Course code: LPM 111

Credit hours: 3(2+1)

Livestock population in Nepal (MOAD, 2017)

Category 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 Growth rate

(recent)
Cattle 7,243,916 7,241,743 7,302,808 0.84 %
Buffalo 5,178,612 5,167,737 5,168,809 0.02 %
Sheep 789,216 789,292 800,658 1.44 %
Goat 10,177,531 10,251,569 10,986,114 7.16 %
Pig 1,190,138 1,203,230 1,291,308 7.32 %
Fowl 48,079,406 50,195,285 68,630,638 36.72 %
Duck 390,209 390,287 392,255 0.50 %
Milking cow 1,024,513 1,025,947 1,026,135 0.01 %
Milking buffalo
1,345,837 1,345,164 1,355,384 0.75 %
Laying hen 8,350,237 8,412,247 12,353,515 46.8 5
Laying duck 179,447 179,480 180,927 0.80 %
Livestock production (MOAD, 2017)
Category 2014/15 2015/16 Growth rate

• Milk production (MT) 17,24,823 18,54,247 7.5 %

Cow
587,719 643,806 9.54 %
Buffalo
1,168,006 1,210,441 3.63 %
• Meat production (MT)
303,401 322,059 6.1 %
Buff
174,012 175,005 0.57 %
Mutton
2,658 2,684 0.97 %
Chevon
60,906 65,583 7.67 %
Pork
20,135 23,509 16.75 %
Chicken
45,458 55,041 21.02 %
Duck
232 237 2.15 %
• Egg Production
(‘000) 879,501 1,308,072 48.72 %
Chicken
865,947 1,294,166 49.45 %
Duck
13,554 13,906 2.59 %
• Wool production (Kg)
586,731 588,348 0.27 %
Milk production by species

cow milk
35%
buffalo milk
65%
Export, Import and trade balance (2015/16)
Figure in ‘000 Rs (MOAD, 2017)
Description Exports Imports Trade
balance
Live animals 132,554 3,052,048 -2,919,494
Meat and edible meat offal 351,940 101,243 250,697
Fish and aquatic products 931 822,856 -821,925
Dairy products, bird’s egg, 213,117 1,592,487 -1,379,370
natural honey, edible
products of animal origin
Products of animal origin, 68,662 156,018 -87,356
not elsewhere specified or
included
Total -4,957,448
Importance of livestock farming in Nepal
GDP contribution: 11%
 Milk production
 Meat production
 Animal protein supply
 Production of wool
 Production of egg
 Utilization of agricultural byproducts
 Supply of organic manure
 Drought and pack animals
 Industrial raw materials supply
 Social and religious value
 Creating self employment and generate employment
Limitations/constraints/problems of livestock farming in Nepal

 Limitations of land/land use policy

 Farmer not assured their investment being save
 Lack of animal health facility-mortality
 Farmer’s involvement without knowledge and skill
 Investment problem/ poor economy of animal keeper
 Commercialization lacking/still not professional approach
 High cost of feed/ lack of pasture and grassland
 Transportation facility poor
 Market /less return for farmer
 Religious constraints for some livestock
 Government priority/assurance to farmer
 No co-ordination between government and non-government
bodies.
 Peoples temptation of earning more with less effort/labor
Zoological classification of farm animals and birds

Kingdom: Animal
Phylum: Chordata
Sub-phylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia (for animals), Aves (for birds)
Order: Ungulata
Sub-order: Artiodactyla (cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig)
Parissodactyla (horse, zebra, ass)
Family: Bovidae (ruminants)
Susidae (non ruminant)
Equidae (horse family)
Genus and species
cattle buffalo sheep goat
Bos indicus Bubalus bubalis Ovis aries Capra hircus
Bos tauras Bubalus carabanesis

pig horse family:

Sus scrofa Equauus caballus (horse)
sus domesticus Equauus asinus (donkey)
Equauus zebra (zebra)
Birds
Class: Aves
Order: Anseriformes (goose, duck)
Galliformes (fowl, turkey)
Family: Phasianidae (fowl, turkey)
Anitae (goose, duck)
Genus and species
Fowl: Gallus domesticus
Turkey: Meleagris gallapavo
Duck: Anas platychychos
Goose: Anser anser
Ruminants and non-ruminants

Food mouth rumen mouth

chewing rumen reticulum omasum
abomasum intestine colon anus
Digestive process
 Mechanical

 Chemical

 Bio(bacterial)

Stomach of ruminants
 Rumen

 left side of animal

 1ml liquid in rumen= 16,000,000,000-40,000,000,000 bacteria
and 200,000 protozoa
 Bacteria secretes cellulase which hydrolyzed glucose
 Cellulose breakdown to VFAs and methane
C6H12O6 2CH3COOH + CO2 + CH4

 Reticulum
 Known as honeycomb
 Trap foreign objects eaten by animal
 Omasum
 Known as seven fold stomach
 Grinds the food and prepares food material for
chemical breakdown
 Squeeze out water from feed to enter abomasum

 Abomasum
 True stomach
 Enzymatic digestion takes place
 Gastric juices, HCL and digestive enzymes
(pepsin, rennin, bile)
Ruminant vs. non-ruminants
SN Ruminants
1 Regurgitation occurs
2 4 parts stomach
3 Can digest cellulose
4 Microbial digestion in rumen
and reticulum
5 Manufacture almost all
essential protein and vitamin
themselves
6 No incisor and canine in upper
jaw
7 Almost all ruminants have
separated hoof
8 Can survive by roughages
9 Complete digestion
10 Cow, buffalo, sheep, goat,
camel, deer etc
Non-ruminants
No regurgitation
Single stomach
Cannot digest cellulose
Microbial digestion in caecum and
colon
Unable to manufacture protein
and vitamin so should be supplied
from feed
Presence of incisor an canine in
upper jaw
No separated hoof
Cannot survive only by roughages,
need concentrates too
Partial digestion
Dog, horse, pig, elephant etc
Care and management of newly born calf

 Make breathing easy-mucus removal and light chest press if

needed
 If long cord attached to naval cut it at 2 inch form body with clean
wedge/ apply tincture of iodine
 Let mother lick the calf if not clean, the calf cleaned with clean
and soft cloth
 Clean teats and avoid first few drops of milk
 Help to stand on its feet and to suckle the milk
 Colostrum suckling within a hour for at least 48 hours (antibodies
and laxative effect)
 Milk feeding 10% of calf weight, if loose excreta reduce feed
 Weaning: doubles the birth weight, generally 5-8 weeks after
birth, not weaned until they consistently consume 1 kg of starter
ration per day per head
 Best to maintain calf in individual pen for first few weeks-can be
handled in group after about 8 weeks
 Deworming: 1st within 3 weeks- 2nd after away from milk
(piperazine liquid or pyrental pamoate)
 Dehorning within two weeks
 Vaccination against BQ after three months
Feeding schedule

Age (weeks) Milk Other feeds

(liter)
2 5 One fist concentrates
3 5 One fist concentrates
4 6 0.5 kg concentrates + soft green grass
7 5 1 kg concentrates + soft green grass
9 4 1 kg concentrates + soft green grass
10 3 1 kg concentrates + extra roughages (grass)
12 2 1.5 kg concentrates + extra roughages (grass)
13-40 - 1.5 kg concentrates + extra roughages (grass)
Care and management of poultry:
Management of chicks:
Brooding: Care and management of chicks with suitable
temperature, feed etc in early part of their life
Consideration for successful brooding:
 Thorough cleaning and disinfection of brooding house before
housing of new chicks
 Temperature maintenance for brooding:

 Disease free stock and vaccinated

 Ventilation and fresh air
 Protection from enemies (cat, rat and other predators)
 Dryness and sanitary measures
 Safety from fire
 Proper feeding management
 Fresh, cool, drinking water all the time
 Vaccination

 Debeaking
 to prevent feed wastages
 ½ of both upper and lower beak, lower slight longer
 6th to 10th day; not after laying start, care of tongue
Management of broilers and layers during summer
 Increasing number of ventilation
 Using fan and maintain proper spacing of bird
 Poultry Feed less concentrates so increase the protein
percentage
 Feeding early in the morning or @ evening
 Sprinkle around shed and roof management (thatch)
 Plantation of bare land between houses
 Increase the number of water trough
Management of broilers and layers during winter
 Increase energy content in feed to overcome need of increased
calorie
 Increase depth of litter up to 15 cm
 Warm house using heaters
 Cover the open part of the shed
 Temperature below 12 deg Celsius and above 28 deg Celsius not
good for better reproductive performance
 Temperature near 40 deg Celsius causes may cause severe loss
Sign of health and disease
 Diseased: milk drop, salivation, off color, hard breathing, abnormal
position and movement, body roughness, timely and proper eat,
drink and sleep.
 Tendency to separate from herd in illness
 Cease of rumination in ruminants is initial sign of several diseases
 Dry muzzle and nostril in ill while it is moist in healthy one
 Bright and alert eyes with no discharge;-healthy
 No blood clots in dung with semi solid consistency, rich green in
color and free of gas bubble
 Urine pale yellow (straw like) in healthy one with no blood seen
 No discharge of pus from vulva and clear tail in healthy one
 Blood clots in milk may indicate mastitis
Animals Temperature Heart beat rate Respiratory rate
Cow 99.5-102 degF 40-60/min 12-18/min
Buffalo 99.5-102 degF 40-60/min 20-30/min
Sheep/Goat 101-104 degF 55-75/min 20-30/min
Pig 102-103 degF 60-75/min 32-58/min
Caring sick animals
 Isolation
 Call of veterinary personal
 Take temperature if severe report immediately
 if internal parasite infestation, collect sample
of faeces diagnosis
 Regular and prescribed supply of medicine
 Care in feeding and watering
 Until animal cured continue isolation and
regular monitoring
 Comfort of animal to be assured
Weighing using formula or body measurement
 Live weight estimation of cattle/buffalo
live wt (lbs)= Girth2 × body length
300
(body parameters measurement in inches)

 Live weight estimation for goat

live wt (kg)= Girth2 × body length
10,500
(body parameters measurement in cm)
(12,000 in denominator instead of 10,500 for sheep)

 For pig: live weight= Girth2 × L

(Girth in inches and length from forehead to tail)
Identification of farm animals
Need???
Methods of identification
 Branding
 Tagging
 Tattooing
 Ear notching
Restrain/handling of livestock animals
Anti cow kicker
 Metal spring clips connected by a chain

 For udder examination and milking

 Clips fitted to Achilles tendon region

Bull holder
Bull nose ring
 Fixed to nasal septum of bull
 Two semi circular pieces hinged together
 Copper ring
 Between 8 months to 1 year
Farm records
Why???
 Animal performance evaluation (keeping/culling)

 Breeding plan (proper selection)

 Managerial ability improvement

 Economic feeding

 Animal’s health condition detection/ monitoring

 Economic analysis

Types of farm records

 Individual record/ birth-death to pedigree

 Production record

 Breeding records

 Health + vaccination /deworming records (maintain farm diary)

 feeding records

 Regular Income and expenditure record

 Overall financial record

Dentition and aging
 Domestic animal develops two sets of teeth:-
deciduous (baby) teeth and permanent teeth
 To determine age in cattle, the lower incisors
must be examined because they do not have
upper incisors.
 Dental formula for cattle and buffalo
Temporary dentition: (0/4 0/0 3/3 0/0)
Permanent dentition: (0/4 0/0 3/3 3/3)
 Dental formula for pig
Temporary dentition: (3/3 1/1 3/3 0/0)
Permanent dentition: (3/3 1/1 4/4 3/3)

Dental pad, Cheek teeth

Age of cattle via dentition
Age Dentition/ status of incisors
1.5-2.5 years 1st permanent incisor erupt
2.5-3 years 2nd permanent incisor erupt
3-3.5 years 3rd permanent incisor erupt
4-4.5 years Last permanent incisor erupt
5 years All permanent incisor show wear

Age of sheep and goat via dentition

Age Dentition/ status of incisors
1-1.5 years 1st permanent incisor erupt
2-2.5 years 2nd permanent incisor erupt
3-3.5 years 3rd permanent incisor erupt
4-4.5 years Last permanent incisor erupt
Age of pig via dentition

Deciduous Permanent
Incisors Birth-2 weeks 8-18 months
Canines Birth 8-12 months
Premolars 2 weeks- 8 months 12-16 months
Molars 4-22 months

Age Permanent incisors eruption

8-12 months Corner incisors
12 months Central incisors
16 months Intermediate incisors
Age Permanent incisors eruption
8-12 months Corner incisors
12 months Central incisors
16 months Intermediate incisors
Transportation
 To destination in safe and fit condition
 Avoid economic loss through weight loss
 Prevent mortality during transport and transit

Via foot, road/truck, ship, air (fancy and zoo animals)

Consideration
 Safe entry and exit with clean vehicle
 Comfortable floor (sand), with bamboo partition
 Person should be present all the time when vehicle moves
 Avoid sudden stoppage, fast drive and sharp turns
 No overcrowding and sick animals should not be travelled
 Feed and watering on the way for long travels
For poultry
 Transportation with cages and ventilation
 No overcrowding with protection from excessive heat
 Feed and water frequently
 Different poultry species should be transported separately
Barn sanitation and disinfection
Sanitation: disposal of wastages; Disinfection: killing of pathogens

Factors affecting maintenance of barn sanitation

 Location (altitude) and quality of shed (floor, wall etc)
 Light and ventilation
 Water supply
 Disposal of wastes
 Healthy animals
 Cleanliness of workers and utensils

Good quality of disinfectant

 Non toxic, non injurious and non corrosive
 Readily soluble in water and free from bad smell odor
 Readily available and economic
 Easy to handle and transport

Types of disinfectant:-
Sunlight,
Heat (air, water, steam, fire),
Chemicals (Acids, Alkalis, Compounds)
Acids:- Boric acids, carbolic acids
Alkalis:- NaOH, KOH, Lime solution, hydrogen peroxide
Compounds:- potassium permanganate, mercuric
chloride, copper salt, calcium hydrochloride

 Sunlight, heat and fire are non chemical disinfectant

 Chemical disinfectant can be of three types
Gaseous: sulphur dioxide gas, chlorine gas,
formaldehyde gas
Liquids: phenol, formalin, cresol, phenyl
Solid: bleaching powder, quick lime
Feeds, fodder and feeding
Why feed nutrients???
Some terminologies:
 Roughages: bulky feeds containing relatively large amount of CF
(>18%) and less TDN (more fiber)
 Concentrates: feed with relatively small amount of CF (<18%),
having high digestibility and nutritive value with more than 60%
TDN
 CF: polysaccharide, chiefly cellulose, hemicelluloses etc

 TDN:- The sum of the digestible fiber, protein, lipid, and

carbohydrate components of a feedstuff or diet
 Ration:- diet requirement of animal for 24 hours providing
balanced nutrient for proper growth and development
 Balanced diet:- ration which supplies appropriate amount of
nutrients in proper ratio. Depends on body weight, age, breeds.
 Generally dry matter requirement per 100 kg body weight is;

Buffalo and cross cow: 2.5 – 3 kg Sheep:- 3.5 – 4 kg

Local cow: 2 – 2.5 kg Goat:- 2.5 – 3 kg
Composition and classification of feedstuffs:
Straw: (Poorest protein and largest CF)
The nutritive value of straw can be improved
 Soaking (remove oxalate, silica),1lit: 1kg; softness
 Alkali treatment: (remove lignin, reduces oxalate); 3.3% NaOH
addition, improves palatability and digestibility
 Ammonia treatment: (increase straw CP content, as fungicides)
 Urea treatment: (increases palatability, digestibility and nitrogen
content of straw); 100 kg straw: 40 kg water: 4 kg urea sprayed
uniformly and covered by polythene for 3-4 weeks)
 Silage making

Hay making: Drying the fodder (85% DM)

Steps in making hay:
 Harvest at early stage (10% flowering): later CHO into lignin
 Harvest after dew is dried, and on day with no overcast.
 Let it dry in field for 1-2 hours
 For 3-3 hours turning on both sides for 3 days and then on shade till
moisture is 15%. (on twisting stem no ooze out and should sounds crisp)
Qualities of good hay
 No moisture more than 15%
 Thin stemmed fodder harvested at tender stage
 Hay should be still leafy and maintain the greenish color
 Should be free from moulds, weeds and dirt

 With pleasant aroma and palatable

Silage making (anaerobic fermentation of succulent fodder)
 Process of silage making: ensiling
 Silo pit (trench where green fodder store as silage)
 Can be preserved longer (in scarce situation)
 More nutritious and palatable than hay
 No effect of weather (can be done even in rainy day)
Steps of silage making
 Cutting/Harvesting:- at flowering stage, early in the morning
 Wilting:- 4-5 hours sundry; DM content 35 %
 Chopping:- @ 4-5 cm;
 Chemical treatment:- molasses for leguminous crop (2%); to increase
protein in non leguminous 0.4% urea treatment; 0.5 % lactobacillus
 Filling:- should be air tight, plastic at base, no air space between filled
materials
 Sealing:- by straw or dry grasses and then covered by polythene sheets; no
entry of rain water into it. Ready in 7-9 weeks. CHO or starch into lactic
acid or acetic acid.
Importance of fodder cultivation :
 Highly digestible at proper stage of harvest
 Green forages are excellent source of carotene
 Grass proteins rich in Arginine, Lysine, Glutamic acid
 10 lit milk yielding animal can be easily maintained solely on green
fodder
 Can be important in crop rotation
 Can be conserved for lean period
 Fallow and marginal land utilization

Animal protein sources percentage

Protein rich sources
Plant protein sources percentage Meat meal 50-55%

Groundnut meal 45% Bone meal 40%

Cotton seed cake 40% Blood meal 80%

Coconut cake 25% Fish meal 60%

Til cake 40-50% Feather meal 80%

Soybean oil meal 44-49% Hatchery by product 45-55%

meal
Control and prevention of major disease and parasites
Fowl disease:
Ranikhet / New castle disease
 Lentogenic, mesogenic or velogenic (virulence)
 Incubation period 2-15 days
 Respiratory and nervous disease with 80-100% mortality
 Caused by paramyxo virus
 Already irradiated in US, Australia and Europe
Symptoms
 Difficulty in breathing, sneezing and coughing
 Ruffling feature, twisted walk, inactivity and sleepiness
 Green diarrhea with bad odor
 Twisting of head and paralysis (nervous disorder symptoms)
 Thick liquid discharge from nostril and beak with fever
Prevention
 Sanitary measures application
 Vaccination of F1 strain (5-7 days) and R2B strain (6-8 weeks)
 Removal of all infective materials excrete and feed to distance
 Bio-security measures
Fowl pox (befer)
 Avipox virus, contagious disease so more in winter
Symptoms
 lesion appearance on unfeathered parts (comb, vent, legs, nose
etc)
 blister enlarge and later form crust over tongue, face comb and
wattles
 Infection on eye so fowl may become blind

 Diphtheritic infection may cause breathing problem (infection

on mucous membrane of the throat causing thick layer which
obstruct breathing
Prevention
 Vaccination of birds at 6th weeks

 Apply antiseptic over the lesions

 Sanitary measures (mosquito, mites ticks destruction to stop the

spread of the disease)
 No specific cure but can use antibiotics to prevent secondary
infection
Gumboro
 known as IBD (Infectious bursal disease) caused by Avibirnavirus
of Birnaviridae family
 Known as AIDS of fowl (immunosuppressive disease)

 3-6 weeks chicks mostly affected

 Incubation period: 2-3 days

Symptoms
 Trembling (shaking) of head and neck, later all body parts.

 Closing eyes and tilting body on one side

 Stretch the neck and bowing the head

 White diarrhea with soil attached vent

Prevention
 Vaccination within 3rd week and at 7th week

 Other treatment not much effective so vaccination and bio-

security measures is the best
Marek’s disease
 Viral neoplastic disease
 Caused by herpes virus

 Spread through droplet, excreta, air, contact and poultry dust

 Susceptible between 6-26 weeks of age

Symptoms
 Paralysis of wings and legs and neck and circular movement
without any sign
 Vision impairment

 Difficulty in breathing

 Nerve swelling

 Green loose motion

Prevention
 Immunization at a day of chick

 Super sanitation measures

 Purchase from reliable hatchery

Fowl coccidiosis
 Protozoan parasite of the intestine
 More susceptible to 3-9 weeks poultry

 Disease due to lack of proper litter management

Symptoms
 Watery greenish and bloody excrete

 Losses the weight with loss in appetite

 Feather becomes ruffled and soiled

 Combs turns pale

Prevention
 Sanitary measures is the first prevention

 Proper litter management (keep litter dry)

 Bifuran medicine can be used in feed

 Isolate the diseased chicks

 Sterilization of shed
Swine fever (hog cholera)
 Highly contagious viral disease, causal: pestivirus
 Young pigs are more susceptible

Symptoms
 High fever, loss of appetite

 Pigs get clustered in one corner

 Red lesions seen on back of ear, abdominal region, corner of

limbs; sometime blue lesions
 Constipation followed by diarrhea and occasional vomiting

 Conjunctivitis

 Usually dies after 7 days, if survive partial recovery

Prevention
 Proper sanitation

 Disinfected housing and equipments

 Anti-hog cholera serum

Livestock animal diseases
Hemorrhagic septicemia (HS), ( यागुते)
 Acute and infectious disease in cattle and buffalos
 Generally seen is summer during rainfall
 Caused by Pasturella multiccida (gram negative and spore
producing bacteria)
Symptoms
 Rise in temperature up to 105-107 degree F
 Nasal secretion, oral secretion, eye secretion and redness
 Dullness and no feeding
 Painful Swelling of neck on both or one side also head pain.
 Often swollen tongue and comes out of the mouth
 Breathing difficult
Prevention
 Isolation and disinfection
 Good feeding and adequate feeding during monsoon
 Inoculation of animals with H.S vaccine
 Oral administration of sodium sulphadimidine
 Oral treatment with choloromphenicol
Foot and mouth disease (खोरे त)
 Viral caused by picorna virus (A,O,C,SAT, ASIA-1 etc)
 In all hoof animals cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig…
 Generally seen after dashain and other animal exhibition, haat market or after
contact
 All season, all geographical region, government too declared very
uncontrollable
 Can live in unhealthy fodder up to 1 month, can travel long distance through air
Symptoms
 Initially intense fever, dullness, dry mouth, less feed and less regurgitation
 Sudden stop in milk yield and salvation occurs
 Blisters seen inside mouth and tongue get ruptured and becomes like fresh
wound
 Blisters seen in between hoofs, udder, and teats
 Decay of hoof, swelling of limbs.
Prevention
 Vaccination with FMD vaccine
 Disinfection of shed and house
 Mouth wash with alum and foot lesions treated with 1% copper sulphate or
phenyl
 Feed tender grass
Black quarter (B.Q) (चरचरे )
 Bacteria Clostridium chauvoei (6 months to 2-3 years animal are
more susceptible)
Symptoms
 Fever at beginning but no fever after other symptoms

 Swelling appears in muscular parts like thigh, rumps, shoulder,

breast, neck etc
 Initially small swelling with more pain but later swelling
increases with no pain
 The tight swelling when touched gives cracking or rustling sound
(चरचर आवाज)
 The difference in swelling with HS is that, the swelling is more
concentrated in thigh in B.Q
Prevention
 Sanitary measures and disinfection

 Annual vaccination before onset of rainy season

 Dead animals to be burned not buried as spores remains in soil

for many years
Brucellosis
 Bacterial disease caused by Brucella abortus
 Causes high economic loss and also affect human beings
(undulant fever)
Symptoms
 Abortion or birth to dead or weak calf

 Abortion usually in last period of pregnancy

 Higher temperature than normal at calving time

 Milk production reduced

 Heavy infected herd > 50% abortion

Prevention
 Vaccination at age of 3-8 months for all heifers and
revaccination immediately after calving
 Hygiene and disinfection

 Contaminated excreta and other materials disposed properly

Endo parasites
Tape worm:
 Common in calf under 6 months
 Moniezia benedeni and M. expansa
 Infected by ingestion of infected grass
 Heavy infestation causes diarrhea, intestinal obstruction,
dysentery and anemia sometimes
 Deworming is prevention: during late spring or early summer
 Treatment: albendazole 10 mg/kg body weight once or
febendazole 5mg/body weight twice
Round worm:
 Ascaris sum (Pig), Ascaris galli (fowl), Toxocara Vitulorum
(cattle and buffalo)
 Respiratory distress, cough and pneumonia are seen as
immature worms migrate through lungs, liver and other
organs producing lesions
 Prevention: piperazine, medendazole, albendazole etc,
sanitaion.
Liver fluke
 Decline in food, slow and irregular rumination,
labored respiration, eyelid swelling, diarrhea and
reduced milk yield
 Prevention: kill snails, keep animals away from
marshy land, anthelmintic medication

Ectoparasites
 Ticks and mites and mosquitoes
 Causes irritation and decrease in yield
 Regular grooming and cleaning
 Sanitation around shed
 1% Diazinon wash, spray of insecticides.