DIGITAL LOGIC FAMILIES
LESSON 8
Introduction to Digital Logic
 It has evolved over the years of process hassled to the
development of variety families.
 Each has its own advantages and limitations.
 All the technologies discussed here are: DL, RTL, DTL, ECL,
TTL and CMOS.
 All of these were developed in the 1950’s and 1960’s. But
some are still use In the present time.
What is an IC? - Is an integrated circuits, a piece of
semiconductor material that contains all the transistors,
resistors and capacitors that is needed when creating a circuit
or system.
Character of Digital Logics
 Fan In - number of inputs connected to the gate without
any degradation in the voltage level
 Fan Out - number standard loads that theoutput of th gate
can drive wthout impairment
 Power Dissipation
 Propagation Delay
 Noise Margin
DL or Diode Logic
 Most primitive of all the digital logic families.
 It is extremely simple and inexpensive because it only uses
passive components.
 Sometime it combine diodes and resistors.
 Does not use active components therefore inversion is not
available.
 It only provide ANR and OR functions.
 This is an obsolete family, because of its limitations in
terms of inversion and degradation.
RTL or Resistor-Transistor Logic
 It was invented around 1956.
 Unlike DL, it uses active components, therefore can
provide inversion.
 Is very inefficient because it dissipates a great amount of
power through heat.
 It has 2 main components:
 DCTL ( Direct-Coupled transistor logic)- it is directly
connected to BJT for it to save space and reduced
fabrications.
 RCTL (Resistor-Capacitor Transistor Logic)- when the
capacitor are placed in parallel patter to speed up
operation.
MULTIVIBRATORS
DTL or Diode Transistor Logic
 This is a major improvement over DL and RTL because it
eliminates signal degradation and reduces power
dissipation.
CTDL or Complemented Transistor Logic
- which means the capacitor is placed in parallel with the
base resistor
HTL or High-Threshold Logic
- when the power supply is connected to the base of
transistor.
ECL or Emitter-Coupled Logic
Was invented in 1956 by Hannon S. Yorke at IBM.
It is fast but it requires substantial amount of power which in
turn produces high heat dissipation
In ECL input impedance is high heat dissipation while the
output impedance is low.
Was originally known CURRENT STEERING LOGIC because
current logic can be steered to one side of the differential
amplifier while the other side is shut off.
CURRENT MODE LOGIC or CURRENT SWITCH EMITTER LOGIC.
TTL or Transistor-Transistor Logic
Was invented in 1961 by James L. Buie at TRW.
This result to a higher level of integration, it is also the father of
DTL because it discharges the BE junction of the output quickly.
Sylvania introduced the first gate generations of TTL in 1963.
From then on, newer generation have been designed to speed
up technology particularly in the 70’s-80’s
6400 Great success did not have a geat success and it was
transitional seried between 5400 and 7400 in case of
temperature ranges
CMOS or Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
 Was invented in 1962 by Frank Wanlass at Fairchild.
 This designed completely revolutionized electronics the
electronics industry.
 N and p transistors are dual to each other that they can be
combined to provide logic by reducing power
consumption.
 Unlike the others CMOS reduced the power consumption
and heat dissipation. It only consumes power when it
changes to logic state and only happen when both
transistors are simultaneously active and conduct current.
 It is the leading technology for VLSI circuits because it is
highly integrated.
Multivibrators
 A multivibrator is an electronic circuit that switches
quickly due to positive feedback between multiple states.
 These are sequential logic circuits that operate
continuously between two distinct states of HIGH and
LOW.
 The multivibrator circuit oscillates between a "HIGH" state
and a "LOW" state, producing a continuous output. The
output of the switch is harmonic.
 Currently, three types of multi-vibrator circuits are used in
the industry: unstable, monostable and bistable. 3. Bistable Multivibrator – These circuits are stable in both
possible states and external stimuli can flip them from one
Types of Multivibrators state to the other. They are also considered to be a “flip-flop”
circuit type.
1. Unstable Multivibrator – The circuit is not considered stable
in either of the two possible states. It continually switches from
one of the potential states to the other, but does not require a
clock pulse or other input in order to operate.

THE MULTIVIBRATOR’S PRIMARY COMPONENTS

 There are two main components in every multivibrator:
the bistable circuit and two passive networks that are
connected in a basic feedback loop.
2. Monostable Multivibrator – One of the circuit’s two states is
 The networks in the circuit can either be monostable
considered transient and the other stable.
(resistive), astable (resistive-capacitive), or bistable. They
A trigger of some type causes the circuit to change to the
are used in a number of systems where a timed interval or
unstable state and it becomes stable again after a
a square wave is required, including early television
predetermined time frame. These circuits create a timing
systems.
period of finite length that an event triggers. Also known as one
 H. Abraham and E. Block described the first multivibrator
shot multivibrator.
circuit in 1919.

FLIP-FLOPS

 A flip-flop is a sequential device that typically samples its

input and only changes its output at the time determined
by the clock signal. Along with flip-flops,
 Latches are the basic building blocks of most
sequential circuits. A latch is a sequential device that
continuously monitors all inputs and changes their
output at any time regardless of a clock signal.
The Difference between flip-flops and latches is that a flip-flop
has a CLK input and latches doesn’t.
 A flip-flop is a binary storage device which can store
binary bit either 0 or 1. It has two stable states, HIGH and
LOW. It is also known as the bistable multivibrator.
Propagation delay
- or gate delay is the length of time that the output of the logic
gate begins to stabilize and effectively changes as the input to
the logic gate becomes stable and effectively changes.
The propagation delay may differ depending if the output
makes a LOW-to-HIGH or HIGH-to-LOW transition.
With an S-R latch, a LOW-to HIGH transition on S can cause a
LOW-to-HIGH transition on Q, so a propagation delay tpLH(SQ)
occurs, as shown in transition
1. Similarly, a HIGH-to-LOW transition on S can cause a
HIGH-to-LOW transmission on Q, as shown in transition
2. Corresponding transitions on QN are not shown in the
figure, which would have propagation delays tpLH(SQN)
and tpLH(RQN).
TYPES OF FLIP-FLOPS
1. SR Flip-flop
one of the simplest sequential circuits and consists of two gates
connected
 2 inputs in addition to the clock (CLK): labeled S’ and R’
 2 outputs labeled Q and Q’
The output of each gate is connected to one of the inputs of
the other gate, giving a form of positive feedback or ‘cross-
coupling’
The SR flip-flop can be considered as a 1-bit memory, since it
stores the input pulse even after it has passed.
2. D Flip-flop
 D stands for Data or Delay. It has two inputs in addition to
the CLK and has two outputs. The inputs are labeled D and
CLK. The outputs are labeled Q and QN.
 The major drawback of the SR flip-flop is overcome by the
D type flip-flop. This flip-flop may be called a Data flip-flop
because of its ability to ‘latch’ and remember data, or a
Delay flip-flop because latching and remembering data
 can be used to create a delay in the progress of that data
through a circuit.
 To avoid the ambiguity in the title therefore, it is usually
known simply as the D Type.
 The simplest form of D Type flip-flop is basically a high
activated SR type with an additional inverter to ensure
that the S and R inputs cannot both be high or both low at
the same time. This simple modification prevents both the
indeterminate and non-allowed states of the SR flip-flop.
The S and R inputs are now replaced by a single D input,
and all D type flip-flops have a clock input.
relationship. This is why there are different types of flip-
flops; they are all sensitive to clock edges, but they
perform different actions in response to the input states.
 The “T” in “T flip-flop” stands for “toggle.” When you
toggle a light switch, you are changing from one state (on
or off) to the other state (off or on). This is equivalent to
what happens when you provide a logic-high input to a T
flip-flop: if the output is currently logic high, it changes to
logic low; if it’s currently logic low, it changes to logic high.
A logic-low input causes the T flip-flop to maintain its
current output state.

3. JK FLIP – FLOP APPLICATIONS OF MULTIVIBRATORS

 JK flip-flop is named after Jack Kilby who was an engineer  Frequency divider
working at Texas Instruments. He designed the integrated  saw tooth generator
circuit for the JK flip-flop in 1958.  wave and pulse generators
 The JK Flip-flop is also called a programmable flip-flop  standard frequency source
because, using its inputs, J, K, S and R, it can be made to  radar and TV circuits
mimic the action of any of the other flip-flop types. It has  memory element in computer
two inputs in addition to the CLK and has two possible
outputs. The inputs are labeled J-input, K-input and CLK. Different applications for every type of multivibrators.
The outputs are labeled Q and QN. Figure 7 shows the 1. Unstable multivibrators may be used in radio gears to
basic configuration for a JK flip-flop using only four NAND transmit and receive radio signals.
gates. The circuit is similar to the clocked SR flip- 2. Monostable multivibrators are often used as delay and
flop shown but in Figure 7, it can be seen that although timing circuits. It can be also used for temporary
the clock input is the same as in the clocked SR flip-flop, memories.
gate NAND 1 in Figure 7 is now a three input gate and the 3. Bistable multivibrators may be used as a frequency
set input (S) been replaced by an input labeled J, and the divider.
third input provides feedback from the Q output.
Applications of Flip-flops
4. T FLIP – FLOPS bounce elimination switch,
 A T flip-flop can be attached to a D flip-flop or a JK flip- data storage,
flop. It puts a toggle to the clock input of the D or JK flip- data transfer,
flop. If the T flip-flop is used in a D flip-flop, the D input is latch,
directly connected to the QN output. If it is used in a JK registers,
flip-flop, the J and K inputs are hard-wired to 1 (HIGH). counters,
The essential characteristic of a flip-flop is that it changes frequency division,
its output state in response to a positive or negative memory,
transition on the control signal. But there is more to a flip- etc.
flop than this: we also have to define the input-to-output

LESSON 10: REGISTER

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT  is one of a small set of data holding places that are part of
(CPU REGISTER) the computer processor.
 is a very fast computer memory used to speed the
execution of computer programs .
 A register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or
any kind of data (such as a bit sequence or individual
characters).
These are the top of the memory hierarchy, and are the fastest
way for the system to manipulate data. In a very simple
microprocessor, it consists of a single memory location, usually
called an accumulator.
are normally measured by number of bits they can hold .
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
is the primary component of a computer that processes
instructions. It runs the operating system and applications,
constantly receiving input from the user or active software
programs. It processes the data and produces output, which
may stored by an application or displayed on the screen.
Vonn Neumann Architecture
Registers
 Small memory spaces inside the processor.
Difference between RISC AND CISC
Sn RISC
1 Small set of instruction with fixed (32 bits) for
mat and most register based instructions.
2 Addressing modes are limited to 3-5.
3 Large numbers (32-192) of GPRs(General purp
ose registers) with mostly split data cache and
instruction cache.
4 Most hardwired without control memory.
 Can each hold any single values.
 Are termed as “special registers” or “general registers”.
PC-Program counter
 Stores instruction in order.
 Keeps a check on where the next instruction is in main
memory.
MAR-Memory Address
 Temporarily stores address of next instruction that needs
to be executed by processor.
 Addresses are stored so processor knows where in main
memory to look for the instruction.
 Addresses are put into the MAR by program counter.
RISC AND CISC
are technologies on which design and architecture of
microprocessor is based
RISC stands for REDUCED INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER
 is a computer instruction set that allows a computer's
microprocessor to have fewer cycles per instruction than a
complex instruction set computer.
 A RISC has a small set of simple and general instructions,
rather than a large set of complex and specialized ones.
CISC stands for COMPLEX INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER
 The hardware is controlled by instructions coded in
control memory.
 Instruction is called microinstruction and
 coding process is called microprogramming.
 Each microinstructions produces control signal to control
hardware of computer. It is more complex but less
efficient processor designing technique.
CISC
Large set of instructions with variable format
(16-64 bits per instructions)
12-24 addressing modes.
8-24 GPRs with a unified cache for instructio
n and data, recent designs also use split cach
es
Most micro coded using memories (ROM) bu
t modern CISC also used hardwired control.