POINTERS TO REVIEW: MAJOR WRITTEN EXAM IN SCIENCE

CORRINE MENDOZA

 MODES OF REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- only 1 parent is involved
- no reproductive cells or gametes involved
-only possible in invertebrates (sponge, hydra and planaria)

 TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 binary fission
-comes from the word “bi” (means two) and “fiss” (means separate
or cut)
-type of asexual reproduction wherein an organism splits, forming
two new organisms for example: sea anemone

 Budding
-parent organism produces outgrowths called buds in its body
-it occurs in hydra, sponges and some worms

 Fragmentation
-fragments of the animal’s body are able to grow into new separate
organisms
-examples: spongers, corals and sea stars

DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION TO ANIMALS

 All of the organisms are genetically identical and therefore share
the same weaknesses.
 If the stable environment changes, the consequences could be
fatal or deadly to all of the individuals.

ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION TO ANIMALS

 Animals that remain alone in one particular area can propagate its
generation in the absence of a mate.
 Numerous offsprings can be produced without costing the parent a
great amount of energy or time.
 In a constant environment, a large number or populations can be
produced in a short period of time.

 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
-In sexual reproduction, two parent organisms are involved: the male
and the female.
-The female parent produces egg cells, and the male parent produces
sperm cells
 FERTILIZATION- Is the process when the egg cell unites with the sperm
cell
TYPES OF FERTILIZATION
(a) external fertilization - the eggs are fertilized outside the body of the
female
(b) Internal fertilization - fertilization occurs within the mother's body

THREE TYPES OF INTERNAL FERTILIZATION

- oviparous
-Oviparous comes from the Latin words ovum, which
means "eggs, " and parum, which means "bearing"
(REPTILES AND ALL BIRDS)

-viviparous- Viviparous comes from the Latin words vivi, which

means "alive, " and parum, which means "bearing. "
(CATS AND DOGS)

-ovoviviparous - Ovoviviparous is a combination of the Latin

words ovum, which means "egg, " vivi, which means "alive,
" and parum. (SHARK)

SPAWNING- several female deposit thousands of eggs in an area, and the

male swims over them to release sperm

PARTHENOGENESIS- mode of reproduction usually found in females where

growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization by a male

REGENERATION- ability of an organism to regrow lost body parts (planaria,

starfish, earthworm)

PLANARIANS- belong to the group called flatworms. They live in streams,

lakes, sea water or damp soil

STARFISH- belongs to the group called spiny-skinned animals

ZYGOTE- new cell that is formed during fertilization

HERMAPHRODITES AND HERMAPHRODITISM - These are some animals

that contain both testes and ovaries
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

POLLINATION- is the act of transferring grains from the male anther of a

flower to the female stigma (Falls under sexual reproduction of plants)
FLOWERS- are the tools that plants use to make their seeds
SPECIES- defined a population of individuals capable of interbreeding
freely with one another
VECTORS- include wind, water, birds, insects, butterflies, bats, and other
animals that’s visits flowers
POLLINATORS- animals or insects that transfer pollen from plant to plant
SELF POLLINATING- the plants can fertilize itself
CROSS POLLINATING- the plants needs a vector to get to the pollen to
another flower of the same species.
CLONES- genetically identical offspring

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

- requires genetic material (DNA) from two parents. The parent plants have
male and female sex cells
-Seeds can be produced when pollen is transferred between flowers of the
same species.

PARTS OF A FLOWER

PROCESS OF POLLINATION
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
-Asexual reproduction only requires DNA from one parent. It creates
offspring that are genetically identical to the parent

METHODS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

(a) Vegetative propagation - does not require seeds or spores. offspring

grow from a part of the parent plant (GARLIC, ONIONS, TULIPS)
(b) Fragmentation- is another form of asexual reproduction. It involves new
plants growing from small parts of the parent plant that fall to the
ground.(liverworts and mosses)

 Potato plants reproduce using tubers

 Strawberry plants reproduce using stolons.
 Garlic, onions and tulip plants all reproduce using true bulbs
 The short underground stems are also called scaly bulbs.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF FLOWERING, NONFLOWERING, AND

SPORE-BEARING PLANTS

FLOWERING PLANTS REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

(FEMALE)
Pistil - is the collective term for the female reproductive organs which
includes the following:
1. Ovary – contains the ovules
2. Ovules – are the female reproductive cells or the egg cells. The fruits
are actually ripened ovaries.
3. Style – is a stalk that joins the stigma to the ovary.
4. Stigma – topmost portion of the style.

(MALE)
Stamen- is the male reproductive organ of a flower. It includes:
1. Anther – produces and stores the pollen, which contains the sperm
needed in reproduction.
2. Filament – is a long stalk that supports the anther. It is long to ensure
that pollinators will brush against the anther and collect the pollen

OTHER PARTS OF FLOWER:

PETALS- are the pretty part of the flower that give its shape, odor, and form.
Their main role is to attract pollinators, particularly insects such as bees
SEPALS - are small leaf-like structures at the base of the petals. They
protect the blossoming flower and prevent it from drying out
RECEPTACLES- The receptacle holds the major organs of the flower

PARTS OF A FLOWER

POLLINATION
 SELF POLLINATION- is when the pollen is transferred to the stigma of
the same flower.
 CROSS-POLLINATION - is when the pollen is carried by wind, water,
or pollinators.
PROCESS OF POLLINATION
(1) Pollinator visits flower to collect netar
(2) Pollen on Anther sticks to pollinator
(3) Pollinator moves to another flower
(4) Pollen is transferred to stigma

 POST-FERTILIZATION- Once fertilization is done, the ovule becomes

the seed and the ovary matures into a fruit

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF NON-FLOWERING PLANTS

 OVULATE CONE (female cone)
-Female cone
-it encloses the ovules containing the egg cells.
-female cones are bigger and harder than the male cones
 POLLEN CONE (male cone)
-male cone
-because it has pollen, which contains the sperm cells.

 PARTS OF CONE
(a) Cone scales
(b) Winged scale

 In females, the cone scale encloses and protects the seed. The seed
has wings to aid in dispersal.
 In males, the cone scale has two pollen sacs, which open and release
the pollen

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF SPOREBEARING PLANTS

 SPOROPHYTE
-for asexual phase
-produces spores
 SPOROPHYTE
 SORUS- sorus (plural: sori) is a brownish or yellowish
pepper-like cluster of spore-producing structures

 MOSS SPOROPHYTE
 SETA- seta is a stalk that transports nutrients from the base of
the sporophyte to the capsule
 Capsule- is the site of spore production.

 GAMETOPHYTE -
-for sexual phase
-produces gametes ( egg and sperm)

 ARCHEGONIUM AND ANTHERIDIUM

 structures that produce and contain the egg and sperm
  both found in a single gametophyte. In mosses, they are located in
separate gametophytes
 MOSS SPOROPHYTE
 SETA- seta is a stalk that transports nutrients from the base of the
sporophyte to the capsule
 Capsule- is the site of spore production.

LIFE IN ESTUARY ECOSYSTEMS

 ESTUARY
-is a body of water near the coast where fresh water from rivers and streams
flows into the ocean and mixes with salt water
-water level and salinity rise and fall with tides. They are also affected by the
changes in seasons.
-An estuary may be called a bay, a lagoon, or a harbor if fresh water
mixes with salt water.
-serve as nursery grounds for certain species of fishes and crustaceans
-provide rich feeding grounds for coastal fish and migratory birds.

MOST POPULAR ESTUARIES IN THE PHILIPPINES - the Puerto Princesa

Underground River in Palawan

 TYPES OF HABITAT AROUND ESTUARIES

(a) Fresh water and salt marshes
(b) Shallow open water swamps
(c) Mud and sand flats
(d) Sandy beaches
(e) Rocky shores
(f) Oyster reefs
(g) Mangrove forests
(h) River deltas
(i) Tidal pools
(j) seagrasses

 ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT
-are considered as one of the most productive environments on Earth,
creating more organic matter each year.
-They are full of decaying plants and animals and they make the soil of the
estuaries very rich in nutrients.

 TYPES OF ESTUARIES
 Coastal Plain Estuaries
-created or formed when sea level rises and falls in existing river
valleys.
 -examples: Chesapeake Bay in Maryland and Narragansett Bay in
Rhode Island are examples of coastal plain estuaries that were once river
valleys.
 Bar Built Estuaries
-formed when a lagoon or a bay is protected from the ocean
currents and waves in coastal areas by sandbars and barrier islands.
-The barrier islands off the Atlantic coastline of North Carolina and
Massachusetts enclose bar-built estuaries.
 Delta System Estuary
-When the river flow is restricted by the delta, an estuary may form.
-Deltas are formed at the mouths of large rivers from sediment and
silt depositing instead of being washed away by currents and waves
-The estuaries at the mouth of Nile River in Louisiana are examples of
delta system
 Tectonic Estuaries
-A major crack or the drifting apart of Earth's crust often caused by
earthquakes create tectonic estuaries
-These types of estuaries usually occur along major fault lines. San
Francisco Bay in California is an example of an estuary created by
tectonics
 Fjord Estuaries
-They are U-shaped valleys that are formed or created by glacial
action
-They are found in areas with long histories of glacial action
-Glacier Bay in Alaska is an example of a fjord estuary.

 PLANTS IN ESTUARIES
-Plants found in estuaries need to be adapted to salty conditions, strong
currents and storm waves, varying exposure to sunlight and winds, and
low oxygen level in muddy soils.
 ANIMALS IN ESTUARIES
-The amazing diversity of animals in the estuary is helped and supported
by the complex food web in the place
-The decaying plants and animals are eaten by microorganisms or animals
so tiny that you need a microscope to see them
-These microorganisms are also food sources for small invertebrates.
Invertebrates then are eaten by fish like carp and stickleback.

 IMPORTANCE OF ESTUARIES
(a) provide us with a wide range of resources, benefits, and services.
(b) provide places for habitat of valuable species of plants and animals,
recreational activities, scientific study, and important centers for
transportation and international commerce.
(c) irreplaceable natural resource that must be managed carefully for the
mutual benefit of all who enjoy and depend on them.
(d) often called "nurseries of the sea." Thousands of species of birds,
mammals, fish, and other wildlife depend on estuarine habitats as places
to live, feed, and reproduce
 (e) Moreover, many marine organisms including most commercially
important species of fish depend on estuaries at the time when they
are completing their life cycle development.
(f) important centers for commerce and recreational activities
(g) provide economic benefits for tourism, fisheries, and recreational
activities

 THREATS TO ESTUARIES
(a) Increasing population of people threatening natural resources like
estuaries
(b) the quality of the water and health of the organisms that live in an
estuary are affected by different activities done on land
(c) As it passes urbanized and suburbanized areas, it gathers fertilizers
or pet waste that were washed off from lawns
(d) untreated sewage from failing septic tanks, wastewater
discharges from industrial facilities, sediment from construction sites, and
runoff from impervious surfaces like parking lots

SALT MARSH GRASSES AND OTHER ESTUARINE PLANTS - also help

prevent erosion and stabilize shorelines.
POLLUTANTS- Pollutants impede the total performance and can have
detrimental effect on life in estuaries
LAND DEVELOPMENT- or land reclamation often threatens the estuaries
because it can be damaging and could result in permanent loss of habitat.
CLIMATE CHANGE- is a great concern of the estuaries as it can cause the
overall rise and elevation of the sea level

 THINGS TO DO TO CONSERVE ESTUARIES

(a) At Your Home
1. When using lawn fertilizer, do not forget to follow product
directions carefully. Make sure you will keep it from washing into our
streams and waterways.
2. See to it that your septic systems are working properly. Have
them checked by pumping regularly to assure proper working
condition.
3. Products for lawn care should be used sparingly. Always follow
the directions carefully. These products can affect other plants and
animals if they reach the streams, roadside ditches, or street gutters.
4. If possible, create nontoxic pesticides. You may use a bit of
soap and water added to strained chili pepper powder.
5. Use safe alternatives to harsh household products. Baking
soda or table salt, for instance, are safe substitutes for abrasive
cleaners.
6. Wash or clean your pets and their wastes properly. Animal
waste adds to runoff, making water unhealthy.
7. Use your car less by combining errands such as walking, biking,
carpooling, or using public transportation.
 8. If you use less electricity, you are conserving water and
lessening fossil fuel consumption.

(b) ALONG THE WATERFRONT

1. Observe care for waterside trees and shrubs. These trees and
shrubs should not be cut, pruned, or altered because they serve as
protection along the water's edge.
2. Restoration of riverside grasses, shrubs, and trees are
important to filter pollutants, sediments, and excess nutrients from
ground and surface water.
3. Make sure that pesticides are not contaminating golf course
waters, adjacent creeks, and groundwater by supporting periodic
testing. You need to watch out for contamination.
4. Keep soil from eroding. Replace disturbed soil in heavily used
areas. At the Beach
5. Keeping more fish alive is vital to everyone. Practice fishing
respectfully.
6. Respect life on the rock. If you turn over rocks at the beach,
remember to put them back so that animals that live on top, like
barnacles, stay there and those that live at the bottom stay at the
bottom.
7. Have fun on the beach. When you leave the beach, be sure to
bring enough bags to take all trash with you. In Your Community
8. Share your knowledge about the importance of estuaries.
Share what you know about protecting them with your families,
students, community leaders, and others.
9. You need to take action. You can organize a stream or beach
cleanup by encouraging your local newspaper to write a story or
ask an expert to speak at your community organization or local
school.

 The plants in estuaries help prevent shoreline erosion.

 Estuaries also protect inland areas from flooding and storm surges.
When a storm hits, they often absorb water from the storm before it
can reach upland areas