CELL •

is the basic unit of living structure and function

all these can be found in the in the intracellular

types of cells: (fluid in the cell) and extracellular (fluid outside
the cell) fluid.
1) Prokaryotic cell- Lack membrane bound ➢ 60% of H2O
nucleus ➢ Based on a dilute saltwater solution called interstitial
• contain a single strand of nucleic acid fluid.
➢ Length ranging from 2 micrometers (1/12000th of an
2) Eukaryotic cell- Contains true nucleus inch) to over 3 feet.
and multiple chromosomes.
• facilitates proper cell division and replication
• cell of a man
• threadlike structure
Cells shapes:
1) disc-shape: RBC (has no nucleus as it ejects nucleus if
they mature to enable more O2 to be transported in the
blood stream)
2) thread like extension: nerve cells
3) toothpick pointed at each end: smooth
muscle cells (found in the walls of the organs such as
stomach & intestines)
4) cube like epithelial cells (located at the outer
surface of blood vessels), (in the epridermis)

Cell function:
1) Blood cells
• transport gases and protect the body from
foreign substances
• Red blood cells eject its nucleus to store more
oxygen.
2) Some cells
• make hormones to regulate metabolic
processes; others are involved in
o produce hormones for metabolic
processes
o produce enzymes for digestion of
food

For example, in the:

o Pancreas—produces hormones,
insulin, & glucagon
▪ Insulin—decreases blood
sugar level
* Synthetic insulin—injected
Characteristics of cells: made from weakened/ dead
bacteria/ yeast
➢ To build a human body, trillions of cells connect and ~on synthetic human insulin
interact. ▪ Glucagon—increases
➢ 75 trillion cells make up the adult human body. blood glucose level
➢ 4 elements:
1) Carbon
2) Oxygen
3) Hydrogen
4) Nitrogen
➢ Contains lipids- 40% of dry mass of typical cell.
• Involved in long term energy storage
• Serves as a structural component
• Acts as a chemical messenger

➢ Plus, a smaller amount of iron, sodium, potassium,

chloride, and ions.
Cell Parts: 1. Cytosol
A. PLASMA MEMBRANE (CELL MEMBRANE) ➢ Semitransparent fluid that suspends the
other elements
➢ surrounds the cell and separates it from surrounding
➢temporary inoperative
the environment.
➢ a double layer fluid composed mainly of proteins, ➢major component is water
cholesterol and phospholipids (fat like) with some protein
molecules embedded in them. 2. a. Organelles
➢metabolic machinery
• The head is hydrophilic and water soluble
➢synthesizes ions to form complex substance
• The tail is hydrophobic and water insoluble
by combining simple substances
➢package proteins
Functions of Plasma membrane: ➢ Each organelle caries out a specific function
for the cell which are:
1. Supporting and retaining the cytoplasm. • Some synthesize protein
2. Acts as selective barrier, meaning: • others package proteins
✓ Allows nutrients in and waste products out
✓ Some molecules can enter, and some cannot
without assistance b Non-membrane organelles
✓ Water, non-polar molecule, and some small polar * Microtubules /microfilaments- form a framework
molecules can enter called the cytoskeleton
✓ Non-polar molecules enter by dissolving into the
lipid layer i. Microtubules
✓ Most polar compounds, amino acid, organic acids ➢forms the framework or cytoskeleton
need to bind with a protein to enter ➢reinforces the shape of the cell
➢involved in cell division, movement, and
transport
SPECIALIZATION OF PLASMA
MEMBRANE ii. Microfilaments
➢forms the framework or cytoskeleton
➢reinforces the shape of the cell
1. Microvilli- Tiny fingerlike projections for absorption
➢involved in cell movement
(water, enzymes, nutrients)
Ex. Microvilli in the small intestine:
3. Inclusion
o Chemical substance that may or
2. Membrane junction; includes the ff. may not be present
a) Tight junction: prevents leakage of transported o Various nutrients that can be found
solute or water in the cell
Ex. Small intestine-------- (prevents) digestive o Ex. Pigments such as melanin seen in
enzyme----///--- seeping into the the skin and hair cells.
blood stream.
b) Desmosomes: anchoring junction
• Prevents cells subjected to mechanical stress
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• It adheres the cells together
• Ex. Skin cells----//----- (prevents) from being pulled ➢ Maintain the life of the cell.
apart.
c) Gap junction: ➢little organs in the cell suspended by the cytoplasm
• Allows communications between one cell to
another and the exchange of ions 1) Ribosome –Composed of RNA (Ribosomal RNA
• Ex. Chemical molecules (nutrients, ions) can pass and protein)
directly from one cell to another through the • This is tiny, round, dark granules made of
help of a gap junction. proteins.
• They synthesize protein from amino acid using
RNA as template for metabolism.
B. CYTOPLASM- second cell part • Attached to the membrane, float free from
the cytoplasm
➢ This is the cellular material outside the nucleus and
• Dispersed randomly in the cytoplasm
inside the plasma membrane.
• Attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum
➢ The cell will deflate without the cytoplasm
• Linked together in chains of polyribosomes or
➢ Fluid matrix in the cell polysomes
➢ Gives the cell its shape
➢ Contains enzymes 2) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
➢ This is the factory area of the cell. • Organelle composed of a system of
interconnecting membranous tubules and vesicles
3 major elements
 along which protein is synthesized in the
cytoplasm.
• It provides networks of channels for carrying
substances primarily proteins.
• Mini circulatory system
Two forms of endoplasmic reticulum:
1. Rough ER- Membranous network with
attached ribosome.
• Attached ribosomes
• Abundant in cells that export and
synthesize protein products for use
outside the cell.
• Ex. Pancreas cells produce enzymes which
are delivered to small intestine.
2. Smooth ER- It lacks ribosome
• Functions in cholesterol synthesis and
breakdown, fat metabolism, drugs
detoxification (steroid hormones)
• Ex. Liver cells which detoxify drugs.
3) Golgi apparatus/Golgi complex
• Stacks of flattened membranous sac in
which lipids and proteins are modified.
• Function is synthesizing and export or
transport of proteins to specific locations
4) Lysosomes
• Membrane bags containing powerful
digestive enzymes.
• Stacks of flattened membranous sac
• Synthesizes and exports or transports
proteins to specific locations
• functions as the cell’s demolitions site.
• contains different enzymes that
breakdown polysaccharides, proteins, and
nucleic acids
• Lysosomes in WBC engulfs bacteria
5) Peroxisomes
• These membranous sacs are abundant
in liver and kidney cells.
• Membranous sacs that detoxify a
number of harmful or poisonous
substances.
• Membrane bound organelle
• Abundant in liver and kidney cells
• Similar structure to lysosomes but
smaller in size
6) Mitochondria
• “Power House of the Cell”
• Have a double membrane called “Cristae”
• They are involve in cellular respiration in the
form of ATP.
• Energy production
7) Cytoskeleton
• Interconnected system of bundled fibers,
slender threads, and lattices (strands)
• Extends from plasma membrane and nucleus.
• Gives the cell’s internal organization or shape
• Consists of the:
o Microfilaments:
o Microtubules:
8) Centrioles/ centrosomes
• Paired of centrioles lying at the right angle to
each other
• During cell division, it directs the formation of
the mitotic spindle.
• Located in the cytoplasm near the nucleus
• Smaller cluster of microtubule (tube like
structure)
Dissolved in the cytoplasm are:
1) Gasses-oxygen, carbon dioxide
2) Cellular waste-urea, lactic acid, acetic acid, carbon
dioxide, ammonia
3) Building block molecules- amino acid
4) Food molecules-glucose
5) Ions-potassium, sodium
6) Proteins and RNA- occurs in the ribosomes
7) Organelles of the cells –anything within the cytoplasm
8) ATP-energy carrying molecule
9) Hormones, drugs, toxins- transmitted by blood
C. NUCLEUS
• Storage of genetic materials (RNA and DNA)
• “It is the headquarters or the control center
of the cell”.
• It contains genetic code (DNA---- carrier of
genetic information in living cells
• Contains the instructions needed for the building
of proteins.
3 structures of nucleus
1. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE:
• Double membrane that
bounds the nucleus
• Separate the chromosomes
from the rest
• Contains larger nuclear pores
(permeable membrane)
• Nucleoplasm is a jelly like fluid
• This is a permeable
membrane, since it contains
larger nuclear pores.
 2. NUCLEOLI
• They are sites where
ribosomes are assembled. CELL CYCLE and MITOSIS
• One or more dark staining body
• Made up of RNA, DNA, protein • Human body consists of trillions of cells that
came from just one original cell.
3. CHROMATIN- DNA proteins in a non-dividing • Each time this cell reproduces, the new cells
cell form, a loose network of bumpy, contained all the essential cytoplasm, organelles,
threads. and nucleic acid needed to survive and functions.
When a cell is dividing into 2 • Series of events as a cell grows and divide
daughters’ cells, chromatin threads
coil and condense to form a
chromosome.
INTERPHASE

• This is the longest phase in the cell cycle

between divisions.
OTHER CELL STRUCTURES/ • Resting phase but this is an active period
CELL EXTENSIONS • It carries all their usual functions in between cell
divisions.
1) CILIA • So throughout the cell division, the interphase
• Small hair like projections formed by performs its function
centrioles lying along the free border • Living phase
of some cells. • Prepares for cell division
• It moves substances
• EX. Ciliated cell lining of respiratory
system
CELL DIVISION
2) FLAGELLA
• Single long whip like projections, Following interphase, cell division occurs in two main steps:
formed by the centrioles that
moved cells. 1. MITOSIS- Normal series of phases in cell
• EX. The tail of the sperm cell is called division
a flagellum • ➢ Each cell has 23X and Y chromosomes
• CHROMOSOMES- carry the hereditary factors,
and responsible for the determination of sex.
• Uses of mitosis: Organism uses mitosis for
growth, cell repair and cell replacement.
• 25 million mitotic division happens every second
Differentiate the three main parts • Cells of the liver, intestines and skin may be
of the cell in terms of function replaced every few days.
Phases:
a) Prophase- the sister chromatids condense to
become thicker and visible when viewed to the
microscope.
b) Metaphase- the chromosomes line up midway
between the centrioles.
c) Anaphase- the centromeres of each
chromosome are pulled by the spindle fibers
toward the ends of the cell.
d) Telophase- new nuclei begin to form around the
Chromosome at each end of the cell.
2. Cytokinesis - completes the process of
cell division.
• The cytoplasm of the cell divides into 2 new cells,
daughter cells.
• The cytoplasm divides when a groove called the
cleavage furrow forms through the middle of
the parent cells.
• The cleavage furrow deepens until the parent
cells pinches into two new cells.
 MEIOSIS- Produce the gametes (sperm and egg
Differences of mitosis and meiosis cells), or this is reproduced sexually.
MITOSIS MEIOSIS • This is the type of cell required
Process of normal cell Two cell divisions for sexual reproduction.
division
• One cell • Resembles mitosis in many ways,
division except the end result is four
Results in 2 identical Creates sex cells daughter cells.
daughter cells • Produces 4 • This is the process with the
• Produces 2 haploid diploid number of chromosomes
diploid daughter (46 for humans)- each with the
daughter cells haploid number of chromosomes
cells (23).
Occurs in all organisms Occurs in animals,
(except viruses) plants, fungi
No recombination or Recombination/ crossing TWO TYPES OF MEIOSIS
crossing over over occurs in
prophase a. Spermatogenesis- male; Process that
Daughter cells are Daughter cells are takes place in the testes (site of
identical genetically different
sperm reproduction).
• Contains spermatogonia
b. Oogenesis- female; Process of meiosis
for egg cell formation
• ➢ Begins in the ovaries.
• ➢ Each contain an oogonium-
stem cell for egg production.

PHYSIOLOGY OF CELL
How do the cell function? How does the cell survive?

• To stay alive, cell must exchange materials such

as food and wastes within its environment.
• Water can go in and out freely from the cell.
• Proteins, carbohydrates, and some ions cannot.
• Cell membrane is a semi permeable membrane
• Must have constant supply of vital substances
(sugar, minerals, oxygen, water, and amino acids)

DIFFUSION
1. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
• Movement of molecules from an area of high
SIMILARITIES concentration to an area of low concentration.
• Evenly spread in a state of equilibrium or
• Create new cells balance
• Follow same steps • EX. Perfume inside a bottle evaporates and
• Begin with one parent cell evenly distributed in a room.
• CONCENTRATION GRADIENT- difference between
the concentration of molecules in one area
adjacent to another.

a) FACILITATED DIFFUSION- larger molecules,

require assistance to pass through the protein
channels of plasma membrane.
o Selectively permeable
 o Movement of molecules can take
place in both ways, along or opposite
of the direction of the concentration
gradient
Effects of solute concentration on
EX. Amino acid
human RBC

1. What types of molecules move across

the lipid bilayer of the plasma
membrane via simple diffusion?
The structure of the lipid bilayer
allows small, uncharged substances
such as oxygen and carbon dioxide,
and hydrophobic molecules such as
lipids, to pass through the cell
membrane, down their concentration
gradient, by simple diffusion.

2. Will a 2% solution of NaCl cause

hemolysis or crenation of RBC’s? Why?
A 2% solution of NaCl will cause
crenation of RBCs because it
is hypertonic. ASSIGNMENT (Read and study the
following):
1. Active transport:
2. OSMOSIS (water) 2. Phagocytosis:
• High concentration of water to low concentration 3. Pinocytosis:
of water through a semipermeable membrane
• EX. A container of water divided by a semi
permeable membrane; sugar molecules are
dissolve to the left side, right side it’s pure
water.

TYPE OF SOLUTIONS
1) Hypertonic solution- water diffuses out of the cell, why?

• Concentrations of solutes outside is higher than

the concentration inside the cell.
• EX. Cell (normally has much water) --------if the
environment of cell (lack water or no water at
all) -----die

2) Hypotonic solution- Lower concentration to high

concentration.
• Concentration of solutes inside the cell is higher
➢ The flow of water into the cell causes the cell to swell.
• EX. Distilled water

3) Isotonic solution- concentration of solute equals the

concentration of solute inside the cell.
• EX. 5% of glucose,0.9% Na Cl----helps replenish
fluids in your cell without causing osmosis.