RADAR SONAR

AND
NAVIGATION
ENGINEERING
(With Guiadance)

KATSON
BOOKS
K. K. SHARMA
 Fig. 2.2.

AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDERS (ADF)

2.8. finders, there
the direction are numerous
distinction to
Introduction.
which the proper bearing types in
In is determined by means of a visual device. In this device, the
listen for a minimum signal as in an
aural-null type,
operator is not requiredto
with phones being needed only for
stationidentification or for reception
monitorine
grouped in two main classes. They are as
Visual direction finders may be
airborne equipment follows:
1. Automatic direction finders (Radio compass)
2. Right-left type (Homing) NDB (Nondirectional beacons) ground equipment
the station bearise
In Automatic direction finders indicate directly on a 360° scale indicates deviat
similar indicator and
In Right-lefttypes utilizea zero center meter or
in bearing from the manually established loop position.
Basically the air borne equipments such as ADF consists of the following:
1. Antenna system
2. Receiver
3. Display
The antenna system consists of an omnidirectional sense antenna and rotatable loop,
but now a days fixed loop and electronic goniometer are mostly used, which perform
the same function. The receiver consists of RF and detector sections. The frequency
range is between 195 to 1500 KHz. The output of the receiver is directional signal ano
 DIRECTION FINDERS (RDF)
RADIO 297
indent,inthe some cases voice. Speaker and headphone are used for voice and indent,
whereclsethe directional signals are fed to the display part of the receiver.
Thedisplay section can be Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI) or Radio Magnetic
Indicator(RMI).

2.8.1. Elements of Automatic Direction Finders (ADF)

Fig. 2.26showsthe typical circuit elements of automaic direction finder. The first
sUCcessful commercial automatic direction finder in general use in the United States
wasdevelopedin 1937 jointly by Radio Corporation of America and Sperry Cysoslope
Company. Later designs have followed for same principles.
The A.C. Supply serves to modulate the RF center in the loop channel by means of
halanced modulator. In this the input consists of the large amplitude local a.c. signal
anda muchsmaller RF signal. The difference in amplitude and the fact that two different
frequencies are fed in are points of importance.

Loop Antenna Non-directional

sense antenna

AF Output
Antenna Super
Electronic Loop Balanced
Goniometer Amplifier Modulator coupling hetrodyne
unit Receiver
Phone
output
Reference
Osc.
Gonio
Motor

Servo Phase
Sensitive
Course Amplifier
Indicator Detector

system.
Fig. 2.26. Block diagram of radio compass receiver
Ihe incoming RF signals are amplified by loop amplifier and fed to the balanced
with an oscillator output at
modulator which produces the product of goniometer output
of the balanced modulator is given
quency supplying a reference phase. The output
by the following expressions.
E(mod) = E, . Eret
=A, sin Aoe . Eref COS Wrefeor
Crer.!.
= Ag Eref sin A cos signal pickup of
balanced modulator Em is further added withdirection of arrival
dput of the independent of the azimuth
NOn-dradiowave.
of theirectional
sense antenna which is
The total voltage at the input of RF amplifier in the superhetrodyne
Teceiver, is may be given by
Eo.e
Ein = E(mod) +h,. A cos ,ef!+h,. E) er
= (EefAg sin .elor
cOs @ref

amplitude modulated signal which

represents an proportional tothe
S En(Unput voltage of RFamplifier) oscillator with theamplitude
modulated at frequency ofReference
 RADAR, SONAR AND NAVIGATION
298
sin A. If the A lying between n < A < 21, sin A is negative and the ENGIdemodul
NEERIaNteGd
signal will have negative amplitude which shows that the phase is reversed. Other
this case if A¢ lying betwecn 0 and n, the sin A is positive and the demodulated eithen
Signal
at op Will be in phase within the reference signal. Now to control the reversible motor.
i is coupled mechanically to the rotor of goniometer. The demodulated and
reference
signals are fed to apair of coils which are right angle with a 90° phase shift betwees
them to produce a rotating magnetic field at of for a synchronous motor. The
rotations
of themotor is bcing controlled by the sign of A¢. As the rotor is coupled to the goniometer.
rOtor so as to (urn it in a direction to reduce A, tending to orient the plane of the
goniometercoil along the direction of the net magnetic field. The bearing or course will
be indicated by the position of the rotor of Goniometer.
Errors : In the following condition the ADF will not be able to give accurate
bearing :
(i) In case of heavy lighting it fails to indicate correctdirection due to interference
by the lighting.
(i) In case of heavy wind storm which makes aircraft to drift perpendicular to the
direction of motion causes misleading of homing direction because the radio
compass will always pointed towards the runway field.
 e1 INTRODUCTION
.1.
padio ranges are navigational aids and it is specifically used by aircraft (Air
Navigation). Threc types of radio ranges are in use, which are as follows :
1. Low frequency four course radio range
, VHF omnidirectional radio range (VOR) and
3. Dopper VOR (Latest development)
LFMF four course radio range operator in LF/MF range of 200-400 KHz. It is
ahsolescent and now-a-days VOR (VHF omni range) is in use in the world. The latest
introduction in radio navigation is DVOR (Doppler VHF omni Range).
3.3. VHF OMNI RANGE (VOR)
in the
I means a very high frequency omni directional radio ranges and operates
VHF band of 112-118 Mhz, thus being used as medium to short range radin
Navigational aid. It works on the principle of phase comparision of two 30 Hz signal
i.e. an aircraft provided with appropriate receiver can obtain its radial positions
signals
from the range station by comparing the phases of the two 30Hz sinusoidal
obtained from the VOR radiation. Any fixed phase difference defines a Radial/Track
(an outward vector from the ground station into space). VOR in fact provides an
infinite number of radials/Tracks to the aircrafts, the four provided by a LF/MF
radio range.
There are two types of VOR, namely conventional (VOR) (C-VOR) and Doppler
VOR(DVOR). Even though both serve the same purpose as far as the aircrafts are
concerned, the selection of C-VOR and D-VOR depends upon various site conditions
inan airfield.D-VOR is more accurate than C-VOR, but it is complex and costilier than
C-VOR.

3.3.1. Purpose of VOR and Uses

1. The main purpose of the VOR is to provide the navigational signals for an
aircraft receiver which will allow the pilot to determine the bearing of the aircraft
to a VOR facility.
2. In additions to this,VOR enables the Air-Traffic controller in the Area Control
Radar (ARSR) and ASR (Air Surveillance Radar) for identifying the aircrafts
in their scopes easily. They can monitor whether aircrafts are following the
radials correctly or not.
3. VOR located outside the airfield on the extended centre line of the runway
would be useful for the aircraft making a straight VOR approach. With the
help of the auto pilot aircraft can be guided to approach the airport for
landing.
4. VOR located enroute would be useful for airtraffic to maintain their PDR's
(Pre determined Routes) and are also used as reporting points.
5. VOR located at radial distance of about 40 miles in different directions
around an International Airport can be used as holdingVOR for regulating
the aircraft for their landing in quickest time. They would be of immens
help tothe aircraft for holding overhead and also to the ATCO for handling
the traffic conveniently.
RADIORANGES
311
3.3.2.
principle of Operation
Magnetic north
determines its bearing by
Ae
reference30 Hz and
variable 30 Hz comparing phase of
30Hzsignal has the same phase
signals, Refercnces
at all the 360° points
whereas the phase of
arOundVOR variable 30 Hz changes
altherateof 1° for one degree deviation of azimuth angle.
Thereference 30 Hz signal and variable 30 Hz signal are 270 VOR 90
inthesame phase in the direction of magnetic north. In
factthis direction is taken as zero degree for OR and
otherazimuth angles are measuredi in clockwise dircction + 180°
3.5.
asshownin Fig. Fig. 3.5.
The VHF Radio Transmitter radiates two patterns, distinguishable by different
modulations, one of which is omnidircctional and carries the modulations of 30 Hz
reference signal, while the second pattern is a figure of cight rotating at 30 revolutions
persecond. The RF phases of the two are locked. The omni radiation is a much stronger
fieldthan the figure of eight radiation as shown here in Fig. 3.6.

Fig.3.6 (a) Omni Radiation Pattern. Fig. 3.6(b), Figure of eight pattern
rotating at 30 rev./sec.
The 30 Hzsignals cannot be directly radiated into.space. These signals modulates
carrier frequencies in aspecific manner and aircraft receiver processes the signal and
derive the desired information. Besides, station identification and voice signals are also
radiated.
The signals radiated from the VOR are as follows :
1. Reference 30 Hz)
Navigation
2. Variable 30 Hz
3. Station identification
4. Voice signal
carrier and following RF signals are
The above mentioned signals modulates the
radiated from the antenna system :
(a) Reference carrier
(b) Variable carrier

3.3.2.1. Reference Carrier 9960 Hz will

Reference 30 Hz sinusoidal signal frequency modulates9960 Hz. of a 9960
) modulation consists
be referred as subcarrier in VOR system. The sub carrier
showninFig, 3.7.
plus and minus 480 Hz at 30 Hz rate as
modulates on RF frequency.
Ihis 9960Hz subcarrier amplitude radiates its own
Station identification and Voice Signal. Every VOR station The
()
pilot the VOR station to which he has tuned,
identification.
Oncode is
This signal
a
indicates
combination of
to
English alphabets. For example Calcutta VOR
has
 RADAR, SONAR AND NAVIGATION
312
identification of - o -These alphabets are morse
ENGINEERING
coded and in this, the
corresponding to letter ca
audio frequency of 1020 Hz is generated. The morse code
its audio signal is shown in Fig.3.8.
|

30 Hz
reference
signal

FM. Signal
480
:. m30
= 16
10440 9960 9621 9480
9621 9960
(Centre frequency) (Highest (Centre (Lowest
Frequency) Frequency) Frequency)
Fig. 3.7. 9960 Hz sub-carrier amplitude modulates on RF frequency.
Morse code of C

1020 Hz

Fig. 3.8. Representation of Morse code using ASK modulation.

This coded audio signal amplitude modulates the carrier. The depth of modulation
by this signal is adjusted 10%. Occasionally audio signal corresponding to voice meant
for communicating with aircraft also amplitude modulates the carrier. Now aday voice
communication in VOR radiation is seldom done. Whenever voice signal is radiated,
the depth of modulation by it is adjusted to 30% and at that time identification
transmission is stopped.
The reference carrier modulated by all the above signals are fed to aural system,
which has omni radiative pattern. It may be noted that phase of 30 Hz reference signal,
if demodulated by airborne receiver, will remain the same in all directions.
Summary of signal radiated on reference carrier :
(a) 30 Hz reference sinusoidal frequency modulates sub carrier 9960 Hz. This sub
carrier amplitude modulates reference carrier.
(b) Morse coded 1020 Hz station identification tone amplitude modulates reference
carrier.
(c) Voice signal amplitude modulates the references carrier.
RADIORANGES
313
33.2.2. Variable Carrier
Variable 30 Hz signal is obtained by the techniques
wn as
know
space modulation which means the modulation
generated inside transmitter but it is achieved by
not
combination of R.F signals in space. Earlier versions of
VOR(LORENTZ VOR) does it by rotating dipole fed with
purecarrier
atthe rate of 30 revolutions/sec. The radiation Dipole
patternof dipole is as shown in Fig. 3.9. Fig. 3.9, Radiation
Asthe dipole is rotated, so this pattern also rotates. pattern of dipole.

The plus
radiation adds to omni refernece carrier and minus radiation substracts. The
eultant radiation is a rotating Limacon as shown in Fig. 3.10.
Emax "A

Rotating Side band

Limacon
"B

Carrier

Emax
Emin

Fig.3.10. The physical orientation of arrival.

will be illuminated by R.F. of rotating
An observer placedat point 'A'in space amplitude. Since the rate of rotation is
varying
Limacon and, therefore, it willsee RF of also 30 Hz. The variation of RF is nothing
observed is
30 rev/sec hence RF variation as
modulation by 30 Hz and demodulation of this RF produces 30Hz variable
but amplitude directions will
The occurance of peak.and trough amplitude of RF indifferent
Signal. Hz phase will be varying.
differ in time, hence the demodulated 30
Reference
phase signal
Reterrc
signal Aircraft Rx. sees
Variable
signal in phase phase signal
Variabl phasa
'signal i
Aircraft Ax sees variable
phase signal lagging
Aircraft Ax. sees Ret. phase signal by 90°
var. phase signal
lagging/ref. phase
signal by 270°

Aeierence
phase signal

Aircrat Rx. see8 Variable

Var. phase signal phase signal
lagging rf. phase[
signal by 180°
variable phase
phase relationship of reference and
Fig.3.11, Audio at different
dírections.
signal
 In modern C-VOR, rotating arrivals are
used. The physical orientation of
arrivals are
arrivals are shown in Fig.
3.10.
Hzat
30Hz
NEERING
not used but stationary two pairssofof slotted

phase relationship of reference 30 Hz and variable 30 different

Audio
is shown in Fig. 3.11. direcion
 Hyperbolic Electronic
Navigationai Systems
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Hyperbolic systems are based on the measurement of the difference in the time of
reaching of EM waves from the two or more transmitters tothe receiver in the craft.
Before we proceed to the hyperbolic navigation systems, let us first understand the
principle of hyperbolic systems. In this chapter you will be learning about the variOU5
hyperbolic electronic navigational systems such as LORAN, DECCA and Omega.

4.2. PRINCIPLE OF HYPERBOLIC ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

When you know the difference in your distance from two objects, you know voul'
on acurved line defined by that difference. By definition, ahyperboliccurve is formed
by joining all points that are the same difference in distance between two noints
hyperbolic navigation systems,your receiver measures the difference intime of receipt
of radio waves,and you or the set translate the time difference into adistance difference
using the known speed of the waves.
It's easy to grasp the concept naturally by placing yourself on an imaginary hockey
field. If the sound of bells rung simultaneously under each goalpost reached you ai the
same time,you'd know that you were equidistant from each goalpost, or somewhere on
the 50-yard line. If the sound from the bell at the north goalpost reached you sooner
than the other one, you'd know that you were closer to that bell. The amount of time
difference would determine how much closer you were. Just as the receipt of the sounus
at the same time places you on a line, the straight 50-yard line, so, too, the receipl a.
specific difference in time places you on the field somewhere on a different ie
hyperboliccurve.
If we observe the pattern shown in the Fig. 4.1 below, In it, a pair of transmitters
takes the which
place of the goalposts, and the line between them is called the baseline.
is bisected by aline perpendicular to it (centerline) -the 50-yard line in our analogy.
the other lines are hyperbolic curves.
Unless you received the signals from each transmitter simultaneously. you'dbeon
one of these curves. If you received the signal from transmitter X, say, 50 miicroseconds
before the one from M, then you'd be on thenon
line EF. line CD; if 150 Seconds before.
Note that the distance increasing
between
distance from the baseline. Because it the lines in this
pattern Increases with System is
greater when you're nearer the baseline - does,
wherethe the
potential
the lines
accuracy of when
converge. In fact, you're
wherethe
located in the vicinity of the
divergence of the lines is most baseline extension (shown as dashed lines)unacceptably
low levels. pronounced, accuracy may be reduced to
HYPERBOLICELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEMS 325
The reading you get from one pair of
curve you're on.
To get a tix, you nced to transmitters gives you a single LOP - the
measure the time difference from a
that places you on another curve. Your fix is at the
pair, second
shown in Figs. 4.land
4.2 intersection of the two curveS, as
Hyperbolic basics and a sample hyperbolic
fix. (See Fig 4.I and Fig.4. 2.)
Centerline

Baseline
Extension

M X

Baseline
Extension
-350 Baseline

350
-300

30
Fig. 4.1. Hyperbolicbasics.

-350
350
30

250
2 0-150
0

hyperbolic fix.
Fig. 4.2. A sample
 AND NAVIGATION
RADAR, SONAR
326
4.3. There
ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL
SYSTEMS ENGINE RING
are some hyperbolic navigational systems, which are being devcloped in he
HYPERBOLIC
is discussed in
Abrief description of these
systems this chapter.
span oftime.
long 1. Decca
2. Consol
3. Omega D and F)
Decca was the
LORAN (LORAN-A, B,C,hyperbolic
first of several electronic navigation systems develope
4.
during and after World War II. Decca was first employed in the 1944 Normandy innvasion
extended beyond the English Channel to the waters
Newfoundland, the North
later Sea, and the Sea of Japan. It will be discussedin brief in thisoff
Its coverage was
chapter in the later sections.
system, based on an approach developed in Germany during the war,
The Consolin the eastern North Atlantic. Because of the short baseline distance
was established
serves m.
system, the close grouping of towers
between transmitting towers in this
single radio beacon - but one having a very long range.
likea hyperhel:
Omega system was devised to overcome the major drawback of other
The
geographic coverage. With eight transmitters located some S00
systems - their limited
worldwide - a spread made possible by the
to 6,000 miles apart, Omega's coverage isthe very low-frequency, long-range signals
use of atomic time standards to regulate
section in this chapter.
Thissystem will be discussed further difference
measuring the
HyperbolicLORAN lines of position(LOP) are formed by
of LORAN stations are used to form
in reception times of synchronized signals. Groups chain, requires a maste
intersecting LOP to provide cross fixing. A LORAN net, or
very simplified terms, the
station, initiating the pulse, and a series of slave stations. In
for technical purposes.
master transmits and the slave responds. Variousdelays are built in
base line connecting
In principle the signals of a pair arrive at the same time along the
the pair. It is at the base line where the apex of each hyperbolic LOP lies. Beyond the
the
stations they flare so that no useful hyperbolic rate information is provided. This is
unusable area of the base line extension. At any point other than the base line and base
line extension the difference in arrival time of the master and slave pulses form the Lor
in the form of hyperbolic curves.
It isthe calculated difference in arrival times of master-slave pairs that form charcu
rates and the observed arivals that form the navigational information. If the observat
value.
is exactly that of the charted value one is somewhere along the hyperbola of that
That information is of little value without a second pair's hyperbola intersecting lo
provide a definitive fix along the first hyperbola. The station configurations thus
provide a geomelry that allows such intersection. Where LORAN chains overlap
may obtain cross fixes from two different master/slave pairs.
LORAN suffers from electronic effects of weather and in particular atmospheric that
effects related to sunrise and sunset. The most accurate signal is the ground wave
following the Earth's surface, preferably along a seawater path. At nighttheindirects
problemas
wave, taking paths bent back to the surface by the ionosphere, is a particular and
sunrise
multiple signals may arrive via different paths. The ionosphere's reaction to storms
sunset accounts for the particular disturbance during those periods. Magnetic
have serious effects as with any
radio-based system.
 HYPERBOLICELECTRONIC NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEMS 327
44.LORAN-A
LORAN-Awas a less accurate system operating in the 1,750-1,950 KHz frequency
t o deployment of the more accurate LORAN-C
prior system.
hand

4.4.1.
Principles of Operation
Loranprovidedfacilities whereby ships and aircraft derived their position at long
distances.Thesystem required at least three transmitting stations for each 'chain'. and
observerUsed a special
Ihe.
Loran receiver. Achain consisted of one master and two
stations. Differences in the arrival time of pulses from a pair of stations was
slave
measuredand displayed on the face of a cathode ray tube. Each fix required two
ohservations and the operation normally took about five minutes. The readings were
transposedto a Loran lattice chart and position could be plotted. In some cases
then referenced to special Loran tables. Because Loran-A signals were pulsed
ead1ngs were
inootcontinuousstransmissions, arelatively small transmitter could achieve tremendous
and
powerlevels. The maximum reliable range for Loran-A was 700 miles by day and
peak night.
1.400 miles at
4.4.2. SignalCharacteristics
regular.
transmission pulse lasted about 40microseconds and reoccurred at (P.R.I.)
Each
called the Pulse Repetition Interval
aurately controlled intervals. This interval, 40,000 us. These pulses provided
and lasted between 29,000 and
varied for each station measurements. The transmissions of
corresponding
time
nrecise index marks for use in fixed time interval, which consisted
of the
separated by a
master and slave pulses were master to the slave, plus one-half the P.R.I..
plus an
from the the observer is
time for a signal to travel delay'. It should be noted that two pulses,
called the 'coding
additional small time, arrival of the
difference between the time of There was no need.
interested only in measuring the
the receiver.
actual time taken for each pulse toreach with the transmitter.
and not the synchronization of the receiver time base
therefore, for an absolute

Master
Pulse

Slave
Pulse

Measured time-difference

-A
difference in LORAN
Displayoftime and the
Fig,4.3. interval beetween a master pulse
time next master
area, the between aslavepulse and the
At all points in the coverage interval identifyingthe signals arriving
next slave pulse was greater than thea positive methodof
pulse. That provided
methodology
 R
328
process, the time even though
difference wastheir actual appearance was similar. In
always the
measured trom the master pulse to theE RING
Irom cach station,

onc half of thc pulse

recurrence interval
was measuring
pulse, and thetime
Computed. The
removed. lines
taking
delay of
constant time difference for each pair of
autornaticaly
stations
intoof consideration the curvature and eccentricity of the Farh.
the,
time for the master pulse to reach the slave station, and the coding delay. Thee
"hyperboic" lines were made available in the form of overprinted charts and tables.

Station Pairs
4.4.3. Arrangement of two slaves, the master was called a
master controlled
When a common
'double
pulsed' station because it transmittedtwo entirely separate sets of pulses, one sel paired
with the pulses from cach adjacent station. Pairs of Loran stations were situated up to

600miles andmore apart.

Loran transmitters emitted 40 microsecond pulses. For H-rate pairs, the basic
recurrence interval was every 30,000 microseconds; for L-rate pairs, 40,000
microseconds; and for S-rate pairs, 50,000 microseconds Each pulse had a peak power
in excess of 200.000 watts, but since the duty cycle (the ratio of time the transmitter is
on duty) for an L-rate pair, for example, is only 40/40,000, or 0.001, of the time, the
(200,000 x 0.00
transmitter has an average power output of only 200 watts or so.
If any trouble occurred at either the master or the slave station that might impair the
accuracy of the pulse timing, the transmitters operated on a 2 sec ON then 2 second OEE
mode. This appeared to the operator as a blinking signal. Blinking signals were not used
for navigation.
4.4.4. Reception of Signals
In order to properly display the pulses to be measured as shown in Fig. 4.3, the
receiver's time base had to synchronize so the length of the trace on the C.R.T. matched
the P.R.I. of the station.Failing to doso wouldcause the pulsesto appear as if they were
drifting to the left or to the right depending if the time base was too short or too long
respectively. The face of the C.R.T. in the receiver displayed two time base lines because
a pair of stations was always being compared. For convenience, the upper trace was
called the "A" race and the lower one the "B" trace. By convention, the master station
was displayed on the upper trace and the slave on the lower one. The time difference
measurement was the horizontal distance from the master pulse to the slave pulse.
In an attempt to gain longer-range navigation, avariant of Loran-A was developei.
It was known as SS (sky-wave-synchronized) Loran In the SS Loran system, the stax
station of a pair was synchronized by a sky-wave pulse reflected from the E layh
rather than by the ground wave as in standard Loran. This allowed the master and si
stations to be separated by as much as 1000 to 1200 mileg The Loran charts we
calibrated in terms of sky waves, instead of ground waves, so that correction factors
were unnecessary when sky waves were used. A disadvantage of the system was
encountered when the indicator was located close to either or both stations, Sinceeratic
reception resulted when the angle of reflection of the sky wave from the Elayer
approached the critical angle. As the critical angle was aPproached, the radio waves
exhibited increasing penetrating power and would go entirely or part way throughthe
'E layer.
HYPERB0LIC ELECTRONIC NA
NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEMS 329

420 Master

Latitude 3900 X

2H4-3600

Base line extnsio

2H4-3300

Fig. 4.4. À sample Loran chart showing the location of a master and two slave stations.
Alsoshown are station identifiers and time differences on the curves.
4.4.5. ldentification of LORAN-A Pairs
Loran-A stations did not transmit call signs. Instead, identification was made entirely
by two distinguishingcharacteristics: (a) radio frequency channel; (b) pulse repetition
rate.

(A) By Channels. Different groups of Loran stations operated on different

frequencies Four fixed frequencies were available between 1,750 and 1,950 kc/s. The
receiver was fitted with a channel selector switch for tuning to the desired frequency.
They were assigned the following designations:
Channel 1 -1,950 kc/s
Channel 2 - 1,850 kc/s
Channel3- 1,900 kc/s
Channel 4 - 1,750 kc/s
(B) By Pulse Repetition Rate. In order to economize on frequency channels, a
pair
number of pairs of Loran stations were operated on the same frequency, but each
from all stations on
Operated at a different pulse repetition rate. That meant that signals
they drifted across the
he same frequency within range appeared on the indicator, but
pair of stations by means of
sCan at varying speeds. The operator selected a particular
of the indicator the same
Swtches onthe receiver which make the sweep repetitionrate
signals would now be stationary,
ds the pulse repetition rate of the desired pair. The desired
and could be ignored.
we theremainder stil| drifted across the scan
pulse repetition
T'wo switches were provided. The first one adjusted for the basicSlow.
LoW and The second
Tale, of which there were three in advanced Loran sets: High,
the basic by a small
awitch adjusted for a specific pulse repetition rate differing from
cach basic pulse
aitount. There were eight of these specificrates, numbered Oto 7, for four
Tepetition rate. This system thus provided 96 separate station pairs using the
Irequency channels available.
 330 RADAR, SONAR ANDNAVIGATION ENGINEERIN
4.4.6. Station ldentification Symbols
Each pair of Loran-A stations was given a three character identification symbol, of
which the first character was the channel; the second was the basic pulse repetition rate.
and the third for the specific pulse repetition rate. These symbols were given in the
Loran Tables, on printed on the charts. All stations were listed in the Admiralty List of
Radio Signals - Vol5.
In addition, each station was allocated an arbitrary station letter. For example, the
N.E. Atlantic. chain consisted of:
Master station : U, at Skuvanaes
Slave station : K, at Vik
Slave station : A, at Mangersta.
These letters were not transmitted. The frequency of this chain was 1,950 kc/s
(Channel 1) and the basic pulse repetition rate was LOW. The specific pulse repetition
rate of pairU-K is 5, and that of U-A is 6. Thus,the U-K pair was designated IL5, and
the U-A pair was 1 L6.
In order to receive the first pair of stations, the operator had to set the receiver as
follows:
1. Set the Channel switch to 1.
2. Set the basic P.R.R. switch to L.
3. Set the specific pulse repetition rate (5)
4.4.7. Pulse Repetition Rates
The following base pulse repetition rates were used:
H= 33 1/3pps
L= 25 Pps
S= 20 pps (for later equipment)
The eight variants of PRR and three ranges (H, L, S) produce the following PRR
variants:

HÌ = 33 3/9 pps LO = 25 pps SO = 20 pps

H] = 33 4/9 pps LI = 25 1/16 pps SI = 20 1/25 pps
H2 = 335/9 pps L2 = 25 2/16 pps S2 = 20 2/25 pps
H3 = 33 6/9 pps L3 = 25 3/16 pps S3 = 203/25 pps
H4 = 33 7/9 ppS L4 = 25 4/16 pps S4 = 20 4/25 pps
H5 = 33 8/9 pps L5 = 25 5/16 pps S5 = 20 5/25 pps
H6 = 34 pps L6 = 25 6/16 pps S6 = 20 6/25 pps
H7 = 34 1/9 pps L7 = 25 7/16 pps S7 = 20 7/25 pps
Therefore 4 basic frequencies x 3 PRR rates x 8 PRR variations = Maximum of 96
pairs of stations. On an ordinary radio receiver, a Loran station sounded like a
continuously firing machine gun that changed tone slowly.
HYPERBOLICELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL
Equipment Types
SYSTEMS 331
4.4.8.

For Antenna
LOH
Out IN 2 3

Filter Channel

ON CAL1
Of

Receiver
Course Fine
Station Delay Delay
Model
Left Right Das-2
ON
Gain

Balance Frequency OFF

Main switch Indicator lamp

Fig. 4.5. The model DAS-2 was a popular Loran-A receiver.

(Graphic courtesy ofAdmiralty Manual of Navigation).

receiver.
Fig. 4.6. DAS-3

4.4.9, The End of LORAN-A time of day, weather and

varied according to location,
The accuracy of Loran-A some lesting by the USCG, the
stations. Aside from
of transmitting made it as a commercial system of navigation due to
relative geometry Loran-B, never Loran-Cwhich provided longer range.
foltechnical
low-on problems.
System
It was
eventually surpassed by
operation in 1957. Loran-A
was phased out in
cane into
first
greater accuracy when it America by 1985.The last holdout was Japan
and world-wide
December 1980 inwas North
where the plug pulled on May 9,
1997.
 332 RADAR,SONAR AND NAVIGATION ENGINEERING
Loran-Aclosures came much to the delight of amateur radio operators who had to
share their 160 meter band with Loran on a secondary basis for so many years.
Duringto
that era, amateurs were required to reduce power substantially in the bands I,800
2.000kHz. InCanada, power levelsof 375 watts were permissible during daylight hours
and 150 watts at night. Depending on the region, daytime power was 500/200 watts in
the United States and 200/50 watts by night.
At the end of the system's life cycle, the development of receivers has spanned
right up to the APN-35. The set had been reduced to the size of a shoebox and had
automated the process of performing the fix while including ground speed, distance
traveled, distance remaining, and ETA.
dei
6.6. INSTRUMENT L radar in this book. possible For more
6.6.1. General Description
LANDING SYSTEM(ILS)
Instrument Landing System, ILSis an air
landing system (ILS)
facilities are a highly navigation system for landing.
the runway in
IFR
conditions. When accurate
using
and dependable means of Instrument
aircraftnavigating
the ILS, the pilot
primarily by reference to instruments.
nsis
determines position
classifiedby category in
accordance with the capabilities of the ground
inment. Category IILS provides guidance
MH) of not less than 200 ft. information down to a decision height
ImprOved equipment (airborne and ground) provide for
Categ orv II ILS approaches. A DH of not less than 100 ft. on the radar
authorized Category 1l ILS approaches. The ILS consists of
for altimeter is
1, Localiser. Informs the pilot with following components :
the airplane's horizontal position relative to
runway centreline. Localiser broadcasts from beyond the far
end of the
horizontal array of antenna. It operates on frequences 108.0 to 111.95 runway with a
MHz with the
channel width of 50kHz..
2. Glideslope. Informs the pilot with the airplane's vertical positition
ne ideal approach. Glideslobe is broadcasted from the side of the runway. The
relative to
operating
ITequences reach from 329.15 to 335.0 MHz with the channel width being 150 kHz.
 RADAR, SONAR AND
Course NAVIGATION
ENGIME HN
384

Yelllow Blue

Blue

Yetlow
150-cycle
modulation
90 cycle
modulation

(Runway)

Course

Fig. 6.5. Localizer Field Pattern and Indications.

ELECTRONICS AIDS TO APPROACH AND LANDING SYSTEM 385
3. Outer Marker. Situatecd on the same line with the
centerline, four to seven miles before the
localiser and the runway
runway. Transmit low powered 400 Hz
tone signal
onthe 75 MHz. frequency. When the
airplane
lowenough from the right direction, marker beacon receiverapproaches
hears the the runway
signal. This
isshown for the pilot by blinking the outer marker light of the receiver.
.Middle Marker. Functions as the outer marker, positioned 0.5 to 0.8 miles
before the runway. When the airplane is above the middle marker, the receiver's
middle marker light starts blinking. ln this situation the pilot has the last chance to
decide if the landing will be made or not.
5. Inner marker
6. Approach lights. Most installations include medium- or high intensity
approach light systems.
The ILS provides the lateral and vertical guidance necessary to fly a precision
annroach, where glide slope information is provided. Aprecision approach is an
approved descent procedure using a navigationfacility aligned with a runway where
clide slope information is given. When all components of the ILS system are
available, including the approved approach procedure, the pilot may execute a
precision approach.
Localizer
component of the ILS is the localizer,
1. Ground Equipment. The primary transmitter and antenna
lateral guidance. The localizer is a VHF radio
which provides MHz
the same general range as VOR transmitters (between 108.10
system using onlyon odd-tenths, with 50
Localizer frequencies, however, are
and 111.95 MHz). transmitier and antenna are on the
each frequency. The
KHz spacing between horizontal
opposite end of the runway from the approach threshold.A
centerline at the field pattern is shown in Fig. 6.5.
three dimensional localizer
section of the all ILSsystems. Where the
is used on some, but not
The localizer back course is generally provided with a 75
for landing purposes, it
back course is approved located 3 to 5 NM from touchdown. The
course
or NDB
MHz back marker facility positioned within specified
tolerances.
ensure that it is
1s checked periodically to signal transmitted by the localizer
consists of
Transmission. The
2. Signal overlap, at the center (see ILS Localizer Signal
patterns that extendedcentreline of the
TO Verticalfan-shaped They are aligned with the
rattern below in Fig, 6.6). an approaching aircraft, is modulated
pattern, as seen by at
Tunway.The right side of this arca, The left side of thepatlern is modulated
the *blue" provides
al 1s0Hz and is called The overlap betwoen the two areas
90 Hz and is called the "yellow" area.
the on-track signal. varied fron approximately 3° to 6°,
navigational beam may be ft
Ihe width of the provide a track signal approximately 700NM
It isadjusted to beam increases so that
at 10
witn5° being normal, The width of the
wide at the runway threshold. approximately one mile wide.
from the transmitter, the beam is
 NAVIGATION
RADAR, SONAR AND
386

ENGINE R ING
VHE
Runway
Localizer

UHF
Glide Path
F r o ncOurse
t
Transmitter

Fig.6.6. ILS Localizer signal pattern.

The localizer is identified by an audio signal superimposed on the navigational
signal. The audio signal is atwo-letter identificationpreceded by the letter "T,e.s
"I-OW",
The reception range of the localizer is at least 18 NM within 10° degrees of the on.
track signal. In the area from 10° to 35° of the on-track signal, the reception range is a
least 10 NM. This is because the primary strength of the signal is aligned with the
runway centerline.

Course
Equisignal

Fig. 6.7. Directional pattern used in runway

localizer of ILS.
3. Localizer Receiver. The localizer signal is received in the
aircraft by a localiZer
receiver. The localizer receiver is combined with the VOR receiver in a single unit. Ine
two receivers share some electroniccircuits and also the same
control, and ON-OFF control. frequency selector,volune
The localizer signal activates the vertical needlecalled the track bar
a final approach track aligned north and south (see (TB). Assumlng
ILS Localizer Signal Pattern ri
6,6 above), an aircraft east of theextended
area modulated at I50 Hz. The TB is deflected centerline of the runway (position )s
to the left. Conversely, if the
aircrattS
the area west of the runway centerline, the 90 Hz Signal causes the TB to deflecttothe
right (position 2). In the overlap area, both signals apply aforce to the needle,causing
a partial deflection in the direction of the strongest signal. Thus, if an aircraft is
approximately on the approach track but slightly to the right, the TB is deflected slig
tothe left. This indicates that a correction to the left is necessary to place the aircraft in
precise alignment.
At the point where the 90 Hz. and 150Hz signals are of cqual intensity, the TB is
centered, indicating that the aircraft is located precisely on the approach track
(position 3).
When the TB is used in conjunction with the VOR, full-scale needle deflection
Occurs 10° either side of the track shown on the track selector. When this same needle is
1Sed as an ILS localizer indicator, full-scale needle deflection occurs at approximately
2.5° from the center of the localizer beam.
Thus the sensitivity of the TB is approximately four times greater when used as a
Jocalizer indicator as opposed to VOR navigation.
In the localizer function, the TB does not depend on acorrect track selector setting
in most cases;however, the pilot should set the track.selector for the approach track as
a reminder of the final approach.
When an OFF flag appears in front of the vertical needle, it indicates that the signal
is too weak, and, therefore, the needle indications arc unreliable. A momentary OFF
flag, or brief TB needle deflections, or both, may occur when obstructions or other
aircraft pass between the transmitting antenna and the receiving aircraft.