GCSE Biology Triple Science

B5: Infection and Response

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Contents

Communicable disease 2
Preventing infections 4
Viral diseases 6
Bacterial diseases 8
Fungal and protist diseases 9
Plant diseases
Plant defence responses
Human defence mechanisms 11
Vaccinations

Antibiotics and painkillers

Drug discovery and development

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Communicable disease
KW: pathogen, protist, fungus
Do now: Place the following stages of the cell Drill: true or false?
cycle in the correct order (write the numbers 1. Bacteria are eukaryotic cells.
only). 2. Bacteria divide by mitosis.
1. Cytoplasm and cell membrane divide. 3. The cell cycle has two stages.
2. Membrane form around each set of 4. Stem cells are undifferentiated.
chromosomes. 5. Benign tumours cause cancer.
3. DNA duplicates.
4. Chromosomes are pulled apart by cell
fibres.
5. Chromosomes line up in the middle of the
cell.

Pathogens
Pathogens are microorganisms that enter the body and cause
disease. They cause communicable diseases (also known as
infectious diseases) which can be spread from person to
person. Examples of communicable diseases include colds,
influenza and chicken pox. Common disease symptoms are a
high temperature, headaches and rashes. They are caused by
the way your body responds to the cell damage and toxins
produced by bacteria.

Sometimes communicable diseases can be passed between different species of organisms. For example,
infected animals such as dogs can pass rabies on to people.

Both plants and animals can be infected by pathogens. There are several types of pathogen:

Bacteria

Bacteria are small prokaryotic cells, about 1/100th the size of your body cells, which can reproduce
rapidly inside your body. They can make you feel ill by producing toxins (poisons) that damage your cells
and tissues. For example, Salmonella bacteria cause food poisoning.

Bacteria are microorganisms that can be found in every ecosystem on Earth. Most bacteria have an
important function in the environment, as decomposers, and in your body. Conversely, bacterial
pathogens are harmful.

Viruses

Viruses are not cells. They are tiny cells, about 1/100th the size of a bacterium. Like bacteria, they can
reproduce rapidly inside your body. They live inside your cells and replicate themselves to make many
copies. The cell will usually then burst, releasing the new viruses. This cell damage is what makes you feel
ill. For example, HIV infects and destroys cells that normally defend the body against disease (white
blood cells).

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Questions

1. What are pathogens?

2. List four types of pathogens.
3. What are communicable diseases?
4. State an example of a communicable disease.
5. State whether bacteria are prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
6. What are toxins?
7. Describe how bacteria make you feel ill.
8. State an example of a pathogenic bacterium.
9. State where viruses live and reproduce.
10. Describe how viruses can make you feel ill.
11. State the similarities and differences between bacteria and viruses.

Protists

There are many types of protists. They are all eukaryotes and most of them are single-celled. Some
protists are parasites. Parasites live on or inside other organisms and can cause them damage. They are
often transferred to the organism by a vector, which does not get the disease itself. For example, malaria
is caused by a protist that lives inside a mosquito.

Fungi

Some fungi are single-celled. Multicellular fungi

have a body which is made up of hyphae
(thread-like structures). These hyphae can grow
and penetrate human skin and the surface of
plants, causing diseases. The hyphae can
produce spores which can be spread to other
plants and animals. For example, the rose black
spot fungus infects rose plants.

Questions

1. State whether protists are eukaryotic or prokaryotic.

2. Most protists are parasites. State what this means.
3. How are most protisits transferred between organisms?
4. State an examples of a protist.
5. Compare the structure of an animal cell and fungal cell.
6. What are hyphae?
7. Describe how fungi can be spread.
8. State an example of a pathogenic fungus.

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Binary fission (triple only)
KW: plasmids, mean division time

Do now: Drill:

1. What are the unique proteins found on the surfaces 1. Convert 10 µm into mm.
of pathogens called?
2. Convert 200 µm into mm.
2. Name the type of white blood cell that produces
3. Convert 0.3 mm into µm.
antibodies.
4. Convert 0.06 mm into µm.
3. Name the type of white blood cell that engulfs and
destroys pathogens. 5. Convert 700 nm into µm.
4. Name the proteins produced by white blood cells
that destroy pathogens.

5. Name the chemicals produced by white blood cells

that neutralise the toxins produced by bacteria.

Prokaryotic cell replication

Prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, replicate by a type of cell division called binary fission. In binary
fission, the cell makes copies of its genetic material, before splitting into two daughter cells.

The process of binary fission

Step 1:
The circular DNA and plasmids replicate.

Step 2:
The cell gets bigger and the circular DNA strands move to opposite
‘poles’ of the cell.

Step 3:
The cytoplasm begins to divide and the new cell walls begin to form.

Step 4:
The cytoplasm divides and two daughter cells are produced. Each
daughter cell has one copy of the circular DNA, but can have a
variable number of copies of the plasmids.

Questions
1. What is binary fission?
2. Describe what must occur before a bacterial cell divides into
two.
3. Draw a flowchart to outline the main steps that occur during
binary fission.

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The growth rate of a bacterial population is affected by many different factors including temperature,
available nutrients, oxygen levels, and pH. Changing any of these factors can affect the growth rate of a
population. Bacteria can divide very rapidly if given the right conditions such as a warm environment
with plenty of nutrients. For example, E. coli can take as little as 20 minutes to replicate in the right
environment.

However, if conditions become unfavourable, the cells will stop dividing and eventually begin to die. The
changes in the size of a population of bacteria over time can be shown in a graph:

Questions
1. List four factors that affect the growth rate of bacteria.
2. Describe what happens when the conditions that bacteria grow become unfavourable.
3. Describe and explain the shape of the graph shown above.
4. If you set up a sealed culture of bacteria, they grow very fast to begin with but the rate of growth
eventually slows down and stops. Suggest an explanation for this observation.

Calculating population growth

You can estimate the number of bacteria in a population using the mean division time. The mean division
time is the average time it takes for one bacterial cell to divide into two. If you know the mean division
time of a cell, you can work out how many times it has divided in a certain amount of time, and so the
number of cells it has produced in that time.

Equation
Bacteria at the end of the growth period = bacteria the beginning of the growth period x 2number of divisions

Worked example 1:
A bacterial cell has a mean division time of 30 minutes. How many cells will it have produced after 2.5
hours?

Make sure that both times are in the same units:

2.5 hours x 60 = 150 minutes

Divide the total time that the bacteria are producing cells by the mean division time. This gives you the
number of divisions:
150 minutes ÷ 30 minutes = 5 divisions

Multiply 2 by itself for the number of divisions to find the number of cells:
25 = 32 cells

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Worked example 2:
The mean division time for a population of bacteria is 30 minutes. Calculate how many bacteria will
result from each individual bacterium after 8 hours.

Calculate how many times the bacteria will divide in 8 hours. If the bacteria divide every 30 minutes they
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will divide 30 or two times every hour.

If the colony grows for 8 hours, each of the initial bacteria will divide for 8 x 2 or 16 times.

Number of bacteria at the end of the growth period = 1 x 216 = 65536 bacteria

Questions
1. A bacterial cell divides by binary fission. It has a mean division time of 24 minutes. How many
cells will it have produced after 6 hours? Give your answer to two significant figures.
2. Write your answer to question 1 in standard form.
3. A scientist has found that under certain conditions, Staphylococcus aureus has a mean division
time of 30 minutes.
a) How long will it take for one Staphylococcus aureus cell to produce a population of 128 cells?
Give your answer in hours.
b) Under a different set of conditions, one Staphylococcus aureus cell produces 64 cells in 270
minutes. What is the mean division time of S. aureus under these conditions?
4. On the surface of freshly picked strawberries we can find a type of bacteria that makes them rot.
At room temperature the mean division time of these bacteria is 60 minutes. If the fruit are
placed in the fridge, the mean division time is 6 hours.
a) Explain the difference in the mean division time of the bacteria at room temperature and in
the fridge.
b) Calculate how many bacteria would be produced over 24 hours from each bacterium on the
surface of a strawberry kept i) at room temperature ii) in the fridge.
c) What is the percentage difference in the numbers of rot-causing bacteria between the fruit
stored in the fridge and the fruit stored at room temperature?

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Growing bacteria in the laboratory (triple only)
KW: agar jelly, inoculating loop, sterilisation

Do now: Drill:

1. Name the type of cell division by which a 1. Write 0.025 in standard form.
bacterial cell divides.
2. Write 0.00035 in standard form.
2. Apart from pH and temperature, state two
3. Write 2450000 in standard form.
more factors that can affect the rate of
bacterial growth. 4. Write 95600 in standard form.
3. State the equation used to calculate the
number of bacteria at the end of a growth
period.

Culturing microorganisms in the laboratory

Bacterial are cultured (grown) in a ‘culture medium’ which contains the carbohydrates, proteins,
vitamins and minerals they need to grow. The culture medium can be used as a nutrient broth solution
or solid agar jelly.

Aseptic technique

You can prepare an uncontaminated culture of microorganisms in the laboratory on sterile agar plates by
following these steps:

Step 1: The Petri dishes on which you will grow your microorganisms must be sterilised before use. The
nutrient agar must also be sterilised to kill off any unwanted microorganisms.

Step 2: The next step is to inoculate the sterile agar with the microorganisms that you want to grow. The
inoculating loop must be sterilised first by heating it until it is red hot in the flame of a Bunsen. It is
important not to put the loop down or to blow on it as it cools. Dip the sterilised loop in a suspension of
the bacteria you want to grow and use it to make zigzag streaks across the surface of the agar. The lid of
the Petri dish should be opened at a small angle and should be replaced as quickly as possible. This is to
avoid the possible contamination by unwanted bacteria. The lid of the Petri dish should be fixed with
adhesive tape to prevent microorganisms from the air contaminating the culture. However, it is
important not to seal the lid all the way around. Oxygen must still be able to enter in order to prevent
harmful anaerobic bacteria from growing.

Step 3:

Once you have inoculated your plates, the secured Petri dishes need to be incubated for several days so
that the microorganisms can grow. Petri dishes should be stored upside down so condensation does not
fall from the lid onto the agar surface.

In the laboratory at school, cultures of microorganisms are not kept above 25°C because harmful
pathogens are more likely to grow at this temperature. In industrial conditions, cultures are incubated at
higher temperatures so that the can grow much faster. For example, a hospital lab incubates human
pathogens at 37°C, so that they can grow as fast as possible and are identified sooner.

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Questions

1. Explain why agar gel is important in setting up bacterial cultures.

2. Why must the Petri dishes and agar jelly be sterilised before use?
3. Describe how an inoculating loop is sterilised before use.
4. Explain why Petri dishes are not opened before incubation once they have been inoculated and
sealed.
5. Suggest why bacteria are grown at 25°C or below in the school lab when this is not their
optimum temperature for growth.
6. Explain why bacteria are often cultured at much higher temperatures in industrial plants and
hospital laboratories.
7. When you set up a culture of bacteria in a Petri dish you give the bacteria everything they need
to grow as fast as possible. However, these ideal conditions do not last forever. Suggest what
might limit the growth of bacteria in a culture on a Petri dish.

Investigating the effect of disinfectants and antibiotics

There are a number of ways to prevent the growth of bacteria. Chemicals can be used to stop them
growing or to kill them. Disinfectants are chemicals used to kill bacteria in the environment around us.
An antiseptic is a disinfectant that is safe to use on human skin. Antibiotics are drugs that can be used to
kill bacteria inside the body.

Apparatus

a nutrient agar plate inoculated with bacteria • filter paper discs • three antiseptics (such as mouthwash,
TCP, and antiseptic cream) • disinfectant bench spray • forceps • clear tape • antibacterial hand wash •
a wax pencil or permanent marker • ruler

Method

1. Make sure your hands and work space are thoroughly clean before and after
the experiment.
2. Spray the bench where you are working with disinfectant spray. Then wipe
with paper towels.
3. Use the wax pencil or permanent marker to mark the bottom of the nutrient
agar plate (not the lid) as shown in the diagram below.
4. Make sure that the lid stays in place to avoid contamination.
5. Divide the plate into three equal sections and number them 1, 2 and 3 around
the edge and put a dot into the middle of each section.
6. Wash your hands with the antibacterial hand wash.
7. Put a different antiseptic onto each of the three filter paper discs, being careful to shake off
excess liquid to avoid splashing.
8. Carefully lift the lid of the agar plate at an angle away from your face. Do not open it fully.
9. Use the forceps to carefully put each disc onto one of the dots you drew on with the wax pencil.
10. Make a note of which antiseptic is in each section.

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 11. Secure the lid of the agar plate in place using two small
pieces of clear tape. Do not seal the lid all the way around as
this creates anaerobic conditions. Anaerobic conditions will
prevent the bacteria from growing and can encourage some
other very nasty bacteria to grow.
12. Incubate the plate at 25 °C for 48 hours.
13. Measure the diameter of the clear zone around each disc.
Measure again at 90° to your first measurement, then
calculate the mean diameter.

Results table

Control experiments

A control experiment has a control or control group. A control is treated in the same way as the rest of
the investigation but without the independent variable. Controls are often used when investigating living
organisms because they vary so much.

The control for the experiment described above would be a paper disc that has not been soaked in an
antibiotic. Instead, it is soaked in sterile water. You can then be sure that any difference between the
growth of the bacteria around the control disc and around one of the antibiotic discs is due to the effect
of the antibiotic alone (and not something in the paper, for example).

Questions

1. What is the difference between a disinfectant, antiseptic and antibiotic?

2. Write a hypothesis for the investigation outlined in the method above.
3. State the independent variable of this investigation.
4. State the dependent variable of this investigation.
5. State three control variables of this investigation and explain how they will be controlled.
6. Complete a risk assessment for this investigation:

Hazard Risk Precaution

7. What measurements need to be taken in order to calculate the cross-sectional areas of clear
zones around the bacterial colonies?
8. Describe how to set up a control in this experiment.
9. Explain why a control is set up in this experiment.

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Model results

Measuring inhibition zones

You can compare the effectiveness of different antibiotics (or

antiseptics) on bacteria by looking at the relative sizes of the inhibition
zones. The larger the inhibition zone around a disc, the more effective
the antibiotic is against the bacteria.

To calculate the area of an inhibition zone, you need to use the

equation for the area of a circle. The units of the area are likely to be in
mm2 or cm2.

Area = πr2

Divide the mean diameter by two to find the radius of the circle.

Example

The diagram on the right shows the inhibition zones produced by

antibiotics A and B. Use the areas of the inhibition zones to compare
the effectiveness of the antibiotics.

Radius of A = 14 ÷ 2 = 7mm

Area of A = 𝜋 x 72= 154 mm2

Radius of B = 20 ÷2 = 10 mm

Area of B = π x 102 = 314 mm2

Questions

1. How is the radius of an inhibition zone determined?

2. How is the area of an inhibition zone calculated?
3. What is the relationship between the effectiveness of an antibiotic and the area of zone of
inhibition?
4. A student set up a culture plate of bacteria and placed three filter paper circles containing
different concentration of antibiotic onto the surface. They were labelled A, B and C. After five
days, the diameters of the clear areas that developed were 5.0 mm, 10.2 mm and 15. 8 mm.

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a) Calculate the surface area of agar cleared by the three discs.
b) Calculate how much more effective the highest concentration of antibiotic was compared to the
lowest concentration.
5. Calculate the inhibition zones for antibiotics A and B (shown below).

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Preventing infections
KW: isolation, vaccination, hygiene
Do now: Bacteria or virus?
2. Produces toxins that cause cell damage.
3. Live and reproduce inside cells.
4. Not living cells.
5. Larger.
6. No all of these microorganisms are
pathogenic.
Drill: fill in the missing words
1. Diffusion is the spreading out of particles
from an area of ___ concentration to an area
of ___ concentration.
2. At a higher temperature, particles move ___.
3. As the temperature increases, the rate of
diffusion ___.
4. As the ___ area increases, the rate of
diffusion increases.
5. Concentration ___ means concentration
difference.

The spread of pathogens

Pathogens can be spread in many ways:

Water

Pathogens can be picked up by drinking or bathing in dirty water.

Examples: Cholera is a bacterial infection that is spread by drinking water contaminated with the
diarrhoea of other sufferers. Fungal spores carried in splashes of water often spread diseases.

Air

Pathogens can be carried in the air and can then be breathed in.

Example: The influenza virus is spread in the air in droplets produced when you cough or sneeze.

Direct contact

Some pathogens can be picked up touching contaminated surfaces. This is common in plant diseases,
where a tiny piece of infected plant material left in a field can infect an entire new crop. In people,
diseases including sexual infections, are spread by direct contact of the skin.

Examples: Athlete’s foot is a fungus which makes skin itch and flake off. It is most commonly spread by
touching the same objects as an infected person. Pathogens such as HIV/ AIDS entire the body through
direct sexual contact, cuts and needle punctures that give access to the blood.

Questions

1. Give two ways in which diseases are spread from one person to another.
2. Give two ways in which diseases are spread from one plant to another.
3. The chickenpox virus can be carried in droplets in the air. Suggest how an infected student could
infect someone else who is sitting in another part of the same classroom.

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Preventing the spread of communicable diseases

Proximity and lifestyle factors can make the spread of pathogens more or less likely. Knowledge of these
factors can be used to reduce or prevent the spread of pathogens. For example, using a condom during
sexual intercourse, covering cuts with plasters and not sharing needles can reduce the chance infection
through direct contact. Living away from sewage systems and having water treatment systems can
reduce the spread of diseases through water.

Hygiene

Simple hygiene measures are one of the most effective ways of preventing the spread of pathogens.
These include:

● Hand washing, especially after using the toilet, before cooking, or after contact with an animal or
someone who has an infectious illness.
● Using disinfectants on kitchen work surfaces, toilets, etc., to reduce the number of pathogens.
● Keeping raw meat away from food that is eaten uncooked to prevent the spread of pathogens.
● Coughing or sneezing into a handkerchief, tissue, or your hands (then washing your hands).
● Keeping agricultural machinery clean to help prevent the spread of plant diseases.

Isolating infected individuals

If someone has an infectious disease, they need to be kept in isolation. The fewer healthy people who
come into contact with the infected person, the less likely it is that the pathogens will be passed on.

Destroying or controlling vectors

Some communicable diseases are controlled by vectors. For example,

mosquitos carry a range of diseases such as malaria or dengue fever.
Aphids transmit over 150 different plant diseases and different types of
beetle carry disease to plants in the form of viral, bacterial and fungal
pathogens. By controlling the number of vectors, the spread of the
disease can be greatly reduced.

Vaccination

During vaccination, doctors introduce a small amount of a harmless form of a specific pathogen into your
body. As a result, if you come into contact with the live pathogen, you will not become ill as your
immune system will be prepared. Vaccination is a very successful way of protecting large numbers of
humans and animals against serious diseases. However, it cannot protect plants against disease as they
do not have an immune system.

Questions

1. State four main ways to prevent the spread of a disease.

2. Copy and complete the table:
How diseases are spread Prevention measures
Air
Direct contact
Water
3. Not everyone who drinks contaminated water will become infected. State the adaptation of the
digestive system that prevents infection in this way.
4. Suggest exactly how pathogens might spread between people who share needles.

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Viral diseases
KW: antiretroviral drugs

Do now: For each scenario, state whether Drill:

pathogens can be spread by direct contact, air, 1. Smoking a risk factor for liver disease.
and water. 2. Obesity is a risk factor for type 2 diabetes.
1. Bathing. 3. Alcohol is a risk factor for cardiovascular
2. Eating and drinking. disease.
3. Sharing needles. 4. Obesity decreases the risk of cardiovascular
4. Coughing and sneezing. disease.
5. Sharing towels. 5. Exercise increases the risk of type 2 diabetes .

Examples of viral diseases

Measles
Measles is a viral disease. It is spread by droplets from an infected
person’s sneeze or cough. The symptoms include a fever (high
temperature) and a red skin rash.

Measles can be very serious and even fatal if there are complications.
Most people are vaccinated against measles when they are young.

Measles is a serious illness and it can be fatal. Therefore, many young people are vaccinated against
measles. Measles often spreads between people quickly because it spreads through droplets in the air
from sneezing or coughing.

There is not treatment for measles, so if someone becomes infected they must be isolated to stop the
spread of the virus.

HIV/ AIDS
HIV is a virus spread by sexual contact, or by exchanging bodily fluids such as blood. This can happen
when people share needles when taking drugs. HIV can also be passed from mother to child in breast
milk. HIV initially causes flu-like symptoms for a few weeks. Usually, the person then does not experience
any symptoms for several years. During this time, HIV can be controlled with antiretroviral drugs. These
stop the virus from replicating in the body. The virus attacks the immune cells (white blood cells). If the
body’s immune system is badly damaged, it cannot cope with other infections or cancers. At this stage,
the virus is known as late stage HIV infection, or AIDS.

There is no cure for HIV/AIDS and no vaccine against it. The spread of the disease can be prevented by
using condoms and not sharing needles.

Questions

1. Name the type of pathogen that causes measles.

2. How is measles spread?
3. What are the symptoms?
4. State two ways the spread of measles can be prevented.
5. Name the type of pathogen that causes HIV.
6. How is HIV spread?
7. What are the initial symptoms of HIV?

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 8. What are antiretroviral drugs and how do they work?
9. How does AIDS develop?
10. How can the spread of HIV be prevented?

Tobacco mosaic virus

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a virus that affects many species of plants, e.g.
tomatoes and tobacco plants. It causes a mosaic pattern on the leaves of the
plants so that parts of the leaves are discoloured. This discolouration means the
plant cannot carry out photosynthesis as well, so the virus affects growth.

Tobacco mosaic virus is spread by direct contact between diseased plant

material and healthy plants, and insects can act as vectors. Cutting and removing
the leaves of an infected plant can help reduce the spread of a disease.

Questions
1. State which type of pathogen that causes tobacco mosaic virus.
2. What are the symptoms of TMV?
3. Explain why TMV affects a plant’s growth.
4. How is TMV spread?
5. How can the spread of TMV be prevented?

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Bacterial diseases
KW: antibiotic, diarrhoea, sexually transmitted
Do now: Name the viral disease.
1. Initially causes flu-like symptoms.
2. Causes a fever and red skin rash.
3. Causes a mosaic pattern on leaves.
4. Controlled with antiretroviral drugs.
5. Develops when HIV attacks the immune
system.
Drill: name the organelle
1. Where aerobic respiration occurs.
2. Where protein synthesis occurs.
3. Where photosynthesis takes place.
4. Controls the activities of the cell.
5. Controls the entry and exit of substances.

Salmonella food poisoning

Salmonella is a type of bacteria that causes food poisoning. Infected people can suffer from fever,
stomach cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea. These symptoms are caused by the toxins that the bacteria
produce.

You can get Salmonella food poisoning by eating food that has been contaminated with Salmonella
bacteria. One common cause of infection is handling raw poultry, eating undercooked food or food
prepared in unhygienic condition where food is contaminated with

In the UK, poultry are vaccinated against Salmonella to control the spread of the disease. The vaccination
prevents the poultry from catching the disease, which stops it from being passed on to humans. To
prevent food poisoning, keep raw chicken away from food that is eaten uncooked, avoid washing raw
chicken (it sprays bacteria around the kitchen), wash hands and surfaces well after handling raw chicken
and cook chicken thoroughly.

Gonorrhoea
Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD). STDs are passed on by sexual contact, e.g. having
unprotected sex. Gonorrhoea is caused by bacteria. A person with gonorrhoea will get pain when they
urinate. Another symptom is a thick yellow or green discharge from the vagina or penis.

Gonorrhoea was originally treated with an antibiotic called penicillin, but this has now become more
difficult because strains of bacteria have become resistant to it. To prevent the spread of gonorrhoea
people should use barrier methods of contraception, such as condoms. All infected individuals should be
treated with antibiotics to prevent the disease spreading in the community.

Questions
1. State how a bacterial infection causes illness.
2. What type of pathogen causes Salmonella food poisoning?
3. How is Salmonella spread?
4. What are the symptoms of Salmonella?
5. How is the spread of Salmonella prevented?
6. Which type of pathogen causes gonorrhoea?
7. How is gonorrhoea spread?
8. How can the spread of gonorrhoea be prevented?
9. What are the symptoms of gonorrhoea?

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Fungal and protist diseases
KW: vector, fungicides
Do now: Name the bacterial disease. Drill: convert the following units
1. Symptoms include vomiting and 1. 1000 mm to µm
diarrhoea. 2. 1000 mm to nm
2. The spread of this disease can be 3. 1000 µm to mm
prevented by using condoms. 4. 1000 µm to nm
3. This spread of this disease can be 5. 1000 nm to µm
prevented by cooking food thoroughly.
4. Causes pain when urinating.
5. Symptoms include a thick yellow or green
discharge from the vagina or penis.

Rose black spot

Rose black spot is a fungus that causes purple or black spots to develop on the leaves of rose plants. The
leaves can then turn yellow and drop off. This means that less photosynthesis can happen, so the plant
does not grow well. It spreads through the environment in water or by the wind.

Gardeners can treat the disease using fungicides and by stripping the plant of its affected leaves. These
leaves then need to be destroyed so that the fungus cannot spread to other rose plants.

Questions

1. Which type of pathogen causes rose black spot?

2. What are the symptoms of rose black spot?
3. Explain why rose black spot affects the growth of rose plants.
4. How is rose black spot spread?
5. How can the spread of rose black spot be prevented?
EXT: Explain why roses affected by black spot produce fewer, smaller flowers than healthy plants.

Malaria
Malaria is caused by a protist. Part of the malarial protist’s life cycle takes place inside the mosquito. The
protists reproduce sexually in the mosquito and asexually in the human body. The mosquitos are vectors;
they pick up the malarial protist when they feed on an infected animal. Every time the mosquito feeds on
another animal, it infects it by inserting the protist into the animal’s blood vessels.

Malaria causes recurrent episodes of fever and can be fatal. The spread of malaria can be reduced by
stopping the mosquitos from breeding.

Mosquitos can breed in standing water, so mosquitos can be prevented from breeding by removing
these water sources. For example, people who live in areas with a risk of malaria should make sure that
they empty or get rid of any containers on their land that fill with rainwater.

People can also be protected from mosquito bites to stop the spread of a disease. Spraying exposed skin
with an insect repellent spray can stop people from being bitten by mosquitos. Sleeping under a
mosquito net can prevent people from being bitten when they are asleep. Insecticides can be used in
homes and offices to kill mosquitos.

Travellers can take antimalarial drugs that kill the parasites in the blood if they are bitten by an infected
mosquito.

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Questions
1. What type of pathogen causes malaria?
2. State a vector of malaria.
3. Describe how malaria is spread.
4. Describe how the malarial protist reproduces.
5. What are the symptoms of malaria?
6. How can the spread of malaria be prevented?
7. Insecticide-treated mosquito nets help prevent the spread of malaria in two ways. Explain how.
EXT: For travellers from the UK going to an area with malaria, doctors suggest the ABCD approach.
This stands for Awareness, Bite prevention, Chemoprophylaxis (antimalarial medicines) and
Diagnosis. Discuss how each of these points would reduce the chance of becoming seriously ill with
malaria.

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Plant diseases (triple only)
KW: aphid, deficiency, chlorosis

Do now: Drill: Convert the following into ordinary

numbers.
1. Calculate the area of a circle with a
radius of 2 cm. 1. 2 x 104

2. Calculate the area of a circle with a 2. 2 x 102

radius of 4 mm.
3. 4 x 101
3. Calculate the area of a circle with a
4. 4 x 105
diameter of 3 cm.
5. 5 x 103
4. Calculate the area of a circle with a
diameter of 6 mm.

Infestation with pests

Plants are vulnerable to viruses, bacteria and fungi but they are also
attacked by pests that cause a lot of damage. Insect pests may both
destroy plants directly and act as vectors of disease. Infestations of pests
are easy to spot because you should be able to see them on the plants.

Aphids have sharp mouthparts that penetrate into the phloem vessels of
the plant so they can feed on the sugar-rich phloem sap. Aphids attack in
huge numbers, depriving the plant of glucose. Aphids also act as vectors
transferring viruses, bacteria and fungi from diseased plants into tissues
of healthy plants on their mouthparts. Aphids can be destroyed using
chemical pesticides or by releasing aphid-eating insects.

Other plant pests such as worms or insect larvae that live in the soil may feed on plant roots, damaging
them so they cannot absorb water and minerals ions effectively. As a result, the plant fails to grow
properly.

Questions

1. How are pest infestations detected?

2. Describe an adaptation of aphids that allow them to penetrate plants.
3. Which part of the plant do aphids penetrate and why?
4. Why are aphids also known as vectors of plant disease?
5. State two ways to protect plants against aphids.
6. Pests that feed on a plant’s roots will stunt its growth. Explain why.

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Deficiency diseases

Deficiency means ‘lack’ or ‘shortage’. Some plant diseases are the result of mineral deficiencies in the
soil. These diseases are non-communicable which means thy are not passed from one plant to another.

For example:

● Nitrates are needed to make proteins and therefore for growth. A lack of nitrates causes stunted
growth.
● Magnesium ions are needed for making chlorophyll, which is needed for photosynthesis. Plants
without enough magnesium suffer from chlorosis, when not enough chlorophyll is made, and
have yellow leaves.

If the missing mineral ions are replaced using fertilisers fairly quickly, the damage can be repaired and
the plant recovers. If not, it will eventually die.

Questions

1. What are plant deficiency diseases?

2. Are deficiency diseases communicable or non-communicable? Explain your answer.
3. Why do plants need nitrate ions from the soil?
4. Describe the deficiency symptoms shown in a plant when there is a lack of nitrate ions
in the soil.
5. Why do plants need magnesium ions from the soil?
6. Describe the deficiency symptoms shown in a plant when there is a lack of magnesium
ions in the soil.
7. What is chlorosis?
8. What are fertilisers used for?
9. Some plants growing in soil with a good supply of minerals show symptoms of mineral
deficiencies such as stunted growth and yellow leaves. Suggest a reason for this.

Detecting plant diseases

The common signs of a plant disease are:

● Stunted growth (e.g. nitrate deficiency)

● Spots on the leaves (e.g. black spot fungus on roses)
● Patches of decay (e.g. blights on potatoes)
● Abnormal growths (e.g. crown galls caused by bacterial infections)
● Malformed stems or leaves (e.g. due to aphid infestations)
● Discolouration (e.g. chlorosis or TMV)
● Presences of visible pests (e.g. aphids)

Identifying plant diseases

Different plant diseases have different symptoms. They can be identified by:

● Looking up the symptoms in a gardening manual or on a gardening website.

● Taking the infected plant into a laboratory, where scientists can identify the pathogen using DNA
analysis.
● Using testing kits that identify the pathogen using monoclonal antibodies.

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Treating plant diseases

Some plant diseases can be treated with pesticides or fungicides. Mineral deficiencies can also be treated
with fertilisers. However, some diseases can not be treated. In such cases, it is important to remove the
diseases plants as quickly as possible to prevent the pathogens from spreading.

Questions

1. Copy and complete the table:

Plant disease Symptoms

2. State three ways that plant diseases can be identified.

3. What should be carried out if there are no available treatments for a plant disease?

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Plant defence responses (triple only)
KW: waxy cuticle, deciduous, cellulose

Do now: Drill: Structural, behavioural or functional

adaptation?
1. Which plant vessels do aphids penetrate
with their mouthparts? 1. Brown bears hibernate over winter.

2. Which mineral ion is essential for making 2. Swallows migrate to warmer climates
proteins? during the winter.

3. Which mineral ion is essential for making 3. Animals that live in hot places have thin
chlorophyll? layers of fat and fur.

4. What is the yellowing of leaves due to a
lack of magnesium ions called?
5. What is used in testing kits that test for
plant pathogens?
4. Arctic animals usually have white fur.
5. Desert animals produce small volumes of
urine and sweat.

Plants have physical, chemical and mechanical defences against pests and pathogens.

Physical defences

● Most plant leaves and stems have a waxy cuticle, which provides a barrier to stop pathogens
entering.
● Plant cells are surrounded by cell walls made from cellulose. These form a physical barrier
against pathogens that make it past the waxy cuticle.
● Plants have layers of dead cells around their stems, for example, the outer part of the bark on
trees. These act as a barrier to stop pathogens entering. When the dead cells are lost or shed,
the pathogens fall off with them.
● Leaf fall – deciduous trees lose their leaves in autumn. Any pathogens that infect the leaves, such
as rose black spot, fall off the tree when the leaves are lost.

Chemical defences

● Some plants can produce antibacterial chemicals which kill bacteria. For example, the mint plant
and witch hazel which are often used as mild antiseptics.
● Other plants produce poisons which can deter herbivores, e.g. foxgloves. Animals quickly learn to
avoid eating plants that make them feel unwell.

Mechanical defences

● Some plants have adapted to have thorns and hairs. These deter animals from touching and
eating them.
● Some plants can mimic other organisms. For example, the passion flower has bright yellow spots
on its leaves which look like butterfly eggs. This stops other butterflies laying their eggs there.

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.

Questions

1. State three ways a plant might defend itself against pathogens. Explain how each plant defence
works.
2. State three ways a plant might defend itself against attack by a herbivore.
3. Discuss the similarities and differences between the ways animals and plants defend themselves
against the attack of pathogens.

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Human defence mechanisms
KW: phagocytosis, antibody, antitoxin, antigen

Do now: Drill: Simplify the following ratios.

1. State a vector of malaria. 1. 12:2
2. State a symptom of malaria. 2. 12:4
3. What type of pathogen causes malaria? 3. 6:2
4. What type of pathogen causes rose black spot? 4. 28:7
5. State two ways rose black spot is spread. 5. 280:70

First line of defence

Humans have two lines of defence: the first line of defence includes non-specific defence systems that
prevent pathogens from entering the body using physical and chemical barriers; the second line of
defence is the immune system which targets specific pathogens that have entered the body.

These are the body’s non-specific defence systems:

● The skin acts as a barrier to pathogens. It also secretes antimicrobial substances which kill
pathogens.
● If you damage or cut the skin, the barrier is broken but the body restores it. You bleed, and the
platelets in your blood form a clot that dries into a scab. This forms a seal over the cut, stopping
pathogens getting in. It also stops you bleeding.
● Hair and mucus in your nose trap particles that could contain pathogens.
● The trachea and bronchi secrete mucus to trap pathogens.
● The trachea and bronchi are lined with cilia. These are hair-like structures, which waft the mucus
up to the back of the throat where it can be swallowed.
● The stomach produces hydrochloric acid. This kills pathogens that are ingested in food and drink.

Questions

1. What is the body’s first line of defence?

2. Why is the body’s first line of defence described as being non-specific?
3. Describe how the skin prevents pathogens from entering the body.
4. What happens when you cut your skin and why?
5. Describe how pathogens entering through the nose are stopped.
6. What is a ciliated cell?
7. Describe how cells in the trachea and bronchi prevent pathogens from entering the body.
8. Name the acid found in the stomach.
9. State the function of the acid found on the stomach.
10. The SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) causes SARS, a respiratory disease. It can enter the body by
being inhales in droplets. Describe one feature of the body that helps to prevent SARS-CoV from
entering the body.

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Second line of defence – immune system

If your body’s physical and chemical barriers do not succeed, pathogens can infect the body. However,
your body has evolved an immune system, which fights and destroys pathogens that have overcome the
first line of defence.

White blood cells are specialised cells that identify and destroy pathogens. These cells are part of the
blood, and so are constantly circulating around the body – if they encounter anything they cannot
recognise, they will destroy it. There are three main ways a white blood cell can destroy a foreign body:
ingest pathogen, produce antibodies and produce antitoxins. An easy way to remember these three roles
of white blood cells is to use the mnemonic: WIP PAPA.

Phagocytes are a type of white blood cell that can ingest pathogens meaning they can engulf and destroy
them. Another word for this process is phagocytosis.

Each strain of a pathogen has a unique set of proteins on its surface called antigens. Lymphocytes (a type
of white blood cell) learn to recognise these antigens and can produce special chemicals called
antibodies to target and destroy the pathogen. The shape of the antibody matches the shape of the
antigen on the pathogen. Once your white blood cells have made a particular type of antibody unique to
a particular pathogen strain, it can make the antibody much more rapidly the second time your white
blood cells meet the pathogen. This explains why you might get ill the first time you are infected by a
particular pathogen. After this first encounter, you develop immunity against it meaning you do not
become ill during subsequent infections; the rapid production of antibodies kills the pathogens before
they have the chance to reproduce enough to cause symptoms.

The final role of white blood cells is to produce antitoxins. These are chemicals, which neutralise the
toxins produced by pathogenic bacteria.

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Questions

1. Define the body’s second line of defence.

2. Explain why the body’s second line of defence is known as being specific.
3. Which mnemonic helps you remember the roles of white blood cells? What does it stand for?
4. What is phagocytosis?
5. What are lymphocytes and how do they destroy pathogens?
6. Antibodies are chemicals that are specific to a particular pathogen. True or false? Explain your
answer.
7. Explain the difference between an antigen and an antibody.
8. Explain why antitoxins are useful for bacterial pathogens but not useful against viral pathogens.
9. What is immunity?
10. As a child, John suffers from measles. Explain why John is unlikely to get ill with measles again.
11. German measles are caused by a different virus, which John has never had before. Explain why
John could still become ill from German measles.

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