2022-02 Sensors Engineering - Chapter 1 강의용 - Aerospace Sensor P1장 - 학생용

Aerospace Sensors and Application
Chapter 1: Principle and Elements of Measurement Systems
Fall, 2022
Prof. Sangkyung Sung

Outline
 Principles and Elements of Measurement Systems
– 1.1 Elements in open-loop instrument + General concept
– 1.2 Measure and units
– 1.3 Passive and active instruments
– 1.4 Characteristics, resolution, and dynamic range (static
characteristics)
– 1.5 Errors due to dynamics, nonlinearity, and noise
– 1.6 Environmental interference
– 1.7 Error compensation
– 1.8 Estimation by regression
– 1.9/1.10 Deflection and Balancing instruments
– 1.11 Imperfection and limitations
2
Outline
 Principles and Elements of Measurement Systems
– [Textbook-2] Dynamic characteristics of measurement system
– [Textbook-2] Reliability
– [Textbook-2] Examples of resistive sensor
3
1.1 Elements in open-loop instruments
 Instruments, sensors, and systems
– A number of elements and components purposefully interconnected to constitute
a measurement device or instrument, is often referred to as a sensor
– Any measurement device commonly intended for manipulation by a human
operator, however simple or complex, will be referred to as an instrument
 Measurement system
– Set of elements needed to measure the measurand
– Function of measurement system is the objective and empirical
assignment of a quantitative value to a property or quality of an object or
event in order to describe it.
– Result of measurement must be independent of the observer (objective)
and experimentally based (empirical).
 Objectives of measurements; examples

– Physical process monitoring & information transferring
• ambient temperature measurement, gas and water volume measurement
– Process control (temperature/level control in tank)
– Experimental engineering assistance
• Force distribution on a dummy driver in car crash test
4
 Basic sensor elements

– Sensitive elements
• responds to the physical medium to be measured (measurand) and
translates the response into a measurable or displayable quantity; it
generally manifests itself as a force, torque, length, or
current/voltage
– Source of the balancing force
– Output device
– Example @ thermometer
• Sensitive element: mercury
• Source of balancing force: capillary tube
• Output device: temp. scale on tube
5
 Auxiliary functions and elements for sensor

– Detector
• to convert the small response of the sensitive element into an
electrically amplifiable signal
– Amplifier
• to amplify signal for further process of transmission/
conversion or for display to human operator
– cf.) Pickoff
• A kind of detector mostly translating substantially large
mechanical linear or rotational displacements into electrical
signals or code
• E.g., potentiometer
– Display
• output device required in conjunction with the tasks of a
human operator in monitoring and control
6
– Output compensation
• eliminating the null-point offset from sensor
– Calibration
• establishment of, or correction to, a desirable constant of
proportionality between input and output to achieve regularity
7
– Equilibrium
• Underlying principle of all measurement system
• Every measurement should be performed only after
equilibrium is reached
8
 Define sensor functions
9
1.1 Additional concept in measurement system
 Transducers
– A device converting a signal from one physical form to a corresponding
signal having a different physical form; energy converter
ex) bimetal, speaker, microphone, motor, magnetic compass,…
– Ideally, we assume no ‘loading effect’ in transducer, yet in practice
measured system is perturbed by the measuring action
– 6 signal types
• Mechanical, thermal, magnetic, electric, chemical, and radiation
(including light)
 Sensors
– transducer converting a certain physical signal into an electrical signal
– input transducer (other physical signal  electrical signal)
• ex) 온도 센서, 유압센서, 가속도 센서….
 Actuators
– Output transducer
– ex)motor, robot arm, heater, magnetic coil, etc…
10
Transducers, Sensors, and Actuators
 Transducer generally implies

– Input-output quantities are not generally the same
 Input vs. output transducer

– Physical signal to electric signal; sensor
– Electric signal to display or actuation; actuator(effector)
 (concept of) Primary sensor

– Usually, in case of mechanical sensors
– It converts measurand into a measuring signal
– ex. Pressure sensor with diaphragm
• Pressure difference  mechanical stress  electrical signal
 Examples of pressure sensor

– Concept of primary sensor
Pressure sensor
Amplified pressure sensor
Barometric sensor
Customized pressure sensor

– Pressure sensor with diaphragm
• Pressure difference  mechanical stress  electrical signal
13
 Pressure sensor with W/B circuit

– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zXIeqeT_FC8
14
 Wheatstone bridge circuit
15
Signal Conditioning and Display
 Signal conditioner
– Elements that improve electric sensor output signal
so that it gets more suitable for signal transmission,
display, or recording
– Fundamental functions of signal conditioning
• Amplify, level shift, filtering, impedance
matching, modulation, demodulation
– Example
• Signal conditioner for AD converter
– Sensor output: millivolt range with high
frequency noise
– AD converter: input range is about 10 Volt,
and the input voltage should be DC or slowly pressure sensor
time varying, low input impedance with
– What is needed? signal conditioning
16
Advantages of Electronic Measurement Systems
 적당한 재료를 택하면 전기적 신호가 아닌 신호 (non-

electric quantity)도 모두 측정 가능
– e.g., thermistor, hall device
 피 측정체로부터 에너지를 거의 뺏지 않음
– Negligible energy drained from process being measured
 Easy and efficient integrated circuits exists for electric
signal
 Easy information display or recording
 Signal transmission is more versatile
17
Measurement System Application
 Sensor and actuator in control system implementation
input output
System model
(causal, linear,
time invariant,..)
Sensor Filter Controller Actuator
제어 신호로부터 system을 구동하기 위한 환원
System의 내부 상태 혹은 출력을 desired value로 유도
Acquired signal을 유효한 목적을 위해 변환, 추출, 혹은 추정
Physical phenomena를 다른 물리적 신호(전기적신호)로 검출, 변환

Sensor Case Study-1
• Flying Disk
• 비행특성 예측을 위해 비행 계수
추정 및 동역학 해석이 필요
• How to measure inertial
measurand?
계측 Module
Evolution
19
Sensor Case Study-1
: 정적 계수(해석 or 계산)
 Flying Disk Aerodynamics
@Frisbee Flight Simulation and Throw Biomechanics/SARAH ANN HUMMEL B.S./1997
20
Experimental engineering & Analysis
Flight period
220
200
180
160
140
[m/s ]
2
120
6.02s
100
80 13deg
60
비행시간
40
20
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 초기 Roll
[Sec]
Flying disc trajectory(Horizontal) Absolute Velocity Angular velocity of Drivers
18
Simulation 6200
GPS position
20 16
6000
14 5800
10
시뮬레이션 수평비행 궤적 5600
초기 속도
12
0
North[m]
5400
10
[m/s]
deg/s
-10 5200
8
5000
-20 6
4800
-30 4 4600
2
초기 회전속도 4400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
4200
East[m] 0
시뮬레이션 회전속도 검증
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6
[Sec] Sec
Sensor Case Study-1
 Sensor data
고속회전 비행(2000deg/s 이상) 저속회전 비행(1738deg/s)
East-North postion,velocity East-North postion,velocity

30 20
25 15
20 10
15 5
N orth[m]
N o rth [m ]
10 0
5 -5
0 -10
-5 -15
-5 0 5 -5 0 5 10
East[m] East[m]
22
Sensor Case Study-1
 센서 data
– Gyroscope
– Accelerometer
– Magnetometer
3-Axis Angular velocity
2000
p 3-Axis Acceleration
q 6
1500 r Accx
4 Accy
원반 비행구 Accz
1000
간 2
0
500
[deg/s]
[m /s 2 ]
-2
0
-4
-500 -6
-8
-1000
3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5
-1500 Time[sec]
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
Time[sec]
플라잉 디스크에 플라잉 디스크
힘을 주는 시점 의 지면 충돌시
점
23
1.3 Passive and active instruments
: Sensor classification
 Power supply criterion
– Modulating (active) sensors
• Power comes from an auxiliary power source
• The input only controls the output
• Needs power source, more wires, and handling with
care
• Sensitivity adjustable using signal conditioner
• For instance, resonant gyroscope
– Self-generating (passive) sensors

• Output power mainly comes from the input
• Ex) Thermistor, RTD, thermocouple:
Vemf  (T  Tref ) C1  C2 (T  Tref ) 
RT  R0eB(1/T 1/T0 )
24
Example: self generating sensor
 온도센서 type
– 열전대는 일반적으로 가장 넓은 온
도 범위에서 저비용으로 온도를 측
정할 수 있으며 견고하지만, RTD와
서미스터만큼 정확하거나 안정적이
지 않음
– RTD는 안정적이고 상당히 넓은 온도 범위를 가지지만 열전대에 비해

서 온도 범위가 제한적이고 비용도 저렴하지 않다. 측정을 위하여 전류
를 사용하여야 하기 때문에 RTD는 자기가열로 인한 부정확성의 가능
성 존재. 컨덕터 타입
– 서미스터는 RTD나 열전대보다 더 정확하지만 훨씬 더 제한된 온도 범
위를 가집니다. 또한 자기가열의 문제가 있음. 세미콘 타입.
– 적외선 온도센서는 나머지 세 제품보다 더 높은 온도를 측정할 수 있으
며 측정 대상의 표면에 접촉하지 않아도 온도를 측정할 수 있지만 일반
적으로 그렇게 정확하지 않으며 표면의 방사(좀 더 정확히 하자면 표면
방사율)에 민감
25
Example: self generating sensor
 Thermistor  RTD(resistive temp. detector)

– Thermistor라는 명칭의 어원은 열에 민감한 소자라 – 백금 측온저항체(Pt 100Ω, 50Ω, 25Ω)는 일반적으로
는 thermally sensitive resistor의 줄임말로써 코발 금속의 전기저항은 온도의 변화에 따라서 증감하고 그
트, 구리, 망간, 철, 니켈, 티탄 등의 산화물을 적당 사이에 일정한 관계가 있다는 원리를 이용
한 저항률과 온도계수를 가지도록 2~3종류 혼합하 • 저항으로 온도를 측정하는 계기가 저항온도계
여 소결한 반도체의 일종. • 백금선의 저항변화를 이용한 것이 백금저항 온
– 서미스트라는 용어는 미국 웨스턴사의 상품명이었 도계
지만 전자응용기기의 온도특성을 보정하는 목적으 – 측정저항계는 백금, 동 , Nickel 등이 있으며, 그 중 백
로 많이 이용되어 근래에 와서 온도검출용 반도체 금선이 온도변화에 예민하게, 전기저항이 증감하므로
소자를 대표하는 용어로 널리 사용 현재 널리 이용
– NTC vs. PTC
26
RTD: Resistive Temperature Detector
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
– Usual material: (대표적 온도센서)
• PRTs: Platinum Resistance Thermometers
R  R 0 [1   1 ( T  T0 )   2 ( T  T0 ) 2  ...   n ( T  T0 ) n ]
For platinum,
  3 . 95 
– Eq. 2.19 사용시,
1 10 3
/ K ,  2   5 . 83  10 7
/ K 2
• self heating은 없도록 해야함(Heat dissipation 은 HD constant 혹은

factor로 표시됨)
• Conductor의 melting point 근처에서는 측정 불가함
27
Thermistors
 Thermistor: Thermally sensitive

resistor based on semiconductors
(NTC,PTC)
 참고: RTD is based on conductors
For NTC thermistor, RT  R o e B (1/ T 1/ To )

T in Kelvins
B( ): characteristic temperature of the material
Relative Sensitivity:
dR / dT
 T ?
RT
B=?
RTD(PT100)보다 10배 이상 Sensitive!!
28
Thermistors
 Thermistor:
– Termistor examples
# Video clip
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9opuvLXAetI
29
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqZg
xR6eRjo
Example: modulating sensor • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xsjva
YAFN1M
 Resonant gyroscope
– Vibration via electrostatic force
– Use the Coriolis effect
rate axis
sensing axis
driving axis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A6DBnLO7hmw
: Input impedance
 Tapping of energy source
– tapping of the measurand in passive instruments  may
decrease its value
– Causes loading effect
 Input characteristics: impedance

– (Sensor에 의한 loading effect를 최소화하기 위하여) 측정변수의
종류에 따라 센서 input impedance 특성을 다르게 설계함
– Measurement variable types
• Effort variables : measured between points or region
– ex) voltage, pressure, temperature
• Flow variables : measured at a point or region
– ex) electric current, heat flow, fluid flow
31
: Input impedance
 Input characteristics: impedance
V (s)
– Effort variables vs. flow variables Z(s) 
– input impedance (seen from sensor) vs. I (s)
output impedance (seen from load)
– Relates to loading error effect
Input impedance
Zi
Vi  Vo
Zi  Zo
Zo
Ii  Io
Zi  Zo
32
1.4 Characteristics, resolution, and dynamic range
- Static Characteristics of Measurement Systems
 Domain
– minimum and maximum admissible values of the input X
 Range or Span (전체 측정 범위)

– the minimum and maximum reachable values of the output Y
– Relates to abs. difference between the max. and the min. measurable values
 Accuracy
– The capacity of measuring instrument for giving results close to the true value of
the measured quantity
 Error
– The discrepancy between true value for the measured quantity and the
instrument reading value
– Absolute error = Measurement result - True value
– Relative error = Absolute error / True value
– Sometimes can be given as a percentage of FSO
 FSO (최대 측정값)

– Full Scale Output: maximal value that can be measured with the instrument
– vs. range
33
 Dynamic Range
– Ratio between minimum and maximum values of range
34
 Accuracy class
– Concept that gives the comparison criterion of several sensors with respect
to their accuracy
– Index of (accuracy) class: percent measurement error
• Ex) 0.2 class means the sensor has error less than 0.2% of
measurement range (FSO)
– Cf. (non-)linearity
 Precision
– 같은 양을 같은 조건에서 계속하여 반복 측정 시 센서가 같은 값을 주는 정
도(참값이나 오차와는 무관)
 Repeatability(반복정밀도)
– 짧은 시간 간격을 두고 같은 환경, 동일 operator가 같은 양을 측정할 때, 같
은 값을 주는 정도
– Quantitatively, the minimum value that exceeds, with a specified probability,
the absolute value of the difference between two successive readings
obtained under the specified conditions
– 보통 95% 신뢰도를 가지고 말함(2 )
35
 Reproducibility(재생정밀도)
– 같은 조건에서 같은 양을 측정하는데, 긴 시간이나, 다른 사람 또는 다른 실험실에
서 다른 계측기를 가지고 측정하였을 때, 서로 같은 값을 나타내는 정도
– Quantitatively, the minimum value that exceeds, with a specified probability, the
absolute value of the difference between two single measurement results
obtained under the specified conditions
– 보통 95% 신뢰도를 가지고 말함 (2 )
Accuracy and Repeatability
 Cf. Accuracy vs. Precision
– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hRAFPdDppzs
37
 Central limit theorem(중심극한정리)
– Sample distribution obtained from repeated
events approaches the Gaussian distribution as
number of measurements increases to infinity
 Sample set으로부터 true value(or 모집단

의 평균) 추정 위한 confidence interval 활
용문제
– Population mean/variance vs. Sample
mean/variance
– ‘N-1 degree of freedom’ property of sample
statistics
Normal distribution
39
 Resolution
– lower limit on an increment x in x that is reflected in a corresponding
increment y in y
– min. detectable input change
– xr is const. for all x, sensor has uniform resolution
 Dynamic range;
– the ratio between xm and xr , defining the precision? of a measurement
– device
𝑥
𝐷 ≜
𝑥
– ex) for aerospace sensors
40
 Linearity
– Closeness between the measured curve
before calibration and a specified straight
line
– Linearity classes
• Independent linearity
– Defined by least square criterion 
best fit line
• Zero-based linearity
– least square criterion + zero passing
• Terminal based linearity
– Terminal output is theoretical output
when highest input is applied
• End-points linearity
– Straight line connecting real output
between min and max input within
span
• Theoretical linearity
– Theoretical line predicted during
designing stage
Static Characteristics of Measurement Systems
 Bias
– the residual output at x = 0 after all possible compensations have been
made, which is normally unknown and randomly distributed
 Drift
– Zero(-point) drift
• 입력이 0 혹은 상수일 때, 출력이 변하는 정도
 Deadzone vs. saturation
– Saturation places upper bounds on the range {R}
– Dead zone places lower abs. bounds on its domain {D}.
 Sensitivity or scale factor (감도 또는 환산 계수)
Δ𝑦
𝑆(𝑥) = lim
→ Δ𝑥
42
Static Characteristics of Measurement Systems
 Hysterisis
– Sensor characteristics that does not have a bi-unique
relationship on Y=f(X)
– 동일 크기의 입력에 대해 측정 방향에 따른 출력 특성
커브 차이가 발생
– Example
• mechanical linkage is accompanied by
friction due to the sliding of surfaces against
each other
• mechanical linkage element with backlash
43
1.5 Errors due to dynamics, nonlinearity, and noise
 System equation Remind the transfer function!

F ( s)  H ( sI  A) 1 B
x  Ax  Bu  Dw
 Measurement equation
z  Hx  Eu  v
 Modeling depending on measurement error type

– Nonlinearity: z  N ( y)
– Dynamics: z  G( s) y (s)
– Additive noise: z  yv
44
 Relative error with respect to true output(measurement)
noise-to-signal ratio
45
 Example 1.5.1
46
 Example 1.5.3
– Hot wire gauge from Temp. to
resistance
47
Error Sources: systematic vs random
 Systematic error
– 주어진 양을 같은 조건에서 측정할 때, 크기와 부호가 일정하게 유지되는
오차, 또는 측정 조건이 변함에 따라 분명한 규칙을 가지고 변하는 오차
를 말함.
• 전기/기계적 요소부품 오차, 장착오차, 온도차이 등 Deterministic
error source에 의하여 발생
 Random errors
– errors remaining after eliminating systematic error sources
• deterministic source에 모델링 되지 않는 기타 오차요소에 의해 발생
– Properties
• 양이거나 음의 random error는 발생할 확률이 동일하다
• Absolute value가 지속적으로 증가/감소할 확률은 낮다
• 측정 샘플수가 많을수록 평균값은 이론적 평균(정규화할때 = 0)에 가까워 진
다
• 일반적으로 한정된 측정방법상에서 random value는 fixed value를 넘지 않는
다
48
1.6 Environmental interference
 Sensor error model formulation

– considering environmental interferences
Y  G ( X , I1 ,...I n )
Y  GX x   GI k ik    Ik ik x
 [GX    I k ik ]x   GIk ik
Model REDUCTION
 GX' x  b
where
Y Y GI k
GX  ; GI k  ; Ik 
X I k X
49
1.6 Environmental interference
 Sensor error model

– Approximated model with additive and scaling errors
Y  GX' x  b Y  G ( X , I1 ,...I n )
50
1.7 Error Compensation
 Isolation and protection

– 진동, 충격, 전자기적 간섭 등의 외부 영향요소로부터 출력을 보호, 잡음영향은
감쇠하여 고유 입출력 특성을 maintain 하는 역할
 Output compensation
– Effective to remove additive noise
yc  G X' x   GI k ik   Gˆ Ik ikm
 GX' x   r
51
 Input compensation
– Let
Y Y X
GI k    GX  Ik
I k X I k
X
I 
k
I k
yc  GX' x   GI k ik  Gˆ X  ˆI k ikm

 GX x   r
52
 Output compensation vs. Input compensation

– 간섭효과를 센서의 어느 단계에서 보상하는가에 따라 분류됨
– Input compensation
• exerting a force or a torque directly on the sensitive element,
resulting into advantages in sensor characteristics such as linearity,
bandwidth, sensitivity, input range
• for example, force rebalance control  later in ‘closed loop sensor’
– Ex.) pressure sensor
53
Compensation Techniques
 Negative feedback
– 온도 등 외부간섭 효과를 센서 내부 element에 되먹임하여 오차를 보상/
감쇄하는 방식
 Filtering
– Electric signal과 interference가 주파수 분리되어 있을경우, 잡음대역 주
파수를 차단하는 방식
 Use of opposing inputs

– 온도 특성등이 반대인 소자를 이용하여 잡음특성을 상쇄시키는 방법
 Reference table
– 기준 테이블 DB를 구축하여 온도왜곡 등을 실시간 보상하는 방법
54
 Negative Feedback
– Common method to
reduce the effect of
modifying inputs
– Assume negative
feedback part is less
sensitive to modifying
input
55
 Filtering
– Common method to reduce interference
– Effective when frequency spectra of signals and interference do
not overlap
 Use of opposing inputs

– Common method to reduce the effects of interference and
modifying inputs
– For example
• Use of a negative temperature coefficient resistor
 Use of mathematical relationship between the

interference and the sensor output
– eg., compensation table (LUT: look-up table)
56
1.8 Estimation of characteristics by regression
 Linear regression
m̂ for m and bb̂ for b from
– objective is to find the best estimates m
measurements
57
 Linear regression can further yield estimates as
z x x z x
i
2
i i i i
bˆ  i i i i
n  x  [ x ] 2
i i
2
i i
n xi zi   zi  xi
mˆ  i i i
n x  [ xi ]2 2
i
i i
58
 Linear regression via matrix algebra
59
 Linear regression via matrix algebra
60
 More general case of polynomial regression
𝑦= 𝑎𝑥
,..,
𝑧̂ = 𝑎𝑥
,..,
1 1 1
1 𝑥 𝑥
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑎
𝑎 1 1
min{𝐽 = 𝐴(𝜀 )} → = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑥
.. 𝑛
𝑎 ...
1 1
𝑥 𝑥
𝑛 𝑛

A( i2 )  0 for j=0,1,2,...,q
aˆ j
61
 Precision of estimates
– Consider linear regression case
62
– Consider linear regression case
x 2
i
 b2ˆ  i
 2
n  x  [ x ]
2 2 z
i i
i i
n
 m2ˆ   z2
n xi  [ xi ]
2 2
i i
– thus
63
 Homework
– Ex. 1.8-1
64
1.9 ~ 1.10 Deflection vs. Balancing Instrument
 Operation mode criterion

– Deflection sensors
• Deflection is proportional to the input
• Ex) Analog voltmeter, dynamometer
(force sensor), deflection accelerometer
– Null-type sensors
• Deflection is prevented by applying a
known effect that opposes the deviation
produced by the quantity being measured
– Ex) Weighing scale, Servo-accelerometer
Kx Dx
• Null measurement is usually more
Ky
accurate M
– opposing effect can be calibrated.
Cs
– imbalance detector can work only near Force
zero, thus can be more sensitive.
Equivalent circuit
65
 Linearization by force
balance
– Input pressure causes
deflection in diaphragm
– Suppose control loop is
designed such that rebalance
control force well maintains
equilibrium status with null
deflection
• At equilibrium,
FGF S
y  pm  p
1  ArGF r
66
 Linearization by force
balance
– Effect of additive noise
GX ArG X
y x v
1  ArGX 1  ArGX

AGX A
z x v
1  ArGX 1  ArGX
1 1
 x v
r rG X
67
 Force balance control example

– Principle of (null-type) servo accelerometer
Kx Dx
x Ky
M
y Equivalent circuit
Accelerometer structure
Cs
Force
69
70
1.11 Imperfections and limitations on precision
 Sensor dynamics modeling & parameter analysis

– Governing equation
– S-domain analysis can provide useful representation of performance
parameter for design tradeoffs
• BW
• Resonant frequency
• % Overshoot
• etc…
 동적 측정 시스템 특성 분석에서 자세히!!
71
Supplementary Slides
72
 Further Sensor Classification
 Output signal criterion x(t )
– Analog sensors
• Output changes in continuous way
• Very simple in nature t
• Ex) Potentiometer, galvanometer, etc…
x[n]
– Digital sensors
• Output changes in discrete way
• Do not need an ADC n
• The output is easier to transmit than that of analog sensors
• More repeatable, reliable and often more accurate
• Ex) Position encoder, odometer
– Quasi-digital sensors
• Output has a variable frequency form
• Simple interface to microcontroller by counting pulse width
• Ex) Frequency pickoff type resonant sensors (such as MEMS gyroscope,
accelerometer)
73
 Further Sensor Classification
 Input-output dynamics (relationship) criterion
– Types
• Zero order
• First order
• Second and higher order
– Order depends on the number of an independent energy-storing
elements present in the sensor
– Affect its instantaneous accuracy and speed, thus highly
involved with control system implementation
• 정상상태오차, 응답속도, 과도 오버슛(transient overshoot) 등
– Sensor dynamic characteristics are determined by the order of

sensor system:
 dynamic response analysis of systems 를 유도토록 함
74
Dynamic Characteristics
 Transient response characteristics
– Different output characteristics under time-varying input
– 시간 응답 특성에 따라, 입력범위 제한이 존재할 수 있음
 Caused by energy-storing elements
– Inertial elements (mass, inductance, etc)
– Capacitance (electric, thermal, fluid, etc.)
 Related figure-of-merit
– Dynamic Error(동적 오차): Steady state error가 zero 가정하에, 측정값과
참값(:=static input일 때의 값) 사이의 오차
– Speed of response(반응속도) : Dynamic error의 수렴속도  입력 변화
에 얼마나 빨리 측정 출력이 변하는가의 척도
 In mathematical representation,
– I/O is related with constant coefficient linear differential equation
– Thus, transfer function characterizes the dynamic characteristics of
measurement system
75
Zero-order measurement systems
 Output of zero order sensor
y(t )  k  x(t )
– No dynamic error and delay
– E.g., potentiometer
x
y  Vr
xm
76
First-order measurement systems
 One energy storing element exists
– Time constant relates to response delay
dy (t )
a1  a0 y (t )  x(t )
dt
Y ( s) k

X (s)  s  1
k : static sensitivity
a
  1 : time cons tan t
a0
c  1/  : Corner ( angular ) frequency
77
78
79
80
 Dynamic errors
ed  y(t)  kx(t)
converging value
81
Ex) output response of metal heat
transfer in case of thermometer
(Heat in) - (Heat out)

hA(Te  Ti )dt  0  McdTi
= thermal energy stored in metal
dTi hA
 (Te  Ti )
dt Mc
Ti ( s ) 1
 T (s) 
Te ( s ) 1 s
 1  hA Mc
82
Second-order measurement systems
83
84
85
 Characteristics of 2nd order response
t r (rise time) 출력이 정상상태의 10%에서 90%까지 이르는 시간

 1  2 
1
tan    
   tan 1  d 
tr       
n 1   2 d
  n (attenuation)
d  n 1   2 (natural damped frequency )

t p (첫 피크에 이르는 시간) 
d
M p (최대 오버슈트)  e  ( / d )
 4/  2% band
ts (settling time)  
 3/  5% band
(단, 0    0.9)
86
1
T (s)  2
s  0.5s 1
87
Frequency Response of linear system
 Supplementary
cf.)Decibel (dB)
T(s)
dB=20 log M
Ex) y=x2
가 안정한 시스템 일때 20 log y=40 log x
Y(dB)=40 log x
88
Frequency Response Analysis :
1
T ( s) 
s 1
1   1
 1
1 1   1
T ( j )  , T ( j )   2
1  j 1 2  1
   1

0 dB   1

20 log T ( j)    3 dB   1
  10 log   1
89
Frequency Response Analysis :
 Contains two energy storing
elements 1
T (s) 
s2  0.5s 1
𝑇(𝑠)
𝑘𝜔
=
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜔 𝑠 + 𝜔
90
 example
– 2차 시스템이 natural(corner) frequency에서 1차 시스템과 같이
3dB 감쇠를 가져오기 위한 조건?
T (s) s j  ?
91
 Characteristics of 2nd order response
– Ringing frequency for resonant (peak) frequency response
92
 기울기 R인 Ramp 입력에 대한 동적 오차
– Steady state value of dynamic error
93
 Second order spring-mass system
𝑀(𝑥̈ − 𝑥̈ ) = 𝐾𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥̇
Acceleration measurement
94
 Reliability
 Reliability
– Can be represented by Failure rate and MTBF
lim N s (t )
R (t ) 
N  N
N s (t ) : number of units that survive in time interval dt
N : number of total units
N f (t ) : number of units that fail in time interval dt
𝜆 𝑡 , 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒: number of failures per unit measure of life time or cycle , normalized to
the number of surviving units
95
 Reliability
 Reliability, Failure rate & MTBF
96
 Reliability
 Characteristic curve of failure rate
– failure rate follows a bathtub curve that determines three stage in
a product life (infant mortality, useful life and wear out stage)
– Early failure
• Microscopic defects in
material, incorrect Failure rate
adjustment during quality
control, etc.. wear-out stage
Early failure
– Chance failure
chance failure
• Intrinsic or stress-related
failures
time
– Wear-out failure
• Deterioration by thermal
cycles, wear, fatigue, etc..
 Reliability example
 Cassini-Huygens project
– Launched Oct. 1997
– Saturn orbiter since 2004
– Huygens for Titan lander
– End of life ~ Sep. 2017
– HRG with 200k hrs reliability used for
SIRU(space inertial reference unit)
Miscellaneous Sensors
 Resistive sensors
– Strain gauge
– Potentiometer
– Temperature sensors
 Flow rate sensor
• Pitot tube
 Magnetometer
99
Strain Gauge
 Strain gage
– Based on variation of conductor
resistance under mechanical stress l
R
A
dR d dl dA
  
R  l A
Mechanical Stress
F dl
   E  E
A l
 : strain
E : Young's modulus
100
Strain Gage: Resistance Change with Strain
 Resistance derivation via strain
101
Strain Gage: Resistance Change with Strain
 Resistance derivation via strain
102
 Example
– 350ohm strain gage with G=2.1 is attached to alluminum strut.
– With 1000kg load, compute the change in resistance
103
 Variable resistance type strain gage 특징
– Applied stress must not exceed the elastic limit of the gage
– Measurement is correct only if all the stress is transmitted to the
gage
– Assume all strains are in the same plane
– Temperature interference occurs
104
 Strain gauge detection concept
105
Strain Gage types
106
Strain Gage Application
 Variable resistance
detection
– is usually implemented
by wheatstone bridge
configuration
107
Resistive sensors
 Potentiometers
– Resistive device with linear or rotary sliding contact
108
 Temperature change may arise
– not only from fluctuation in ambient temperature, but also from
self-heating due to finite power that the potentiometer
dissipates.
– Dissipated power needs to be lower than the rated power(Pr)
Power rating: Vr  Pr RT
109
Potentiometer specification
110
Tilt sensors based on potentiometer
111
Temperature Sensor: RTD
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
– 대표적 센서로 PRT(Platinum Resistance Thermometers)
For platinum,
𝛼 = 3.95 × 10 /𝐾, 𝛼 = −5.83 × 10 /𝐾
– Temperature-Resistance model 사용시

• self heating에 의한 interference 효과 없도록 통과 전류량 제한 필요
heat dissipation factor(constant) 를 이용한 소모전력 계산
112
 Example
– PRT with 100ohm is specified tom have heat dissipation factor as
• 𝛿 =6mW/K in air
• 𝛿 =100mW/K in water
– What is the maximal current to keep the self-heating error below 0.1 degree?
113
– RTD 의 온도 1차 모델식 (linear range)
R  R 0 [1   (T  T0 )]
–  is the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) or

sometimes relative sensitivity
R A  RB
 
T  RB
114
Temperature Sensor: Thermistors
 Thermistor: Thermally sensitive

resistor based on semiconductors
(NTC,PTC)
 참고: RTD is based on conductors
RTD(PT100)보다 10배 이상 Sensitive
115
Temperature Sensor: Thermistors
 Thermistor:
– Termistor examples
# Video clip
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9opuvLXAetI
116
Flowmeters- Orifice
 Flowmeter
– using orifice and pressure difference
현재 이 이미지를 표시할 수 없습니다 .
Bernoulli's Theorem
비압축성 유체에서 내부에 작용하는 힘은
중력만이 (마찰 없음 ) 있고 정상상태에 있으며,
열의 출입이 없다고 가정할 때,
v2
P   gh   constant (1.45)
2
Principle of mass conservation, volumetric flow rate, Q is

Q  A1v1  A 2v2 (1.46)
117
Flowmeters-Flow Nozzle & Venturi Tube
 In practice, volumetric flow rate Q is

computed by multiplying
experimentally obtained
Cd(discharge factor), whereas
correction coefficient Cd is given in
ASME standard.
– Qr = Cd x Q
– For plate orifice, Cd ~ 0.6
 Flow nozzle 혹은 venturi tube는

pressure loss를 방지
– Cd ~ 0.97
Orifice vs. venturi tube
118
Flowmeters: Pitot tube
 Pitot tube
– Measures fluid velocity via Bernoulli’s theorem
– Common sensor for air speed measurements in avionics
– Incompressible and frictionless fluid flow 가정
• 공기는 압축성이므로 온도/비열 고려한 식 사용해야 함
119
Flowmeters: Pitot tube
120
Magnetometer
 Magnetic sensor detects
– magnetic flux density (magnetic intensity)
– Unit: Tesla in SI unit (gauss in cgs unit); 1T
= 10k gauss
– Geodetic magnetic field: ranging 20 ~ 80
microT with fluctuation of 0.1 microT
 자기센서 Applications
0.3
60Hz
50Hz 0.2
0.3
0.1
– INS 보조항법센서 – UAV heading 결정
East [m]
0.2
0 0.3
0.1
-0.1 0.2
East [m]
0.3
0
-0.2 0.1
– Magnetic anomaly 기반 실내 측위
0.2
East [m]
-0.1
-0.3 0
0.1 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

-0.2 North [m]
-0.1
East [m]
• 자기장 map 및 machine learning 등 활용
0
-0.3
-0.2
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
North [m]
-0.1
-0.3
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
-0.2
North [m]
– Artificial magnetic field 이용한 위치/자세 결정 70Hz -0.3 40Hz

-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
North [m]
– 가혹환경(장애물, 수중, 심해) 공간정보 구축
121
Magnetic Sensors for AHRS
 Used for heading calculation
 자기장 센서 오차 요소
– Soft iron effect
– Hard iron effect
– Re-magnetization
122
Summary
123
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Aerospace Sensors and Application

Chapter 1: Principle and Elements of Measurement Systems

Aerospace Sensors and Application

– [Textbook-2] Examples of resistive sensor

 Objectives of measurements; examples

 Basic sensor elements

 Auxiliary functions and elements for sensor

 Transducer generally implies

 Input vs. output transducer

 (concept of) Primary sensor

 Examples of pressure sensor

Amplified pressure sensor

Customized pressure sensor

 Pressure sensor with W/B circuit

 적당한 재료를 택하면 전기적 신호가 아닌 신호 (non-

 Sensor and actuator in control system implementation

Sensor Filter Controller Actuator

제어 신호로부터 system을 구동하기 위한 환원

System의 내부 상태 혹은 출력을 desired value로 유도

Acquired signal을 유효한 목적을 위해 변환, 추출, 혹은 추정

Physical phenomena를 다른 물리적 신호(전기적신호)로 검출, 변환

 Flying Disk Aerodynamics

@Frisbee Flight Simulation and Throw Biomechanics/SARAH ANN HUMMEL B.S./1997

East-North postion,velocity East-North postion,velocity

3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5

– Self-generating (passive) sensors

Vemf  (T  Tref ) C1  C2 (T  Tref ) 

– RTD는 안정적이고 상당히 넓은 온도 범위를 가지지만 열전대에 비해

 Thermistor  RTD(resistive temp. detector)

– NTC vs. PTC

• self heating은 없도록 해야함(Heat dissipation 은 HD constant 혹은

 Thermistor: Thermally sensitive

For NTC thermistor, RT  R o e B (1/ T 1/ To )

 Input characteristics: impedance

 Range or Span (전체 측정 범위)

 FSO (최대 측정값)

 Sample set으로부터 true value(or 모집단

– ex) for aerospace sensors

 Sensitivity or scale factor (감도 또는 환산 계수)

 System equation Remind the transfer function!

 Modeling depending on measurement error type

– Additive noise: z  yv

 Relative error with respect to true output(measurement)

 Sensor error model formulation

 Sensor error model

 Isolation and protection

yc  GX' x   GI k ik  Gˆ X  ˆI k ikm

 Output compensation vs. Input compensation

 Use of opposing inputs

 Use of opposing inputs

 Use of mathematical relationship between the

 Linear regression can further yield estimates as

 Linear regression via matrix algebra

 Linear regression via matrix algebra

 More general case of polynomial regression

– Consider linear regression case

 Operation mode criterion

 Force balance control example

 Sensor dynamics modeling & parameter analysis

 동적 측정 시스템 특성 분석에서 자세히!!

– Sensor dynamic characteristics are determined by the order of

(Heat in) - (Heat out)