Monosaccharides—simple sugars
▪ Single-chain or single-ring
structures
▪ Contain three to seven carbon
atoms
▪ Examples: glucose (blood sugar), ▪ Carbon and hydrogen outnumber
oxygen
▪ Insoluble in water, but soluble in other

fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose

Disaccharides
two simple sugars joined by dehydration
synthesis
▪ Examples include sucrose, lactose, and
maltose

lipids

Triglycerides, or neutral fats

▪ Found in fat deposits
▪ Source of stored energy
▪ Composed of two types of building
blocks—fatty acids and one glycerol
molecule
▪ Saturated fatty acids
Fatty acid chains of triglycerides
Saturated fats
▪ Contain only single
covalent bonds
▪ Chains are straight
▪ Exist as solids at room
temperature
since molecules pack
closely together
Unsaturated fats
▪ Contain one or more double covalent
bonds, causing chains to kink
▪ Exist as liquid oils at room temperature
▪ “Heart healthy”
▪ Unsaturated fatty acids
Trans fats -
▪ Oils that have been solidified by the
addition of
hydrogen atoms at double bond sites
Omega-3 fatty acids
▪ Found in cold-water fish and plant
sources, including
flax, pumpkin, and chia seeds; walnuts
and soy foods
Phospholipids
▪ Contain two fatty acids chains rather
than three; they are hydrophobic (“water
fearing”)
▪ Phosphorus-containing polar “head”
carries an
electrical charge and is hydrophilic
(“water loving”)
▪ Charged “head” region interacts with
water and ions while the fatty acid
chains (“tails”) do not
▪ Form cell membranes
Steroids
▪ Formed of four interlocking rings
▪ Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin
D, and some
hormones
▪ Some cholesterol is ingested from
animal products; the liver also makes
cholesterol
▪ Cholesterol is the basis for
all steroids made in the body
Proteins
▪ Account for over half of the
body’s
organic matter
▪ Provide for construction
materials for body
tissues
▪ Play a vital role in cell function
▪ Act as enzymes, hormones, and
antibodies
Amino acid structure
▪ Contain an amine group (NH2)
▪ Contain an acid group (COOH)
▪ Vary only by R-groups
Protein structure
▪ Polypeptides contain fewer than 50
amino acids
▪ Proteins contain more than 50 amino
acids
▪ Large, complex proteins contain 50 to
thousands of amino acids
▪ Sequence of amino acids produces a
variety of
proteins
Structural levels of proteins
▪ Primary structure—strand of amino
acid “beads”
▪ Secondary structure—chains of amino
acids twist or bend
▪ Alpha helix—resembles a metal spring
▪ Beta-pleated sheet—resembles pleats
of a skirt or sheet of paper folded into a
fan
▪ Tertiary structure—compact, ball-like
(globular)
structure
▪ Quaternary structure—result of a ▪ G = Guanine
combination of two or more polypeptide ▪ C = Cytosine
chains ▪ T = Thymine
▪ U = Uracil
Fibrous (structural) proteins 2. Pentose (five-carbon) sugar
▪ Appear in body structures 3. A phosphate group
▪ Exhibit secondary, tertiary, or even Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
quaternary ▪ The genetic material found within the
structure cell’s nucleus
▪ Bind structures together and exist in ▪ Provides instructions for every protein
body tissues in the body
▪ Stable proteins ▪ Organized by complementary bases to
▪ Examples include collagen and keratin form a double-
stranded helix
Globular (functional) proteins ▪ Contains the sugar deoxyribose and the
▪ Function as antibodies, hormones, or bases
enzymes adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine
▪ Exhibit at least tertiary structure ▪ Replicates before cell division
▪ Hydrogen bonds are critical to the
maintenance of Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
structure ▪Carries out DNA’s instructions for
▪Can be denatured and no longer protein synthesis
perform physiological roles ▪Created from a template of DNA
▪ Active sites “fit” and interact ▪Organized by complementary bases to
chemically with other molecules form a single- stranded helix
▪ Contains the sugar ribose and the bases
Enzymes adenine,
▪ Act as biological catalysts uracil, cytosine, and guanine
▪ Increase the rate of chemical reactions ▪ Three varieties are messenger, transfer,
▪ Bind to substrates at an active site to and ribosomal
catalyze RNA
reactions
▪ Can be recognized by their –ase suffix
▪ Hydrolase Cells
▪ Oxidase ▪Structural units of living things
▪50 to 100 trillion cells
Nucleic acids ▪CHON
▪ Form genes; Composed of carbon, ▪60% H20
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
phosphorus atoms Generalized Cell
▪ Two major kinds:
▪ DNA 1.Nucleus
▪ RNA 2.Cytoplasm
3.Plasma
Nucleic acids
are built from building blocks called
nucleotides The Nucleus
▪ Nucleotides contain three parts ▪Control Center
1. A nitrogenous base ▪DNA
▪ A = Adenine Three regionsof nucleus:
Nuclear envelope
(membrane)
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
▪ Composed of a nucleotide built from
ribose sugar,
adenine base, and three phosphate
groups
▪ Chemical energy used by all cells
▪ Energy is released by breaking high-
energy phosphate
bond

ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

accumulates as
ATP is used for energy
▪ ATP is replenished by oxidation of
food fuels
▪ Three examples of how ATP drives
cellular work
are shown next

▪ ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

accumulates as
ATP is used for energy
▪ ATP is replenished by oxidation of
food fuels
▪ Three examples of how ATP drives
cellular work
are shown next

Nuclear envelope(membrane)
▪ Double membrane
▪ Nuclear pores = exchange
▪ Encloses nucleoplasm

Nucleolus
▪Sites of ribosome assembly
▪Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm
through nuclear pores to serve as the site
of protein synthesis

Chromatin
▪Composed of DNA
▪Present when the cell is not dividing
▪Condenses to form chromosomes
 that perform functions for the cell

The Plasma Membrane

▪Transparent barrier
▪Contains cell contents
▪Separator
▪Phospholipid arrangement
▪Hydrophilic “ HEADS”
▪Hydrophobic “TAILS”
▪The Plasma Membrane

▪Role of proteins
Responsible for specialized
membrane
functions:
▪Enzymes
▪Receptors for hormones or other
chemical messengers Mitochondria
▪Transport as channels or carriers ▪Powerhouse
▪Produces ATP
Role of sugars
▪Glycoproteins are branched sugars Ribosomes
attached to proteins that boards the ▪Made of protein and ribosomal RNA
extracellular space ▪Sites of protein synthesis in the cell
▪Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar
rich area on the cell’s surface Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
▪Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that
The Cytoplasm carry substances within the cell
▪The cellular material outside the ▪Continuous with the nuclear membrane
nucleus and inside the plasma membrane Two typesof ER:
▪Includes cytosol, inclusions, and ▪Rough ER
organelles ▪Smooth ER

Three major component of the

cytoplasm
Cytosol: Fluid that suspends other
elements

Inclusions: Chemical substances, such

as
stored nutrients or cell products, that
float
in the cytosol Golgi apparatus
▪Appears as a stack of flattened
Organelles: Metabolic machinery of the membranes associated with tiny vesicles
cell
▪Modification of proteins

Cell Extensions
▪Cilia
▪Flagella
▪Microvilli

Cell Diversity
▪Connect body parts
▪Cover and line body organs
Lysosomes ▪Move organs and body parts
▪Contain digestive enzymes ▪Stores nutrients
▪Recycler ▪Fights disease
▪House phagocytes that dispose of ▪Gathers information and controls body
bacteria and cell debris functions
▪Reproduction
Peroxisomes
▪Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes Membrane Transport
▪Detoxify harmful substances Solution—homogeneous mixture of two
▪Break down free radicals (highly or more
reactive components
chemicals) ▪Solvent—dissolving medium present
▪Replicates alone in the

Cytoskeleton
▪Structural framework ▪Intermediate
filaments
▪3types ▪Microtubules
▪Microfilaments

Centrioles
▪Rod-shaped
▪Generate microtubules
▪Formation of mitotic spindle

Larger quantity
▪Solutes—components in smaller
quantities
within asolution

Intracellular fluid
▪Nucleoplasm and cytosol
▪Solution containing gases, nutrients,
and
salts dissolved in water
Extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid)
▪Fluid on the exterior of the cell
▪Contains thousands of ingredients
The plasma membrane is a
selectively permeable
barrier
Membrane Transport
▪Two basic methods of transport
▪Passive processes: substances
are transported across the membrane
▪Active processes: the cell provides
the metabolic energy (ATP) to
drive the transport process
Passive processes: diffusion and
filtration
Diffusion
▪Molecule movement is from high
concentration to low concentration,
down a concentration gradient
▪Particles tend to distribute themselves
evenly within a solution
▪Kinetic energy (energy of motion)
▪Size of the molecule and temperature
▪Molecules will move by diffusion if
any of the
following applies:
▪The molecules are small enough to
pass
through the membrane’s pores
(channels
formed by membrane proteins)
▪The molecules are lipid-soluble
▪The molecules are assisted by a
membrane carrier
Types of diffusion
▪Simple diffusion
▪An unassisted process
▪Solutes are lipid-soluble or small
enough to pass through membrane
pores
▪ Osmosis
▪simple diffusion of water across
aselectively permeable membrane
▪Highly polar water molecules
easily
cross the plasmamembrane
through aquaporins
▪Water moves down its
concentration gradient
▪Isotonic solutions have the same
solute
and water concentrations as cells
and cause no visible changes in the
cell
▪Hypertonic solutions contain more
solutes than the cells do; the cells
will begin to shrink
▪Hypotonic solutions contain fewer
solutes (more water) than the cells
do;
cells will plump
 pump
▪Necessary for nerve impulses
▪Sodium is transported out of the
cell
▪Potassium is transported into the
cell

Facilitated diffusion
▪Transports lipid-
insoluble and large
substances
▪Glucose is transported
via facilitated diffusion
▪Protein membrane
channels or protein
molecules that act as
carriers are used
Vesicular transport:
substances are moved
Filtration across the membrane “in bulk” without
▪Water and solutes are forced through a actually crossingthe plasma membrane
membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic, Types of vesicular transport
pressure ▪Exocytosis
▪A pressure gradient must exist that ▪Endocytosis
pushes solute- containing fluid (filtrate) ▪Phagocytosis
from ▪Pinocytosis
a high-pressure area to a lower-pressure Exocytosis
area ▪Mechanism cells use to actively secrete
hormones,
Active processes mucus, and other products
▪ATP is used to move substances across ▪Material is carried in a membranous sac
a membrane called a
Active processes are used when: vesicle that migrates to and combines
▪Substances are too large with the
▪Lack special protein carriers Plasma membrane
▪Substances may not be lipid-soluble ▪Contents of vesicle are emptied to the
▪Substances may have to move against a outside
concentration ▪Exocytosis docking process
gradient
Active transport and vesicular transport
▪Active transport
▪Amino acids, some sugars, and ions
are transported by protein carriers
known as solute pumps
▪ATP energizes solute pumps
▪In most cases, substances are moved
against
concentration (or electrical) gradients
▪Active transport example: sodium-
potassium
 ▪Docking proteins on the vesicles ▪In some cases, the vesicle is released by
recognize plasma membrane proteins exocytosis on the opposite side of the
and bind with them cell
▪

Types of endocytosis
1.Phagocytosis—“cell eating”
▪Cell engulfs large particles
Membranes corkscrew and fuse ▪Pseudopods are cytoplasmic
together extensions
that separate substances from
external environment
▪Phagocytosis is a protective
mechanism,
not a means of getting nutrients

Endocytosis
▪Extracellular substances are enclosed
(engulfed) in a membranous vesicle
▪Vesicle detaches from the plasma
membrane and moves into the cell
▪Once in the cell, the vesicle typically
fuses with a
lysosome
▪Contents are digested by lysosomal
enzymes
2.Pinocytosis—“cell drinking”
▪Cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular
fluid containing dissolved proteins or
fats ▪Plasma membrane forms a pit, and
edges fuse around droplet of
fluid ;Routine activity for most cells,
such as those involved in absorption
(small intestine)
 ▪Guanine (G) always bonds with cytosine
(C)
▪For example, TACTGC bonds with
new nucleotides
in the order ATGACG

3.Receptor-mediated
endocytosis ;Method for taking up
specific target molecules
▪Receptor
proteins on the
membrane
surface bind
only certain
substances
▪Highly
selective
process of taking in substances such as
enzymes, some hormones, cholesterol,
and iron
Cell Division
Events of cell division
Cell life cycle is a series of changes the
Mitosis—division of the nucleus
cell
Results in the formation of two daughter
experiences from the time it is formed
nuclei
until it divides
▪Cell life cycle has two major periods
Cytokinesis—division of the cytoplasm
1.Interphase (metabolic phase)
▪Cell grows and carries on metabolic Begins when mitosis is near completion
processes Results in the formation of two daughter
Longer phase of the cell cycle cells
2.Cell division
▪Cell reproduces itself Events of mitosis: prophase
▪Chromatin coils into chromosomes;
Preparations: DNA Replication identical
▪Genetic material is duplicated and strands called chromatids are held
readies a cell for division into two cells together by a
▪Occurs toward the end of interphase centromere
▪DNA uncoils into two nucleotide ▪Centrioles direct the assembly of a
chains, and each mitotic spindle
side serves as a template ▪Nuclear envelope and nucleoli have
▪Nucleotides are complementary broken down
▪Adenine (A) always bonds with thymine
(T) Events of mitosis: metaphase
▪Chromosomes are aligned in the center Common in the liver and skeletal muscle
of the cell
on the metaphase plate (center of the
spindle
midway between the centrioles)
▪Straight line of chromosomes is now
seen

Events of mitosis: anaphase

▪Centromere splits
▪Chromatids move slowly apart and
toward the
opposite ends of the cell
▪Anaphase is over when the
chromosomes stop
Moving

Events of mitosis: telophase

▪Reverse of prophase
▪Chromosomes uncoil to become
chromatin
▪Spindles break down and disappear
▪Nuclear envelope re-forms around
chromatin
▪Nucleoli appear in each of the daughter
nuclei

Cytokinesis
▪Division of the cytoplasm
▪Begins during late anaphase and
completes during
telophase
▪A cleavage furrow (contractile ring of
microfilaments) forms to pinch the cells
into two
Parts ; Two daughter cells exist
▪In most cases, mitosis and cytokinesis
occur
together
▪In some cases, the cytoplasm is not
divided
▪Binucleate or multinucleate cells result