GENERAL BIOLOGY

LESSON 1: SEVEN CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE RESPONDS TO STIMULI

→ stimulus – detectable change in physical or
CAPABLE OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
chemical structure of an organism’s internal or
→ gets bigger, more complex and develops in any
external environment
way

• itching
CAPABLE OF ENERGY AND METABOLISM
• search for food or sunlight
→ should be able to eat, digest food, and excrete
• escape from danger
or has energy storage and consumption
• body responding to medicine
• involuntary movement when touching a
• Photosynthesis
hot object
• plants uses energy from the sunlight
• coiling of makahiya leaves
• to be able to convert light energy to
o Thigmotropism – movement of plants
chemical energy in the form of sugar
caused by touch or contact
(glucose)
• ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) –
CAPABLE OF REPRODUCTION
chloroplast and mitochondria are the
→ produce an offspring sexually or asexually
major ATP producing organelles in
plants
• Sexually – requires two parents
• Enzymes – biological catalysts,
• Asexually – can be single parent
proteins that help speed up
• can copy exactly or clone the
metabolism
characteristics of one parent
o Sporulation – produces tiny pores
CAPABLE OF HOMEOSTASIS
without fertilization
→ regulate and maintain stable living conditions
o Budding – outgrowth of a part of a cell
→ maintain internal stability in an organism in
or body region leading to separation
response to environmental changes
o Fragmentation – regenerate into new
organism, “regeneration”
• Internal body heat regulation
o Thermoregulation – regulating
COMPOSED OF CELLS
body temperature
→ atleast a single cell
Endotherms – regulates in their own
core, internally
• plant cell
Ectotherms – needs environment,
• animal cell
externally
• epithelial cells – cheek cells
Fish (poikilothermic)
• Blood glucose level regulation
LESSON 2: DISCOVERY OF THE CELL
• Regulation of invasive bacteria and
viruses through lymphatic system 1665 – ROBERT HOOKE
• eating, drinking, breathing and → used to look at thin slices of cork under the
excretion of wastes microscope
→ tiny chambers – “cells”
CAPABLE OF ADAPTATION
→ adapt to the conditions of its environment and 1676 – ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK
traits → observed tiny living organisms
→ “animalcules”, by the using a microscope
• mutation
• natural selection 1831 – ROBERT BROWN
→ compared plant specimens
octopus – can mimic or copy the look or → common thing about them, a dark dense spot
move, color and texture of other animals – “nucleus”
 LESSON 3: CELL THEORY LYSOSOME
→ “garbage collector of the cell”
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN (1804 – 1881)
→ collects worn out parts of the cell
→ German botanist
→ breakdowns the components that cell doesn’t
→ Cells are the fundamental unit of life in plant
need
cells

VACUOLE
THEODOR SCHWANN (1810 – 1882)
→ membranous sacs
→ German physician
→ used in storing other things in the cells, food
→ Cells are the fundamental unit of life in plants
and water
including animal cells

CELL MEMBRANE
RUDOLF VIRCHROW (1821 – 1902)
→ thin outer covering
→ German physician
→ hold the cell together, separates it from others
→ process of crystallization
→ controls what goes in and out of the cell
→ All cells arise only from pre-existing cells

ENDOPLASMIC REITICULUM
THE CELL THEORY
→ series of folded membranes
1. All living things are made up of cells
→ move materials around
2. Cells are the basic structural units of all
living organisms
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells
→ site for protein synthesis
→ aids in the production of proteins and
LESSON 4: EUKRYOTES VS. PROKARYOTES quality control
EUKARYOTES PROKARYOTES → millions of ribosomes
→ “eu”, well; “karyon, → “pro”, before, “karyon”,
nucleus nucleus SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
→ nucleus and → has no nucleus and → production and synthesis of hormones
membrane-bound membrane bound and lipids
organelles organelles → no ribosomes
→ linear DNA → circular DNA
• located in the • located in the NUCLEUS
nucleus nucleoid region
→ “control center of the cell”, “command center of
→ multicellular (cytoplasm)
the cell”
→ larger and more → single, simple
→ controls cell’s activities
complex → smaller
→ growth and metabolism
→ can live if one cell → if cell dies, whole
dies organism dies → contains genetic materials – DNA

Examples: protists, fungi, Examples: bacteria, fungi NUCLEOLUS

animals, plants → “brain of the cell”
→ controls activities of the cell
PARTS OF AN ANIMAL CELL → ribosomes are made here

CYTOPLASM
GOLGI APPARATUS
→ gel like substance
→ sorting, packaging, and modification of
→ fills the spaces inside the cell to help retain its
proteins
form

PARTS OF A PLANT CELL

MITOCHONDRIA
→ “powerhouse of the cell” CELL WALL → outer covering, gives shape to the
→ aids in cellular respiration cell
→ converts the oxidative enzymes into a CHLOROPLAST → makes sugar for the cell,
compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP) contains chlorophyll
LESSON 5: LABORATORY MECHANICAL PARTS
→ support and adjust other parts
DO’S AND DON’T’S INSIDE THE LAB
• Base
1. wear proper clothing
- provides support
2. don’t eat and drink
3. place personal items in designated areas, • Body Tube
keep aisles clean - separates the objectives and
4. read instructions carefully eyepiece
5. monitor your experiment closely
6. handle equipment and chemicals with care • Revolving Nose Piece
7. clean as you go - objective lenses are attached

PARTS OF A MICROSCOPE
• Coarse Adjustment Knob
- allows movement of the tube towards
and downwards

• Fine Adjustment Knob

- bring the specimen into sharp focus
under LPO
- all focusing under HPO

• Inclination Joint
- connects arm and base
- incline for more comfortable view

3 SECTIONS: • Stage
- the mounted slide is place
MAGNIFYING PARTS
→ helps the specimen information appear larger
• Stage Clip
- holds the glass slide in pace
• Eyepiece (Ocular Lens)
- attached to draw through objective
• Arm
lenses
- supports body tube
- grasping and holding
• Objective Lenses
- magnifies the specimen under
LESSON 6: HIERARCHY OF BIOLOGICAL
observation
ORGANIZATION
o Low Power Objective
o High Power Objective
Mycoplasma → smallest cell
o Oil Immersion
Ostrich Egg Cell → largest cell
- use special type of oil
Ovum (Egg Cell) → largest cell in a female’s body
to magnify
o Scanner
HIERARCHY OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
- lowest magnification

ILLUMINATING PARTS
→ different levels of organization
→ supplies light and regulates light → from the most simple and the most basic unit
of life up to a fully functioning system

• Diaphragm
CELL → TISSUE → ORGAN → ORGAN SYSTEM →
- adjusts light that enter
ORGANISM
• Mirror
- source of light, reflects light
Types of Cells: COLUMNAR
• Epithelial Cells → tall cells
• Connective Tissue Cells → for secretion and absorption
• Muscle Cells
• Nerve Cells DISCOID
→ disc-shaped
TISSUES
→ group of cells with the same structure Examples: Red Blood Cells
- carry oxygen
ORGAN - remove carbon dioxide
→ formed from two or more types of tissues
working together STELLATE
→ star-like
ORGAN SYSTEMS
→ group of organs that perform one or more Example: Dendrites
functions - receives signals

ORGANISM FUSIFORM
→ single individual capable for the 7 → tapered, thick in the middle, narrow at the ends
characteristics of life
Example: Smooth Muscle (biceps)
LESSON 5: CELL SHAPE AND MODIFICATION
FIBROUS
o Simple – one layer → thread-like
o Stratified – two or more layers
o Epithelium – for covering and protection, Example: fibroblasts
secretion absorption - wound healing

SQUAMOUS SPHEROID
→ thin and flat nucleus → round shaped or oval shaped
→ for exchange or material through diffusion
Example: Tumor Cells
Example: Esophagus (Stratified Squamous o solid mass of tissue that
Epithelium) form when abnormal cells
- for diffusion and gas group together
exchange • Benign
• Malignant
CUBOIDAL
→ square LESSON 6: TISSUES
→ covering and protection, secretion, excretion
and absorption EPITHELIAL TISSUE

→ outside the body, coverings or linings

Example: Thyroid Glands (Simple Cuboidal
→ has a large cytoplasm
Epithelium)
→ secretion and nutrient absorption
- produce thyroid glands
→ receive nourishment

POLYGONAL
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
→ irregularly shaped cells, 4 or more sides
→ for formation of new tissues → connect, bind and provide support

Example: Liver Cells

- for protein synthesis and
amino acid metabolism
4 Types: MUSCLE TISSUE
BLOOD
→ long cells, “muscle fibers” – move voluntarily or
→ specialized form
involuntarily
→ delivers nutrients and oxygen
→ transports metabolic waste products
• Skeletal – striated, voluntary movements
• Cardiac – striated with branches for
• Plasma (55%) – water, salt, dissolved
synchronized heart contractions;
proteins
involuntary
• Erythrocytes (RBC) – carries oxygen using
• Smooth - not striated; involuntary
hemoglobin – type of protein
• Leukocytes (WBC) – defense against
Striated – lots of bands
infections
- sacromeres (responsible for
• Thrombocytes (Platelets) – entangles with
muscle contractions)
fibrin (a non globural protein), wound
healing
NERVE TISSUE

CONNECIVE TISSUE PROPER → nerve cells called “neurons” and “glial cells”,
→ found in the skin functions as support cells
→ collagenous fibers
→ tendons and ligaments • Nuerons – receives electric impulses,
sense stimuli and transmit electric signals
• Tendons – muscle to bones, move our o Sensory Neurons – afferent
limbs neurons, temperature, pressure,
• Ligaments – bone to other bone light
o Motor Neurons – efferent neurons,
Adipose Tissue – stores fat and provides tells you what to do
insulation o Interneurons – connect sensory,
reflexes, decision making
CARTILAGE
→ cushion between bones • Neuroglial / “Glial Cells” – do not receive
→ has chondrocytes – cells that produce any electric impulses
collagen and chondroitin sulphate o Astroglial
→ soft bones found in nose, ears, joints o Ependymal
o Oligodendrocytes
• hyaline – translucent o Microglial
• elastic – flexible
• fibrous – loss o collagen, stiff (immovable) LESSON 7: CELL CYCLE
→ life cycle of a cell
BONE → series of growth and development
→ mineralized connective tissue → process by which cells replicate and make two
→ collagen: calcium, magnesium, phosphate ions new cells
→ provides structural framework to the body
→ support and protect soft tissues and internal Important Tasks – an organized predictable
organs series of series of steps that makes up the cell
→ movement of the body cycle
→ long bones – bone marrow (site of production • it must grow
of blood cells) • it must copy its genetic material
• it must physically split into new daughter
• osteocytes – bone cells cells
• osteoblasts – immature bone cells
• osteo – in relation with bones Importance
• essential in forming new plants
Femur – largest bone • makes new life possible
 • vital in the process of healing and tissue
repair
2 Major Phases:
INTERPHASE
→ non-dividing phase
→ 90% of the cell cycle
→ devoted to cell growth only
→ cell spends the majority of its time and
perform majority of its purposes including the
preparation for cell division
→ grows and makes a copy
• First Gap Phase (G1 Phase)
- period of growth,
preparation for cell division
- metabolically active
- cell increase in size
- energy reserves: proteins,
lipids, carbohydrates
• Synthesis of DNA Phase (S Phase)
- synthesis of DNA
- DNA replication
• Second Gap Phase (S2 Phase)
- synthesizes proteins
- duplicate organelles
- cells continue to increase in
size
- final preparations for mitosis
• Inactive Stage/ Zero Phase (G0 Phase)
- terminal phase
- inactive
- resting
- unable to reproduce
MITOTIC PHASE
KARYOKINESIS
→ “karyo”, nucleus
→ division of nucleus
• Prophase
- longest phase
- chromatin condenses and
becomes chromosomes
- each chromosomes
contains two identical
chromatids connected to
the centromeres
- nuclear envelope breaks
down
o Chromatins
- consists of DNA and proteins
- inside the nucleus
- when condenses it becomes
chromatids
o Chromatids
- when chromatids have
identical pair or sister they
are called chromosomes
o Chromosomes
- sister chromatids
o Centromeres
- essential in cell division to
efficiently divide cells
• Metaphase – all chromosomes align in
the middle/ center equator of the cell
o Microsomes
o Microtubulues
o Centrioles
• Anaphase – chromosomes breakdown
and separate at the centromeres and
move apart/away from each other
• Telophase – nuclear envelope
reappears and spindle fibers
disassemble
o Cleavage furrow – form in the
center of the cell
CYTOKINESIS
→ division of cytoplasm
→ “cell splitting”
→ contractile ring