A

Micro Project Report Chart on

Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit
Under Subject: - Digital Techniques Microprocessor (22323)
Semester: III

Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education, Mumbai

Department of Engineering

(Information Technology)

Matoshri Aasarabai Polytechnic, Eklahare, Nashik

Academic Year: 2023-24
 Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education, Mumbai
Matoshri Aasarabai Polytechnic, Eklahare, Nashik

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that following students of THIRD SEMESTER Diploma
Engineering Program in IT have successfully completed the Micro-
Project.

Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit ……

Under my supervision, in the p a r t ia l fulfillment o f Course Digital Techniques

Microprocessor (22323) for Academic Year 2023-2024 as per prescribed in the MSBTE
“I-Scheme” curriculum.
Roll No Enrollment No. Exam Seat Number Name of Students

9. 2211700281 SHRADDHA VIJAY CHAKOR

42. 2211700319 SWARA YOGESH SAKHARE

44. 2211700321 MAYURI VIJAY SALVE

Date: Place: Nashik.

Subject Teacher Head of Department Principal

(Prof.M.N.Pawar) (Mr.M.P.Bhandkkar) (Dr.S.J.Bagul)
 MATOSHRI AASARABAI
POLYTECHNIC,EKLAHARE,NASHIK
Department of Applied Science
Academic Year-2023-24

Index of Micro Project Report

Programme:-IF3I
Semester: - Third
Course:- DTM
Course Code: - 22323

Title of Micro Project-: Develop a Project on Flip-Flop LED

Chaser Circuit

Sr. No. Details Page No.

1 Abstract 1

2 Intoduction 2

3 Materials And Methods 3

4 Theoretical Background 4

5 Practical Application 11

6 Bibliography 13

Signature of Student Signature of Faculty

 ANNEXURE I

Micro Project of DTM(22323)

Title of Micro Project: - Develop a Project on Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit

Group Members:-
Sr.no Roll No Entrollment No Exam Seat No Name of Student
1. 9 2211700281 Shraddha Chakor
2. 42 2211700319 Swara Sakhare
3. 44 2211700321 Mayuri Salve

Marks Indicators for different level of Performance (Evaluation Scale 1 to 6)

No
Criteria Obtained
(Out of 6) Poor (1-2) Average(3-4) Good(5-6)
Relevance to Related to very few
1 Related to at least one CO Adressed at lease one CO
the course LOs
Content of Not relevant and Relevant and sufficient for Relevant , sufficient for
2
project sufficient topic topic and well organized
Language of Grammatically Grammatically appropriate Grammatically appropriate
3
Project inappropriate but ineffective and effective
Completed and Completed within due date Completed and submitted
Completion
4 submitted after due but took slightly more time the complete project
of project
date. to submit complete project. within specified due date.
Prepared an improper
Prepared appropriate
Report report with Prepared the report with
5 format of the report with
Preparation unsatisfactory satisfactory content
sufficient content details
content
Not included key Presented with the help of
Included key points but
points, missed details power point, Highlighted
6 Presentation lacks considerable
and considerable key points, accurate and
information
information considerable information
Not referred more Referred at –least 5
Resources/ Referred at-least 3 relevant
7 than two sources, relevant sources, 3 most
References sources, at least 2 latest
very old reference latest

Total:
Average
(Out of 6)

Name and Signature of Guide

Prof. M.N.Pawar
 MATOSHRI AASARABAI POLYTECHNIC,EKLAHARE,NASHIK
Department of Science and Humanity
Log Book for Micro- Project

Semester: - 3rd Programme / Code: - IF3I

Course / Code: - DTM Class: Third Year
Topic of the Micro- Project:-Develop a Project on Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit

Sr. Name of Group Members. Sign.

No.
1 Shraddha Vijay Chakor
2 Swara Yogesh Sakhare
3 Mayuri Vijay Salve

Week Members Teacher’s

Discussion & Details Teacher’s Comment
No. Present Sign.
Discussion on the concept of Micro project
1
with teacher

Finalization of Group and Project topic with

2
Project Proposal submission

Preliminary discussion with guide about

3
content of Micro project

Related Information Gathered by team

4
about project

5 Organizing the information for project work

Discussing project related queries with

6
teacher if any

Preparation of Micro project model or

7
content

8 Finalizing the project work by teacher

9 Report writing

Presentation , Oral Submission of project

10
and Project report
 ANNEXURE II
Evaluation Sheet for the Micro Project
Academic Year: 2023-2024 Semester: Third
Course: DTM Course Code: 22323
Name of Faculty: - Prof.M.N.Pawar
Title of the Project: “Develop a Project
on Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit”
COs addressed by the Micro Project:
d) Select relevant water treatment process for various applications

e) Use relevant batteries for different applications

f) Use relevant metals, alloys & insulating materials in various applications

Major Learning Outcomes achieved by students by doing the Projects:

a) Practical Outcomes:- .
.
b) Unit Outcomes in Cognitive Domain:-
.
.
c) Outcomes in Affective Domain:-
.
.
Comment /Suggestion about team work /Leadership/ Inter-personal communication
.

Marks out of 2 for

Marks out of 3
Roll performance in oral Total out
Student Name for performance
No. / presentation of 05
in group activity
activity
9 Shraddha Vijay Chakor
42 Swara Yogesh Sakhare
44 Mayuri Vijay Salve

R)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With deep sense of gratitude we would like to thanks all the people who have
lit our path with their kind guidance. We are very grateful to these intellectuals
who did their best to help during our project work.

It is our proud privilege to express deep sense of gratitude to, Dr. S. J. Bagul
Principal of Matoshri Aasarabai Polytechnic, Eklahare, Nashik, for his
comments and kind permission to complete this Micro Project.

We remain indebted to Prof.M.N.Pawar, Head Department of Applied

Science, for his suggestion and valuable guidance.

The special gratitude goes to our internal guide

Prof.M.N.Pawar, technical staff members, and non-technical staff members,
Humanities & Science Department for their expensive, excellent and
precious guidance in completion of this work.

Name of Students:
1. SAKHARE SWARA
2. SALVE MAYURI
3. CHAKOR SHRADDHA
 GROUP PHOTOGRAPH WITH MICRO-PROJECT

Students Name from left/right hand side:

Name of Students:
1. SAKHARE SWARA
2. SALVE MAYURI
3. CHAKOR SHRADDHA
Write project Report in following sequence:-
1. Abstract (250 words or less )

2. Introduction and Purpose :-

(Sometimes this section is called 'Background'. Whatever its name, this
section introduces the topic of the project, notes any information already
available, explains why you are interested in the project, and states the
purpose of the project.)

3. Materials and Methods:-

(List the materials you used in your project and describe the procedure that
you used to perform the project. If you have a photo or diagram of your
project, this is a good place to include it.)

4. Theoretical Background
Explicitly state your hypothesis or Law, Definition or Explanation of
subject topic you can understand under this project.

5. Practical Application
What is the importance of this study? Of what use is a study such as this?

6. Bibliography
 Use proper citing format for books, journals, and websites.
 Websites should include author of article if given, title of article and
the date the article was posted or retrieved from website.
NOTE: Must have at least 5 reliable resources.
 “Develop A Project on Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit”

ABSTRACT

As students in our third semester at SYIT, we find ourselves at a crossroads where the theories and
concepts of our textbooks yearn to leap off the pages and manifest in the tangible world of circuits
and electronics. At the heart of this educational juncture lies the Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit
microproject, a beacon of illumination that transcends the boundaries of classroom learning and
offers an exceptional educational experience.
Our mission is clear: to envision, craft, and breathe life into a Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit. This
circuit, a captivating display of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) choreographed to perform an
enchanting dance, is controlled by the mystical forces of flip-flops. Yet, the significance of this
project goes far beyond the flickering lights and wires that compose it.
Our educational voyage unfolds across four key dimensions:
1. Embarking on a Flip-Flop Journey: In this microproject, we embark on a journey into the
enigmatic realm of flip-flops. From the elementary D flip-flops to the versatile JK flip-flops,
we strive to unveil their inner workings and decode their role in the digital universe. This
endeavor establishes the bedrock upon which we will build our understanding of digital
logic and sequential circuits.
2. Deciphering the Digital Code: At the heart of our exploration is the realm of digital logic,
where we delve into the mechanics of logic gates - AND, OR, NOT, and their kin. We
immerse ourselves in the art of logic, learning how to weave together these electronic
threads to craft complex digital patterns.
3. Crafting with Precision: Our project is an artistic endeavor. We wield soldering irons like
brushes, and electronic components become the pigments of our creation. Selecting
components, soldering them skillfully, and intricately wiring them together is an art form
through which we transform knowledge into physical reality.
4. Venturing into Digital Artistry: For those of us who seek to push the boundaries, the
microcontroller beckons. A tool like Arduino enables us to delve into programming and
bring our LED chaser patterns to life with a flourish of code. It's where creativity meets
control, and innovation takes center stage.
Our toolkit is comprehensive, brimming with electronic components such as flip-flops, LEDs,
resistors, capacitors, power supplies, and connecting wires. Each component is not just a piece of
hardware; it is a building block that constructs the path to engineering mastery.
The canvas of possibilities is as vast as our imaginations. Some of us may elect to traverse the well-
trodden path, creating a basic LED chaser. Others may venture into the realm of digital
programming, authoring their own LED sequences, sculpting light to their creative whims.
In essence, the Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit microproject is more than an academic exercise; it is
a transformative journey. It is a bridge that connects bookish knowledge to practical dexterity,
awakening curiosity and kindling a passion for the hidden world of electrons and engineering.
With every LED pulsation, we step closer to the digital frontier. We become the architects of a
future where, as engineers, we shape the course of technology one LED at a time. This project is a
celebration of knowledge, an ode to creativity, and a testament to the power of hands-on learning. It
is a symphony of circuits and light, and we are the conductors of this fascinating educational
orchestra.

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 “Develop A Project on Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit”

INTRODUCTION
In the ever-evolving realm of electronics and electrical engineering, there exists a rich
tapestry of concepts, principles, and practical applications that form the backbone of
modern technology. As students progress through their educational journey, the
exploration of these concepts takes center stage, enabling them to unlock the vast
potential of the digital world. The Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit microproject, designed for
students embarking on their third semester of the diploma program at SYIT (assuming
"SYIT" pertains to your esteemed institution), stands as a testament to this educational
voyage.

Embedded within this microproject is a fascinating exploration of digital sequential logic, a

cornerstone of modern electronics. It delves into the world of sequential circuits and
presents a hands-on opportunity to comprehend their inner workings. Beyond mere
theory, this endeavor equips students with practical skills, fostering their ability to design
and construct electronic circuits while igniting their curiosity for the world of
microcontrollers and programming.

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Materials and Methods

The basic components required for this project include:

 Flip-Flops (e.g., D flip-flops or JK flip-flops)
 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
 Resistors
 Capacitors
 Power Supply
 Breadboard or PCB (Printed Circuit Board)
 Connecting wires
 Optionally, a microcontroller (e.g., Arduino) for advanced control

Methods: Our Journey to Creating the Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit

Creating our Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit might sound like a big challenge, but it's like solving a fun
puzzle step by step. Here's how we're going to do it:
1. Gathering Our Tools: Just like a chef gathers ingredients for a recipe, we'll collect our electronic
tools and parts. This includes our flip-flops, LEDs (our tiny lights), resistors (for light control),
capacitors (for stability), a power supply (to give energy), and a breadboard or PCB (our electronic
building platform). Plus, we'll have lots of colorful wires for connecting everything.
2. Understanding Flip-Flops: Our first step is to become friends with flip-flops. We'll learn what they
are and how they work. Think of flip-flops like light switches that can be turned on and off in a
specific order. We'll use them to control our LEDs.
3. Creating the Circuit: Now comes the exciting part - building the circuit! We'll use our breadboard
or PCB as a canvas. Just like connecting dots, we'll connect our flip-flops, LEDs, resistors, and
capacitors with colorful wires following a special plan (schematic). This will make sure our lights
blink in the right pattern.
4. Logic Gates and Digital Logic: Imagine it's like solving a logic puzzle. We'll explore logic gates
(AND, OR, NOT) and figure out how they help us control our lights. It's like learning the rules of a
game.
5. Testing and Tweaking: Once we've built our circuit, it's time to test it. We'll plug in our power
supply and watch our LEDs dance. If they don't dance the way we want, we'll tweak (adjust) our
circuit until they do.
6. Optional: Adding a Microcontroller: For those who want to level up, we can add a
microcontroller like an Arduino. This is like giving our circuit a brain. With some simple computer
code, we can make our lights do all sorts of cool tricks - blink faster, slower, or in any order we like.
7. Learning from Mistakes: Don't worry if things don't work perfectly at first. In electronics, we
often learn the most when things don't go as planned. We'll troubleshoot (fix) any issues and use
them as learning opportunities.
8. Documentation: Throughout our project, we'll keep records. This can be as simple as taking notes
or drawing diagrams. Documenting what we do helps us remember, learn, and share our experience
with others.
9. Celebrating Success: When our circuit is working just as we imagined, it's time to celebrate! We've
created something amazing, and it's a moment to be proud of.
10. Sharing Our Knowledge: Finally, we can share what we've learned with our classmates and maybe
even demonstrate our LED chaser to them. Sharing knowledge is a wonderful way to learn and help
others.

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 “Develop A Project on Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit”

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

So far you have encountered with combinatorial logic, i.e. circuits for which the
output depends only on the inputs. In many instances it is desirable to have the
next output depending on the current output. A simple example is a counter,
where the next number to be output is determined by the current number stored.
Circuits that remember their current output or state are often called sequential
logic circuits. Clearly, sequential logic requires the ability to store the current
state. In other words, memory is required by sequential logic circuits, which can
be created with boolean gates. If you arrange the gates correctly, they will
remember an input value. This simple concept is the basis of RAM (random
access memory) in computers, and also makes it possible to create a wide variety
of other useful circuits. Memory relies on a concept called feedback. That is, the
output of a gate is fed back into the input. The simplest possible feedback circuit
using two inverters is shown below (Fig.1):

Fig.1: Simplest realization of feedback circuit

If you follow the feedback path, you can see that if Q happens to be 1 (or 0), it
will always be 1 (or 0). Since it's nice to be able to control the circuits we create,
this one doesn't have much use -- but it does let you see how feedback works. It
turns out that in "real" sequential circuits, you can actually use this sort of simple
inverter feedback approach. The memory elements in these circuits are called
flip-flops. A flip-flop circuit has two outputs, one for the normal value and one
for the complement value of the stored bit. Binary information can enter a flip-
flop in a variety of ways and gives rise to different types of flip-flops.

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 “Develop A Project on Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit”

RS Flip-Flop

RS flip-flop is the simplest possible memory element. It can be constructed from

two NAND gates or two NOR gates. Let us using NOR gates as shown and S are
referred to as the Reset and Set inputs, respectively. The outputs Q and Q' are
complements of each other and are respectively. The binary state of the flip
output. When Q=1 and Q'=0, it is in the the reset/clear state (or 0-state).

Circuit Diagram:

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 “Develop A Project on Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit”

Characteristic Table:

Debounce circuit :
An elementary example using this flip-flop is the debounce circuit.
Suppose a piece of electronics is to change state under the action of a mechanical
switch. When this switch is moved from position S to R (S=0, R=1), the contacts
make and break several times at R before settling to good contact. It is desirable
that the electronics should respond to the first contact and then remain stable,
rather than switching back and forth as the circuit makes and breaks. This is
achieved by RS flip-flop which is reset to Q=0 by the first signal R=1 and
remains in a fixed state until the switch is moved back to position S, when the
signal S=1 sets the flip-flop to Q=1.

Gated or Clocked RS Flip-Flop

It is sometimes desirable in sequential logic circuits to have a

bistable RS flip-flop that only changes state when certain conditions are met
regardless of the condition of either the Set or the Reset inputs. By connecting a
2-input AND gate in series with each input terminal of the RS NOR Flip-flop a
Gated RS Flip-flop can be created. This extra conditional input is called an
"Enable" input and is given the prefix of "EN" as shown below. When the
Enable input "EN" = 0, the outputs of the two AND gates are also at logic level
0, (AND Gate principles) regardless of the condition of the two inputs S and R,
latching the two outputs Q and Q’ into their last known state. When the enable
input "EN" = 1, the circuit responds as a normal RS bistable flip-flop with the
two AND gates becoming transparent to the Set and Reset signals. This Enable
input can also be connected to a clock timing signal adding clock
synchronisation to the flip-flop creating what is sometimes called a "Clocked SR
Flip-flop".

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 “Develop A Project on Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit”

So a Gated/Clocked RS Flip-flop operates as a standard bistable

latch but the outputs are only activated when a logic "1" is applied to its EN
input and deactivated by a logic "0". The property of this flip-flop is summarized
in its characteristic table where Qn is the logic state of the previous output and
Qn+1 is that of the next output and the clock input being at logic 1 for all the R
and S input combinations.

Circuit Diagram:

Characteristic Table:

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 “Develop A Project on Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit”

D FLIP-FLOP

An RS flip-flop is rarely used in actual sequential logic because of its undefined

outputs for inputs R= S= 1. It can be modified to form a more useful circuit
called D flip-flop, where D stands for data. The D flip-flop has only a single data
input D as shown in the circuit diagram. That data input is connected to the S
input of an RS flip-flop, while the inverse of D is connected to the R input. To
allow the flip-flop to be in a holding state, a D-flip flop has a second input called
Enable, EN. The Enableinput is AND-ed with the D-input.

• When EN=0, irrespective of D-input, the R = S = 0 and the state is held.

• When EN= 1, the S input of the RS flip-flop equals the D input and R is the
inverse of D. Hence, output Q follows D, when EN= 1.
• When EN returns to 0, the most recent input D is ‘remembered'.

The circuit operation is summarized in the characteristic table for EN=1.

Circuit Diagram:

Characteristic Table:

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JK FLIP-FLOP:

The JK flip flop (JK means Jack Kilby, a Texas instrument engineer, who
invented it) is the most versatile flip-flop, and the most commonly used flip flop.
Like the RS flip-flop, it has two data inputs, J and K, and an EN/clock pulse
input (CP). Note that in the following circuit diagram NAND gates are used
instead of NOR gates. It has no undefined states, however. The fundamental
difference of this device is the feedback paths to the AND gates of the input, i.e.
Q is AND-ed with K and CP and Q’ with J and CP.

The JK flip-flop has the following characteristics:

• If one input (J or K) is at logic 0, and the other is at logic 1, then the output is
set
or reset (by J and K respectively), just like the RS flip-flop.
• If both inputs are 0, then it remains in the same state as it was before the clock
pulse occurred; again like the RS flip flop. CP has no effect on the output.
• If both inputs are high, however the flip-flop changes state whenever a clock
pulse occurs; i.e., the clock pulse toggles the flip-flop again and again until the
CP
goes back to 0 as shown in the shaded rows of the characteristic table above.
Since this condition is undesirable, it should be eliminated by an improvised
form
of this flip-flop as discussed in the next section

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 “Develop A Project on Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit”

History Of Flip-Flop

The first electronic flip-flop was invented in 1918 by William Eccles and F. W.
Jordon. It was initially called the Eccles–Jordan trigger circuit and consisted of
two active elements (vacuum tubes).

The flip-flop types (RS, D, T, and JK) were first discussed in a 1954 UCLA
course on computer design by Montgomery Phister and in his book Logical
Design of Digital Computers. The author was at the time working at Hughes
Aircraft under Dr. Eldred Nelson, who had coined the term JK for a flip-flop
which changed states when both inputs were on. The other names were coined
by Phister. They differ slightly from some of the definitions given below

The origin of the name for the JK flip-flop is detailed by P. L. Lindley, a JPL
engineer, in a letter to EDN, an electronics design magazine. The letter is dated
June 13, 1968, and was published in the August edition of the newsletter. In the
letter, Mr. Lindley explains that he heard the story of the JK flip-flop from Dr.
Eldred Nelson, who is responsible for coining the term while working at Hughes
Aircraft. Flip-flops in use at Hughes at the time were all of the type that came to
be known as J-K. In designing a logical system, Dr. Nelson assigned letters to
flip-flop inputs as follows: #1: A & B, #2: C & D, #3: E & F, #4: G & H, #5: J &
K

Latches

Fundamental bistable circuits (latches) are usually implemented by 2-input NOR

and NAND logic gates acting as the inverting amplifiers above. The two circuit
inputs are completely decoupled from the outputs and the feedback loop, and can
be easily driven by conventional logic levels.

A fundamental RS latch constructed from two NOR gates is drawn in the figure
on the right as a cross-coupled pair; R and S stand for reset and set, respectively.
The stored bit is present on the output marked Q. In storage mode, the R and S
inputs are both low and do not affect the circuit. The positive feedback maintains
the Q and Q outputs in a constant state, with Q the complement of Q. If S is
pulsed high while R is held low, then the Q output is forced high, and stays high
even after S returns low; similarly, if R is pulsed high while S is held low, then
the Q output is forced low, and stays low even after R returns low

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 “Develop A Project on Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit”

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Foundation in Electronics: This microproject serves as a foundational learning

experience in electronics. It introduces students to key electronic components,
principles, and concepts, laying the groundwork for more advanced studies and
projects in the field.

Understanding Sequential Logic: By working with flip-flops and logic gates,

students gain a deep understanding of sequential logic, a fundamental aspect of
digital electronics. This knowledge is crucial for designing and troubleshooting
complex digital circuits used in various applications.

Hands-On Learning: Building the Flip-Flop LED Chaser Circuit is a hands-on

experience that bridges the gap between theory and practice. It allows students to
apply what they've learned in a tangible and engaging way, enhancing their
problem-solving and practical skills.

Circuit Design Skills: Students develop circuit design skills, including

component selection, soldering, wiring, and testing. These skills are valuable in
both educational and professional settings, as they form the basis of electronic
system development.

Introduction to Programming (Optional): For those who opt to incorporate a

microcontroller like Arduino, the project introduces students to programming
concepts. This knowledge can be leveraged for various applications, including
robotics, automation, and IoT (Internet of Things) projects.

Creativity and Customization: The project encourages creativity by allowing

students to customize LED chaser patterns. This promotes innovation and
problem-solving as students explore ways to make the lights dance to their own
tunes.

Troubleshooting Skills: Inevitably, students encounter challenges during the

project, which provides an opportunity to develop troubleshooting skills.
Learning to identify and solve issues is a crucial skill in electronics and
engineering.

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Documentation and Communication: Keeping records and documenting the

project helps students practice skills related to data recording, project
documentation, and communication. These skills are essential in academic and
professional contexts.

Knowledge Sharing: As students share their knowledge and experiences with

peers, they contribute to a collaborative learning environment. Teaching others
enhances their own understanding and communication skills.

Real-World Applications: The principles learned in this project have real-world

applications in various industries, from consumer electronics to industrial
automation. Understanding sequential logic and digital circuits is essential for
careers in electronics engineering and related fields.

Inspiration and Career Pathways: Engaging in practical projects like this LED
chaser circuit can inspire students to pursue careers in electronics, engineering,
or technology. It can serve as a stepping stone for future educational and career
choices.

Technology Literacy: In an increasingly digital world, understanding the basics

of electronics and digital logic is a form of technology literacy. It equips students
with knowledge that is relevant in their everyday lives.

In summary, the importance of this study lies in its capacity to provide

foundational knowledge, practical skills, and a sense of curiosity and exploration
in the field of electronics. It prepares students for future academic pursuits and
careers while fostering problem-solving, creativity, and adaptability in a rapidly
evolving technological landscape.

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Online Resources:

Khan Academy - "Electrical engineering": Khan Academy offers free online

lessons on electrical engineering, including digital logic concepts.

All About Circuits - "Digital Logic": This online resource provides

comprehensive tutorials on digital logic and electronics.

Electronics Tutorials: A website offering various tutorials and resources on

electronics and digital circuits.

Arduino Official Website: If you decide to use Arduino for your project, the
official website (https://www.arduino.cc/) provides extensive documentation and
tutorials.

MAP, Nashik IT DEPT. 13