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•• ISílN 0 -87262-667 -9
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AMERICAN SOCIETY of CIVIL ENGINEERS

 •• , ..--
--- r-
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•• ABSTAACT
ASCE Manual 52. Gulde for Design oi Steel Transmission Tow-

••
ers, serves as a basis for lhe design oi both guyed and seH-
supportlng steel transmlsslon towe<W. The baslc design rec- MANUALS ANO REPORTS ON ENGINEERING PRACTICE
ommendatlons are appropriate for Individual membeni oi truss-
type structures. Chaptera on geometrtc conllguretlons and
methods oi analysis provido lnlormatlon on the types oi struc- (As developed by lhe ASCE Technical Procedures Committee,

•••
lures covered and lhe applicable analysls crtteria. Design oi July 1930, and revised March 1935, February 1962, April 1982)
membe<S lncludes hol-rolled and cokl-lormed members. Other
subjects covered lnclude design oi connections, detalling and
labncalion, quality assurance and quellty control, constructlon A manual or repor! in this series consists of an orderly presentation
and maintenance, foundations, and test1ng. of facts on a particular subject, supplemented by an analysis of llmita-
tions and appllcation8 ní these focts. lt contains lnformation useíul ln the

••
Llbrory oi CongNH C1t1loglng-ln-Publlc1tlon D1t1
average engineer in his everyday work, rather than lhe flndings that
Gulde for design oi steet transmlsslon t-prepared by lhe may be useíul only occasionally or rarely. li is not in any sense a "stan-
Task Cornmittee on Updatlng Manual 52 oi the Structural Divl-
sion oi The American Sociely oi Civil Engl~.-2nd ed.
dard," however; nor is it so elementary or so conclusive as to provide a

•• p cm.-2nd ed - (ASCE manuais and raports on engI-

neenng praclice: no 521
Rev. ed. oi: Guida for design oi steel transmlss1on toweB.
"rule of thumb" for nonengineers.
Furthermore, material in this series, in distinction from a paper
(which expresses only one person's observalions or opinions), is lhe

•••
1971.
lncludes bibllographtes and lndex. work of a committee or group selected to assemble and express informa-
ISBN 0-87262·66~-9 tion on a specific topic. As often as practicable lhe committee is under
1. Electrlc lines- Poles and towers- Deslgn and con-
structior>--Handbooks, manuais, etc. 1. Ame<lcan Society oi lhe general direction of one or more of the Technical Divisions and
Civil Engineers. Task Commlttee on Updatlng Manual 52. li. Councils, and lhe product evolved has been subjected to review by lhe
~~f e fo~isJi~:' steel transmlssion toweB. Ili. Series. Executive Commillee of that Division or Council. As a step in lhe pro-

••
24
521.319'22'028-dc19 88-19277 cess of this review, proposed manuscripts are often brought before lhe
CIP members of the Technlcal Oivtslona and Counctle for comment, which
lhe materi1I preHnled 1n thla publla1llon h11 been pre- may ■erve H th1 ba1l1 for lmprovement, When publlshed, each work

•• pared In accordanct w 1th gen1r111y recognlztd 1ngln1orlng

principies and practlces, 1nd 11 for ll'r"'" liilormatlon only Th1s
mlOfmalion should not be used w1lhout firsl securing compe•
lent adv1ce wilh respect lo Ils su1tab1hty for any general or spe·
c,hc apphcation
showa the nam11 of lhe commltteee by which lt waa compiled and
indicates cleatly .thL&eYeul processes through whlch it has~ssed ln
review, ln order that its meril may be definitely understood .

•• The contents oi this publlcahon are not intended to be

and should not be construed to be a standard oi lhe Amer,can
Society oi C1v1I Engineers (ASCEI and are not mtended for use
as a relerence 1n purchase speclficahons, contracts. regula•
ln February 1962 (and revised in April, 1982) lhe Board of Direction
voted to establish:
A series entitled 'Manuais and Reports on Engineering Practice,' to

••
hons. stalutes, or any olhe< legal dCICumen1.
No reterence made in lh1s pubUcation to any spec1llc indude the Manuais published and authorized to date, future
method. product, process, or S81VIC8 constitutes or implies an
endorsemenl, recommendahon, or warranty the<eol by ASCE . Manuais of Professional Practice, and Reports on Engineering
ASCE makes no representatlon or warranty oi any k1nd, Practice. Ali such Manual or Report material of lhe Society would

•• whether express o, ,mplied. concern1ng lhe accuracy. com•

pletenass, suitablhty or uhhty oi any 1níormatlon, apparalus,
product, or process d1scussed 1n this publicahon, and assumes
no hab1h1y lherelor.
Anyone ulilizing lh1s tnlOt'mation assumes all hab,hly
have been refereed in a manner approved by lhe Board Commillee
on Publications and would be bound, with applicable discussion,
ln books similar to past Manuais. Numbering would be consecu•

•• ar1s1ng lrom such use. lnclud1ng bul not hmUtd lo inlringemenl

oi any pelenl o, patenta

Aulhor,zalion to photocopy material for Internai or personal use

tive and would be a contlnuatlon of present Manual numbers. ln
some cases of reporta oi jolnt commlttees, bypassing of Journal
publlcatlons may be authorlzed.

•• under circumstances not falling wlthln lhe fair use provisions of

lhe Copyrighl Act is grantod by ASCE 10 libraries and Olhe< US81S
reg1stered wllh lhe Copyright Clearance Gente< (CCC) Trans-
achonal Reporling Service, provlded that the base lee oi S1.00
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•• gress Slree1. Salem, MA 01970. The ldent1fication for ASCE

Books is 0 -87262/88. $1 + .15. Requests for special permis-
s1on or bulk copy1ng should be addressed to Reprints1Per mis•
SK>ns Deparlment

•••
Copyright C> 1988 by lhe Amerlcan Society oi Civil Engine815, iii
AII Ríghts Reserved.
Library oi Congress Catalog Card No.: 88-19277
ISBN 0-87262-667•9
M:u1111M:ltirrc1 m thn Unitoct Stnlo~ oi Amerk:a.
 •• •
•• Number
AVAILABLE* MANUALS ANO REPORTS OF
ENGINEERING PRACTICE

•• 10
13
14
Technical Procedure for City Surveys
Filtering Materiais for Sewage Treatment Plants
Accommodation of Ulilily Planl Within lhe Righls-of-Way of

•••
Urban Streets and Highways
31 Design of Cylindrical Concrele Shell Roofs
33 Cosi Control and Accountlng for Civil Engineers
34 Definitions of Surveying and Associaled Terms
35 A Lisl of Translations of Foreign Literature on Hydraulics
Waslewaler Treatment Planl Design PREFACE
••
36
37 Design and Construction of Sanilary and Slorm Sewers
40 Ground Water Managemenl
41 Plastic Design in Steel - A Guide and Commenlary ln memory of Frank /. Cortese in recog11ition

•• 42
44
45
Design of Structures to Resist Nuclear Weapons Effecls
Repor! on Highway and Bridge Surveys
Consulting Engineering- A Guide for lhe Engagemenl of
of /ris co11tribution to //ris document

•••
Engineering Services
46 Repor! on Pipeline Location
47 Selected AbslTacls on Struclural Applicat ions of Plastics ln 1971 the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) published
49 Urban Planning Guide Gurde for Design of Steel Transmission Towers, "Manuais and Reports on
50 Report on Small Craft Harbors En~ineering_Practice- No. 52." The Manual was developed to serve as a
u_mforrn basrs for th~ structural design of self-supporting steel transmis-

•• 51
52
53
S4
Survey of Current Structural Research
Guide for lhe Design of Sleel Transmisslon Towers
Criterla for Mainten•n~e of MultUane Hlghw•y•
Sedimentation Engineerlna
sron towers. The maior thrust of the Manual was to provide an accepted
reference for angle shapes used as pln-connected members ln trusses.
Tht baak recomm11nd1tlons lncluded modlfled procedures to more

•• 55
56
Gulde to Srnployment Condltlons for ClvU Englneert
Subsurface lnvestlgation for Design and Construction of
Foundations of BuUdings
cloHly reflect lhe load ~apabilllie1 of angle membeu. Manual 52 has
been uaed extenslvel ln the Unlted States and abroad as the basis for
design specifications. ---

•• 57 Operation and Maintenance of lrrigation and Drainage Systems ln 1984 an ASCE committee was established for updating Manual 52 to
58 SITuctural Analysis and Design of Nuclear Planl Facilities reflect n~w desi~n pr<;>ee?ures, availability of new shapes and materiais,
59 Computer Pricing Practices changes m loadmg cntena, and results o( new test data. This new Man-
ual, Guide for Design of Steel Transmission Towers, has been developed to

•••
60 Gravity Sanilary Sewer Design and Construclion
61 lnlToductory Manual on Computer Services co~~r lhe scope of our assignment, but still retain the simplicity of the
62 Existing Sewer Evalualion and Rehabililation ongmal Manual. Commentaries to Chapters 4 and 5 have been included
63 SITuclural Plaslics Design Manual to provide background and to retain the basic material covered in the old
64 Manual on Engineering Surveying Manual.
Other. ASCE committees are evaluating the feasibility of using load

••
65 Construction Cosi ConlTol
66 Structural Plastics Selection Manual and resrstance factor design (LRFD) for lransmission towers. The Task
67 Wind Tunnel Model Studies of BuUdings and Structures Committee on Updating Manual 52 will work closely with these commit-
tees to develop appropriate data for the member and connection design

•• • Numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12; 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,
29, 30, 32, 38, 39, 43, ond 48 ore out of prtnt.
recommendatlons of thla Manual.
The c:ommlttee la grateful to the Peer Revtew Commlttee for thelr
thorough revlew and asslstance ln clarifying many paris oi these recom-
mendations: Dan )ackman, Chairman, Robert Hoop, Robert Roane, Paul

•••
Tedesco, and Dave Sudhoff.
The committee wishes to thank Anthony M. DiGioia, John Mozer,
Ronald Randle, William Howard, Danny Villaluz, and Don Albritton for
their assistance in the preparation of this Manual. Many engineers

•• iv

•
••-· . i

••
•• reviewed lhe preliminary draft and provided valuable comments; their
efforts are deeply appreciated .

•• E. P. Becker
Respectfully Submitted,

E. H. Gaylord
Leon Kempner, Jr.

•••
T. C. Britton, Jr.
T. G. Burley W. A. Klenk CONTENTS
B. C. Chan ). M. Kramer
C. L. Clem R. A. Kravitz
F. J. Cortese Helmut Krawinkler
D. R. Crissey R. L. Patterson

•• G . E. Fortney
J. E. Galewski
A. H. Peyrot
H. N. Wentzel
INTRODUCTION XV

•••
G. M. Wilhoite, Chairman 1.0 LOADINGS .............. . .... . .. .............. .. ... .
Task Committee on Updating Manual 52 of the 1.1 lntroduction .... . .......... . .... .. . ... ..... ... . .
Committee on Electrical Transmission Structures, 1.2 Special Loading Combinations ... . .. .. . . ........ .
Structural Division, ASCE 1.2.1 Multicircuit Towers ... .. .. .. .. , ..... .... .
1.2.2 Minimum Vertical Loads with Maximum

•• Transverse and/or Longitudinal Loads .....

1.2.3 Maxlmum and Mlnlmum Transverse Loads , .
1.2.4 Straln and Oeadend Towera , , .. , , , . . , . . .. .
2
2
a

•• 1.2.5 Obltqut Wlnd Lo11d• .... .. . , , .. ... . ...... .

---1.2..6 --Ir.ansverse Wind on Single Circuit Jowers • •
1.2.7 Overhead Ground Wire . .. . . ... ... . . .... , .
1.2.B Wind Loading on Small Line Angle Struc-
3
3
3

•• tures . .... ... ........ . ... .. .. . ... .. . ... . .

1.2.9 Other Design Considerations ......... . .. . .
1.2.9.1 Variable Height Structures ... . . . .
3
3
3

•••
1.2.9.2 Tensioning of Guys .. ... . .... . . . . 3
1.3 Construction and Maintenance Loads ....... .. .. .. . 4
References and Bibliography . .. , . ........ , ... .. . .... . . . 4

2.0 GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

•• 2.1 lntroduction ......... .. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2 Self-Supportlng Tower1 , .. , . , . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Guyed 'l'owera . .. ..... , ............ . . .. . .. ... . .. ·
B
8
10

•••
2.4 Other Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.1 Horizontal (Plan) Braclng . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 12
2.4.2 Member lntersectlon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 12

••
3.0 METHODS OF ANALYSIS . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . 14
3.1 lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

•••
vii
vi

_I
••
••
•• 3.2 Tower
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1
Determinate Static Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2
First-Order Linear Elastic Analysis . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3
First-Order Linear Elastic Analysis Modified
14
16
16
4.9.3.1 Uniformly Compressed Elements . .
4.9.3.2 Elements with Stress Gradient
4.9.4 Doubly Symmetric Open Cross Sections
4.9.5 Singly Symmetric Open Cross Sections.....
30
31
32
32

•• for Tension System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.4 Second-Order (or Geometrically Nonlinear)
Elastic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16

17
4.9.6 Point-Symmetric Cross Sections
4.9.7 Closed Cross Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.8 Nonsymmetric Cross Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
33
33

•• 3.2.5 General Nonlinear Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.6 Dynamic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .
18
19
19 4.10
4.9.9 Lips . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . ..
4.9.10 Eccentric Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tension Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
33
33

•• 3.3.1 Nade Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3.2 Practical Analysis Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 lnfluence of Member Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
19
19
4.10.1 Allowable Tensile Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.10.2 Angle Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.10.3 Eccentric Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
33
34

••
3.3.4 Computer Analyses to Verify Old Designs . . 20 4.10.4 Threaded Rods and Anchor Bolts . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.5 Moments in Leg Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 4.10.5 Guys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 35
3.4 Altemate Modeling of Latticed Masts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 4.11 Stitch Bolts . .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . 35
References and Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 22 4.12 Axial Compression and Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

•• 4.0 DESIGN OF MEMBERS . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .

4.1 lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . .
24
24
4. 13
4.14
Axial Tension and Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.14.1 Properties of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . .
35
35
35

•• 4.2 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Minimum Sizes ... . .. , , , , .. , . •..... ..... , ... , , , , .
4.4 Slenderness Rattos . .... , , , , ... . .......... , .. , , , , , ,
4.5 Propertles of Secttons . , ........... ..•......... . , .
24
25
25
25
4.14.2 Allowable Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . .
4.14.3 Laterally Supported Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.14.4 1, Channel and Cruclform Sectlons . . . . . . . . .
4.14 .5 Other Ooubly Symmttrlc Open Sections . . .
35
35
35
37

•• 4.6 Allowable Compresslon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • .

4.7 Compression Members: Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.1 Maximum w// Ratio . .... ........ . .........
25
26
26
4.14.6 Stngly Symmetrk 1 and T Secttona . . . . . . . . .
4 14 7 Other-Slngly-Symroetcic üpeo Sectloos
4. 14.8 Equal Leg Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
38
38

•• 4.7.2 Allowable Compressive Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.7.3 Determination of F" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.4 Effective Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
26
26
4. 15 Allowable Shear .............. . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.15.1 Beam Webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.15.2 Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
41
41
41

•• 4.7.4.1 Leg Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.7.4.2 Other Compression Members . . . .
4.7.4.3 Redundant Members . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.4.4 Jotnt Restratnt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
27
27
28
COMMENTARY ON CHAPTER 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4C.1 lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4C.2 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .
42
42
42

•• 4.7.4.5 Test Verüication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.8 Compression Members: Symmetrical Lipped Angles
4.8.1 Maximum wlt Ratio .. ........ ...... .. .....
28
28
28
4C.4 Slenderness Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .
4C.5 Properties of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .
4C.6 Allowable Compression .. .. .. .... . ...... , . . . . . . . .
43
43
44

•••
4.8.2 Allowable Compresston Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4C.7 Compression Members: Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.8.3 Equivalent Radius of Gyratlon . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4C.7.3 Determination of F" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.8.4 Minimum Llp Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4C.7.4 Effective Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.9 Compression Members Not Covered in Sections 4.7 4C.8 Compression Members: Symmetrlcal Lipped
and 4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Angles ......................... ......... 50

•••
4.9.1 Allowable Compressive Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 4C.9 Compression Members Not Covered in Sections 4.7
4.9.2 Maximum wlt Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 and 4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.9.3 Effective Widths of Elements in Compres- 4C.9.2 Maximum w// Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
sion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 4C.9.3 Effective Widths of Elements in Compression . 51

•• viii ix

•
.,•• . '·,

•• 4C.9.8 Nonsymmetrlc Cross Sections ...... .. .. . . .

4C.10 Tension Members .. ... .. .... . ... ... ............. .
51
51
6.0 DETAILING ANO FABRICATION . . . . . ......... . ... . .. .
6.1 Detaiiing . .... . . ..... .. ...... ... .. .. . . ........ .. .
82
82

•• 4C.10.5 Guys .. ... . .... . ... . ... . .. . ... . ......... .

4C.12 Axial Compression and Bending ................. .
4C.13 Axial Tension and Bending ................ . ..... .
51
52
52
6.1.1 Drawings .. ... ... .... .. ......... ... . .• . ..
6.1.2 Approval of Shop Detail Drawings .... .... .
6.1.3 Connections ..... ... .. ..... . ... ...... .. . .
82
82
83

•• 4C.14 Beams ...... . ... ... ... . ....... ....... ..... ..•.. .
4C.14.4 I, Channel and Cruciform Sections ........ .
4C.14.6 Singiy Symmetrlc I and T Sections ........ .
53
53
53
6.1.4 Boit Spacing .... .... . ... .... ........ .... .
6.1.5 Detail Failures During Testing ........ . . .. .
6.1.6 Material .. .. .. .......... .. . . .. . . . ... .. . . .
83
83
83

••
4C.14.7 Other Singiy Symmetrlc Open Seclions ... . 53 6.1.7 Weatherlng Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ..... . 83
4C.14.8 Equal Leg Angles ....... . ............... . 53 6.1 .8 Tension-Only Members ... .. . .. . . . ... . 83
4C.15 Allowable Shear ... . .... ... ... . ....... . ... ...... . 54 6.1.9 Shop Assembly ............ .. ........... . 84
4C.15.1 Beam Webs .. .. ....... ....... ... .. . .. . .. . 54 6.1.10 Other Considerations ........... . .. . ... . . . 84

•• Examples ............... . .... . ... ...... .... .... . ... • • •

References and Bibliography ................... .. .... . .
54
67
6.2 Fabrication .. .. .......... . .............. ... . . . .. .
6.2.1 Material . . .......... . .. . ... . .. . ... . . . ... .
6.2.2 Specifications ... .. . . ...... . .. . ........ . . .
84
84
84

•••
5.0 DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS .. . ...................... . 69 6.2.3 Shop Operations . .. . . .. .. ... . ... . .... ... . 84
5.1 Introduclion ............. . ... . ..•...•... . . . . . . ... 69 6.2.4 Piece Marks ... .. .. . . . ......... .. .. ..... . . 85
5.2 General Requiremenls ...•.. .. .. • ....... . ........ 69 6.2.5 Welding . . ... . .. ... . . . .. . . .. . ... . . ...... . 85
5.3 Fasteners ..... . ... .... . .. .......... • ........... . 69 6.2.6 Galvanizing . ...... .. . ............ •. .. . ... 85
5.3.1 Materiais .. . ... , ...... . ... . ... . , . , ... . .. , 69 6.2.7 Shipping .. .. .. .... . . ....... .. .... . ..... . 85

•• 5.3.2 Bolt Shear Capaclty , , ......... , , , , , , , . , , , .

5.3.3 Bolt Tension Capaclty ....... . ............ .
5.3.4 Bolts Subject to Combined Shear and Ten•
69
70
References and Bibliography .. , . .. , .. ... . . . .. ...... . .. .

7.0 TESTING . . .. . . .. ...... , ... , . , , . . .. . .. • .... . .. . .. . .. . .

86
87

•••
aion . .... .. . ..... ... . . .. ... . ........ . ... . 70 7.1 lntroduction . .. ...... ... . . .. . . . , . , ... . , . , ..... . , • 87
5.4 Allowable Bearlng Stress ...... .. ...... .. . ... . . .. . 70 7.2 Foundations . . .. ... .... .. , ... . .. .... .. . .. .. .... . . 87
5.5 Minimum Distances . .... .. .. ....... . .... . ....... . 70 7.3 Material ..... . . ...... . . .....•..... , .. . . . ... . . . , . 88
5.5.1 End Distance ..... ...... ... . .. .. . ....... . 70 7.4 Fabrication ...... .. ..........•.... . ... . ... .... . . . 88
5.5.2 Center-to-Center Bolt Hole Spacing .. . . . .. . 71 7.5 Strain Measurements .. . . .... . . . . . . . , . . .•..... . .. 88
Assembly and Ereclion ..... . . . .. . ....... . ..... . . . 88

•• 5.5.3 Edge Distance ............ ........ .. . . . . . . 71 7 .6

5.6 Attachment Holes ........ ... .............. . .... . 72 7.7 Test Loads ............. . . ... .. .. • .... . . . ...... . . 89
7.8 Load Application ..... . . . . ... , ... ... .. . .... . . .. . . 90
7.9 Loading Procedure . ......•...•.. . •.. . . . ..... . .. . . 90

•• COMMENTARY ON CHAPTER 5 ... . .................... . .. .

5C.1 Introduction ........ . ...... .............. .... . .. .
5C.3 Fasteners . .. ......... . .... . ... . ... . .... . ....... .
5C.3.2 Bolt Shear Capacity ......... .. ... . . ...... .
73
73
73
73
7.10 Load Measurement ... .... . .. . . .. ..... . .. . . .... . .
7.11 Defiections ......... , .. , , .. . , . .. . . , . . . . . . . ... . • • •
7.12 Failures .... . .... .. . ..... .... ... .. ... , ... . ... .. . .
90
91
91

•• 7.13 Disposition of Test Tower .... . ... . . . . . . .... .... . . 91

5C.3.3 Bolt Tension Capacity ... . .. .. ... . . ... ... . . 73 7.14 Repor! . .. ... . .... . . . .. .. . . . .. . ... .. . . .. • • • - , • • • • 92
5C.3.4 Bolts Subject to Combined Shear and Ten• Bibliography .. . .. , .... , , .... . . .. , .. , . , , , .. ... · · · - - · · , ,· 92
sion . ... . ............................... . 74

•••
5C.4 Allowable Bearlng Stress ................ .• ....... 74 8.0 QUALITY ASSURANCE (QA)-QUALITY CONTROL
5C.5 Minimum Distances . . .......... . ................ . 74 (QC) , . .. ....... . .. . . , ,,,, .. . . .. . . ........ . . , .. 94
5C.5.1 End Distance ...... . ... .............. . . .. 74 8.1 lntroduction .............. .. . .. . . .. . . . ... . • • . • , , , 94
5C.5.2 Center-to-Center Bolt Hole Spacing ....... . 78 8.2 Quality Assurance (QA) Program ... .. . .... . . .. , , , 95
5C.5.3 Edge Distance .............. .. ........... . 78 8.3 Quality Control (QC) Program ....... . • ..... ... ... 95

•• 5C.6 Attachment Holes ........ . .. . ...... . ... . ....... .

References and Bibliography ....•.... . .................
78
80
8.4 Activities Normally Covered ...... . . . . .. .. . ... ... .
8.4.1 Preliminary Review . .. .. ... . . ..... ....• .. .
96
96

•••
xi
••
••
•• 8.4.2 Materiais and Subcontracts . . .. .. . .. ... . .. . 96 10.0 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE . . ... . .. . . . . . . . 113
8.4.3 lnspection ... . .. . . .. .. .. .... ... ...... . .. . 96 10.1 lntroduction . . ..... . .. . . . . . . 113
8.4.4 Tolerances .. ... .. .. ... ... . . . .. .. ..... .. . . 96 10.2 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . ...... . .. . 113
97 10.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .... . . .

••
Bibliography 113
10.2.1.1 Construction Management 113
9.0 FOUNDATIONS ... . ... .. .......................... . . . 98 10.2.1.2 Scope of Work ... . . . .. . 114
9.1 lntroduction .. . ....... . . . ..................... . . . 98 10.2.2 Materiais and Material Handling . . . . .. . .. . . 114

•• 9.2 Foundation Design and Performance Criteria .. .... .

9.2.1 Load and Overload Capacity Factors ...... .
9.2.2 Differential Movement . ... ...... . .... . ... .
98
98
99
10.2.2.1 Marshalling Yard ...... . . . . . . .
10.2.2.2 Tower Sites .. . ... . . . .. . ... . . . . . .
10.2.3 Foundations ...... . .. . . ... . .......... . .. .
114
114
114

•••
9.2.3 Unequal Height Leg Extensions ... ... ... . . . 99 10.2.3.1 General . . .. . . . . .. . ... ... . . . . . . . 114
9.2.4 Deterioration Considerations . ... ......... . 99 10.2.3.2 Subsurface lnvestigations . .. . . . . . 115
9.3 Subsurface lnvestigation . ............. . . .... .. . . . 100 10.2.3.3 Foundations and Anchors . . . . .. . . 115
9.4 Foundation Types . ..... ... •. ..... . .. . . . ... . ... .. 100 10.2.3.4 Structure Grounding . . . 115
'i 9 .5 General Considerations . .... . .. • .... . .. . .. . . .. . .. 101 10.2.4 Tower Erection . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . 118
!

•••
9.5.1 Steel Grillage . . ........... .. ... . ... ..... . 101 10.2.5 Wire Stringing . .... ... . . . .. . ... . ... . . . . . . 119
9.5.2 Pressed Plate . . .... ... .. . . . ... .. ... .. ... . 101 10.2.6 Field lnspection and Records . ... . .... . ... . 119
9.5.3 Concrete Foundations with Anchor Bolts .. . 101 10.2.6.1 General .. . ............ . . . . . ... . 119
9.5.3.1 Smooth Bar Anchor Bolts ....... . 101 10.2.6.2 lnspector Responsibilities . . .. . .. . 119
9.5.3.2 Deformed Bar Anchor Bolts .... . . 101 10.2.6.3 lnspections ... . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . 119

•• 9.5.3.3 Compresslve Load Transfer wlth

'°"nchor Bolts .... ..... .... , , , , , , ,
9.5.4 Concrete Foundatlt>nt wtth Stub AnglH , , . ,
102
102
10.3 Maintenance . .. .. . . ... ..... . .... .. . . . .. . . .... . . .
10.3.1 General . . .. . . , , . , . , .... . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .
10.3.2 Perlodic lnapectlon8 , , . , ... . .. .. .. . . . . , . . .
120
120
120

•• 10.3.3 Schtduled Maintenance and Repalre . ..... .

102 121
9.6 Design Consideratlons for Structural Members , ... .
9.6.1 Anchor Bolts with Base Plates on Concrete _ _ _lc.c.0.3~radlng_and Reconductorln . ..... .. ... . 121
102 e erencesãnãBlbliograph~ .. . ....... ....... . .. -~ .. 122
or Grout ........ .... . ............. . ... . . .

•• 9.6.2 Base Plates Supported by Anchor Bolts .... . 104

104 APPENDIX 1-NOTATION ..... . ... . ..... ... ...... .. ...... . .. 123
9.6.3 Stub Angles in Concrete ............ .. ... .
9.7 Development of Anchor Bolts and Stub Angles in INDEX ...... .. . . ....... . . . ...... . ....... .. . . . . 126
lhe Concrete Foundation ..... . ....... ........... . 105

•• 9.7.1 Smooth Bar Anchor Bolts ...... . . ..... . .. .

9.7.2 Deformed Bar Anchor Bolts . .. ... . ....... .
9.7.3 Stub Angle Anchorages . .... ........ ..... .
105
105
106

•• 9.8 Determination of Concrete Design Consideratlons ..

9.8.1 Design of Side Cover Distances for Tension .
9.8.2 Design of Side Cover Distance for Shear ...
106
106
106

•• 9.8.3 Side Cover Distance for Tension and Shear

Combined .... . ....... .... ... . . ......... .
9.8.4 Other Considerations .. ... ....... . ... . ... .
108
108
108

••
9.9 Shear Connectors ..... . ... . .. ... . ... ... ...... . .. ,
9. 9. 1 Stud Shear Connectors . .. . . ............. . 108
9.9.2 Angle Shear Connectors .. ......... ...... . 108
9.9.3 Other Considerations .. .. ......... . ... . , . • 109

•• 9.10 Test Verlfication .... .. . ........... , .. , , , , . , , , • , • •

References and Bibliography .... .. . . ... ... .. , , • , • , • • , • •
109
109

•••
xil xiii
 •. ,_ r:
r~ ... _...... -·: -, ·....-:-.. ,...

••
••
•• INTRODUCTION

•••
•• Manual 52, Guide for Design of Steel Transmission Towers, has served
effectively as a basis for lhe design of self-supporting steel transmission

•••
towers. This revised Manual has been expanded to cover both guyed
and self-supporting steel transmission structures. The basic design rec-
ommendations are appropriate for individual members of truss-type
structures. Assumed loading conditions and overload capacity factors
have been removed from the chapter on Loadings since they are covered

•• ln other publications,
New chapters on Ceometrlc Configuratlons and Methods or Analysls
provldt the user wlth lnformatlon on the types of structures covered

•• and the analysls crlterla that Is applicable. The chapter on Design of

Members has beeo expaoded to cover hot-rolled members and cold-
formed members. Extensive test data have been rev1ewed covermg
materiais with yield values up to 65 ksi.

•••
The new chapter on Design of Connections provides the engineer
with recommendations that allow latitude to match load capability with
the most suitable end and edge distances for detailing. The importance
of engineering contrai in the preparalion of details is emphasized by
reference to the Engineer of Record (EOR).

•• The chapter on Detalllng and Fabrication covers accepted practice and

emphasizes the responsibility of lhe detailer to establish tolerances thal
provide the minimum end and edge dlstances specified in the design .

•• The functions of the EOR are outlined in this chapter.

The chapter on Testlng has been completely updated to reflect the
lnformation that can be obtalned from different test procedures. · This
chapter dlscusses the feasiblllty of monltoring Individual members with

•• strain gages .
A new chapter has been included covering Quality Assurance- Quallty
Contrai. General issues that should be covered by lhe purchaser and the

•••
supplier are outlined .
The chapter on Foundations covers design recommendations for the
material normally fumished by lhe tower supplier. References are pro-

XV

••
i
.. •
••
•• vided to other documents which cover the actual design of foundations,
including concrete and reinforcing steel.

•• The chapter on Construction and Maintenance provides lhe tower

d esigner with criteria that need to be incorporated in the initial design .
A listing is rrovided covering the construction requirements for differ-

•••
ent types o foundations.
Commentaries have been included so that the user has background Chapter 1
data on the design recommendations. Toe Commentaries on Design of
Members and Design of Connections illustrate the proper application of LOADINGS
the design requirements.

•• Extensive reference material and supplementary information has been

included at the end of each chapter.
The design engineer and the EOR have wide latitude in the selection

•• of the structure configuratlon and the determination of the design crite-

ria. The committee has brought together the pertinent factors relative to
the design criteria for latticed steel transmlssion structures .
1,1 INTRODUCTION

•••
The recommendations of this Manual were developed for use follow-
lng convent ional transmission tower design procedures; specified loads
are multiplied by load factors (called overload capacity factors) and lhe
1
members and connections are designed to resist these loads ai stresses
approachi ng failure in yielding or buckling .

•• Design loading conditions should be determlned by lhe purchaser and

shown in the specüications elther as load lrees or ln tabular form. Exten-
sive background information can be found in Guidelines for Transmission

•• Lint Stnictural Loading (1984) and National Eleclrkal 54/ely Code (1987).
There are six basic loadin s:

1. Applicable NESC {National El«triC11/ Safrty Codr 1987; and other regul,1tory

•• codes) loadings .
2 . Extreme win d.
3. Heavy ice, whcre applicable .
4. Ice wi th wind. i/ applicable.

•• 5. Construction and maintenance loads .

6. One or severa! longitudinal load cases to provide su/íicienl tower
strenglh to resist possible cascade /ailures .

•• 1.2 SPECIAL LOADING COMBINATIONS

•• Special loading conditions caused by actual field conditions should be

considered as they can affect lhe design of individual members . Severa)
are listcd in thc /nllowinR p~rnRrnphs .

•• 1.2.1 Multicircuit Towers

••
For mult icircuil lowers consideration must be given to lhe following
situations. Wi ll one or more circuits be installed initially and /or will one
xvl

•••
••
•• DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS
LOADINGS 3

•• or more circuits be removed in lhe future? An unbalanced loading can 1.2.5 Oblique Wind Loads
govern lhe design of individual members. A similar determination must ~orne structures have transverse faces with larger areas exposed to lhe
be made for overhead ground wires if varying lhe number installed wmd than lhe longitudinal faces. These structures should be reviewed

•• creates unbalanced loads on lhe structure .

1.2.2 Minlmum Vertical Loads wlth Maxlmum Transverse and/or

for lhe combined transverse and longitudinal loadings from oblique
winds. Oblique winds can also be criticai on tall structures .

•• Longitudinal Loads

11 is normal practice to specify span and angle limitations for proper

1.2.6 Transverse Wind on Single Circuit Towers

11 is recommended that the design wind pressure on the projected area

be apptied to both overhead ground wire peaks. lf lhe longitudinal faces

•••
structure spotting. For example: tine angle • 0°, maximum wind span
above lhe waist are widely separated, the wind can cause equal loads on
- 1300 ft, and range of weight spans - 1100-1500 ft; or tine angle - 1º,
both faces .
maximum wind span • 1050 ft, and range of weight spans • 1100-1500
ft. 1.2.7 Overhead Ground Wlre
The structure should be designed to withstand the maximum design

•••
vertical, transverse, or longitudinal loads, and specified combinations of
these maximum values. However, there are members in the structure
that are controlled by a load case consisting of lhe minimum vertical
loads combined with the maximum transverse and/or longitudinal loads
(Kravitz, 1982).
Generally, lhe overhead ground wire is installed at a smaller sag than
the conductors. As a result, in rolling to rough terrain, lhe vertical span
of the overhead ground wire on an individual structure may be greater,
or less, than the vertical span of the conductors. Toe tower should be
suitable for these unequal vertical spans .

•• 1.2.3 Maxlmum and Mlnlmum Tranevene Loada t.2.8 Wlnd Loadlng on Small Llne Anal• StructurH

•• A tower may serve dual functlons. lt can be used as a tangenl tower or

at line angles with reduced wind spans. Toe transverse loadlngs on the
conductor are equal for the tine angle and tangent conditions.
. For lhe design of alnglé clrcult, horizontal conflguralion towers, con-
s1deratlon should be lven to wlnd on wlre and tower ln the o osite
direclion of a tine angle. This condltion may criticallntfie es1gn of
the main members between the tower crossarm and the tower waist .

•• Usually, the transverse overhead ground wire loadings are maximum

under the tine angle condition and minimum under the tangent condi-
tion. Therefore, if the slopes of the tower legs intersect on the vertical
1.2.9 Other Design Considerations

•• axis of the tower at a point between the overhead ground . wire trans-
verse loads and the center of gravity of the transverse conductor loads,
lhe resulting web stresses may not be maximized unless both the maxi-
1.2.9.1 Variable Height Structures
During the analysis and design of guyed • vee structures the shortest
and tallest mast musl be investigated to establish lhe maxlmum stresses

•• mum ground wire load condition and the minimum ground wire load
condition are analyzed.
in the tower and the foundation .
For self-supporting towers wlth unequal length leg extensions, the
shear taken by lhe shorter leg extension can be greater and create larger

•••
loads in lower bracing members. The tower should be analyzed with the
1.2.4 Strain and Deadend Towers
extreme leg combinalions that are used on a single structure .
Vertical and transverse loads apj,lled lo "square" crossarms and 1.2.9.2 Ten,lon/ng of G11ys
bridge• of alngle clrcult towers are not alwaya divlded equally on each
side. This can occur as a resull of unequal sp,ans on either side of the Toe determination of lhe lnltlal tension of guys musl be based on lhe

••
structure. Some vertical spans can cause uplift loads ai lhe attachment
point. Stringing procedures on strain and dead-end towers must be
carefully reviewed to ensure that the sequence of dead ending lhe wires
movement of lhe guy anchor under load, lhe length and size of lhe guy,
and lhe allowable deílection of lhe structure. On tangent structures,
pretensioning of guys to 10% of their rated breaking strength is normally
sufficient to avoid a slack guy. On special guys, such as a bridge cable,

•••
does not create torsiónal stresses that exceed the design condilions .

•
•• ) . ,

•• DESIGN FOR STEEL TAANSMISSION TOWEAS LOADINGS

•• the supplier's instructions should be followed. For some installations,

guys are fumished by the supplier cut to length with end fittings
installed and the cable prestressed. For other installations, guys are cut
Bibliography
Angelos, A., and Cluls, S. (1977). "Unbalanced forces on langenl lransmission
slTuclures." Paper A 77 220- 7, IEEE Power Eng. Soe., Winler Meeling, New

•• to length and end fittings installed in the field. A tumbuckle, or other

adjustment d evice, is installed for guy adjustments.
York, N.Y.
Balls, M . E., Russell, L. R., and Simiu, E. (1980). "Hurricane wind speeds in lhe
Uniled States." / of the Structural Division, ASCE, 106 (ST10), 2001-2016 .

•• 1.3 CONSTRUCTION ANO MAINTENANCE LOAOS

Campbell, D . B. (1970). "Unbalanced tensions in transmission lines." / of lhe
Structua/ Divisio11, ASCE, 96 (ST10), 2189-2207 .
Chiu, A. N. L. (1970). "Response oi slTUctures to lime-varying wind loads." / of

•• During stringing operations, it is possible for the pulling tine of the

conductors, or the ground wires, to slip off the s h eave and hang in the
stringing block. This can produce longitudinal loads on the tower
the Structural Divisio11, ASCE, 96 (ST2), 381- 391 .
Comellini, E., and Manuzio, C. (1968). "Rational determination oi design load-

••
roughly equal to the stringing tension .
li is common to temporarily terminate the pulling of wire ai suspen-
sion and strain towers. AI the suspension tower, it is normal practice to
ings for overhead line towers." Proc. /11t. Conf. on úirge High Vo/tage Electric
Systems, CJGRE Paper 23-08.
Davenport, A. G . (1960). "Rationale for determining design wind velocilics." / of
tht Structural Division, ASCE, 86 (STS), 39-68.

•• temporarily "catch off" the wire with a guy until final sagging can be
completed. The "catch off" guy can create a longitudinal unbalance and
an increased vertical load on the structure. The structure should be
Davenport, A. G . (1967). "Gust loading laclors." / o/ the Strucl11ra/ Dit•ision,
ASCE, 93 (ST3), 11- 34 .
DiGiola, A. M., Pohlman, J. C., and Ralston, P. (1982). " A new method for

•• suitable for supporting these temporary loads.

On tangent structures lhe welght of the wire must be aupported when
lhe wire Is transferred from lhe stringlng blocks to lhe permanenl hard-
determlnlng the slru~tural rellabllity of transmlsslon Unes.'' Proc. lnt . Conf. on
LA,a, High Voltagt El,ctric Sy,tems, CIG~E Paper 22-08.
Ervlk, M., and Plkkd, S. M. (1981). "Developrnent oi a rnathemotk:al n,odcl to

••
ware, On angle structures the resultant of lhe wlre welght and lhe
transverse load caused by the angle must be supported. Proper loadings
for ali maintenance activities should be specified by lhe purchaser on thP.
design drawing.
estlm•te Ice loadlng on tr1n1rnlu10n Une• by ua~ of general ctlmatologlcal
d11ta-:"-Papun-wM-104=7;" IEl!I! Power l!ng. St!C7Wlnter Meel!ng, Allattta,
Ga.

•• Guidelines for Transmission Une Structural Loading (1984) provides addi-

tional suggestions relative to other conditions that can create longitudi-
nal loads on the structure.
Farr, F. W., Ferguson, C. M., McMurtrie, N. J., Steiner, J. R., White, H. B., and
Zobel, E. S. (1964). "A guide to ITansmission tower design loadings." Tran.
Pap,r 64-62, IEEE Transm. and Distribution Commit., Winter Power Meeting,
New York, N .Y.

•••
Ghannoum, E. (1981). "A rational approach to structurat design oi transmission
tines." Paptr 81 WM 224-5, IEEE Power Eng. Soe., Winter Meeting, Atlanta,
REFERENCES ANO BIBLIOGRAPHY Ga .
Ghannoum, E. (1983). "Probabilistic design oi transmission lines-Part I and

•• References

G11idrlints for Transmission Lint Stniclura/ Loading. (1984). Commlt. on Electr.

Part li." Paptrs 83 WM 152-6 and 83 WM 153-4, IEEE Power Eng. Soe., Winter
Meetlng, New York, N.Y.
Ghannoum, E. (1984). "lmprovlng transmlsslon linc design by uslng rellabillty

••
technlques." Pa11tr 84 WM 229-1, IEEE Power Eng. ~oc., Winler Meeting,
Transm. Struct. oi Commit. on Anal. and Design oi Struct. oi Struct. Div .
Dallas, Te•.
ASCE .
Goodwln, E. J., Davenport A. G ., Davidson, H. L., DiGloia, A. M., and Power,
Kravitz, R. A. (1982). "Transmission tine tower analysis and design ln review ." B. A. (1980). " Probability-based wind loadings lor the design oi transmission

•• Pap,r 82 WM 204-6, IEEE Power Eng. Soe., Winter Meeting, New York, N.Y.
National Electrical Safrty Codt. (1987). Amer. Nat. Stand. C2, lnst. oi EleclT. and
line slTUctures." Pap,r 80 SM 636-1, IEEE Power Eng. Soe., Summer Meeting,
Minneapolis, Minn .
Goodwin, E. J., Mozer, J. D., and DiGioia, A. M. (1982). "Transmission struc-

••
EleclTon. Eng., lnc., New York, N.Y.

••
,-.r- ,- ,. _
• ·=

•• 6 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS LOADINGS

Mozer, J. D., Pohlman , J. C., and Fleming, J. F. (1977). "Longitudinal lo,1d anal-
7

••
llore design ulilizing probabilily-based load and resislance faclnr design ."
l'af'tt 82 SM 469-5, IEEE Powcr Eng. Soe., Summer Mceting, San Francisco, ysis of transmission line systems." Pa11fr f 77 221 -5, IEEE Power Eng. Soe.,
Calif. Winter Meeling, New York, N .Y.

Grigoriu M . (1985) . "Estimalion of design wind speeds from shorl-lerm Peyrot, A. H. (1985). " LRFD formal for transmission struclures." Proc. Conf. on

•• records." Reporl EL-3972, Eleclric Power Research lnst., Palo Alto, Calif .
Grigoriu, M., Krishasamy, 5., and Longo, V. J. (1985). "Estimation of transmis-
sion line design wind speeds from limited data." Pap,r 85 SM 406- 4, IEEE
lnnowtions in lhe Design of Electrica/ Transmission Structures, S truct. Div ., ASCE,
Kansas City, Mo., Aug., 1-10.
Peyrot, A. H., and Dagher, H . J. (1984). "Reliability-based design of transmis-

•• Power Eng. Soe., Summer Meeting, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.

l lall, E. K. (19n). "Ice and wlnd loadlng analysls o f Bonnevllle Power Admlnls-
lration's transmission lines and tesl spans." Pap,r A 77 735- 4, IEEE Power Eng.
sion lines." / Struct . En/i,, ASCE, 110 (li), 2758- 2776 .
Peyrot, A . H., Kluge, R. O ., and Lee, J. W. (1979). " Longitudinal loads from
broken conduclors and broken insu lators and lheir effecl on transmissio n

•• Soe., Summer Meeling, Mexico City, Mexico.

Krishnasamy, 5. G. (1985). "Assessmenl of wealher induced trans mission line
loads on a probabilistic basis." Paper 85 WM 234-0, IEEE Power Eng . Soe.,
lines ." Pap,r F 79 233-8, IEEE Power Eng. Soe., Winter Meeting, New York,
N.Y.
Pohlman, J. C., and Landers, P. (1981). " Presenl state-of-the-art of transmission

•• Winler Meeling, New York, N .Y.

Krishnasamy, S. G., Ford, G. L., and Orde, C. 1. (1981). "Predicling lhe struc-
tural performance of transmission lines uprated by reconducloring." Pap,r 81
line icing." Pap,r 81 TD 717-8, IEEE Power Eng. Soe., 1981 T&D Conference,
Minneapolis, Minn.
Simiu, E. (1973). "Gust factors and alongwind pressure correlations." / o/ lhe

•• WM 048-8. IEEE Power Eng. Soe., Winler Meeting, Atlanta, Ga .

Landers, P. G. (1981). "EPRl-sponsored transmission line loading research ."
Paper 81 TD 719- 4, IEEE Power Eng . Soe., 1981 T&D Conference, Minneapolis,
Structural Division, ASCE, 99 (ST4), 773-783 .
Simiu, E. (1976). " Wind climate and failure risks." /
ASCE, 102 (ST9), 1703-1707.
o/ tlie Stn,ctura/ Division,

•• Minn .
1.indsey, K. E. (1977). "Mathematical theory of longltudlnally loaded elastlc-
Slrnlu, B. , and Fillib<!n, J. J. (1980). 'Weibull distributions and extreme w ind
1peeds." f of lht Structurol DivisioH, ASCE, 106 (ST12), 2365- 237◄ .

-
plaslk transmtulon llne1-1tatk1." P•l'f' F 77 691- 9, IEE6 Powvr 6ns, Soe ,,
Slmlu, B. J., Changery, M., and FUllben, J, J. (1980) . "Extreme wlnd speeds ai

••
Summer Meellng, Mexico City, Mexlco,
129 airport etatlons." / o/ tht Structurol Divlslo" , ASCE, 106 (5T4), 809-817. 1
"Loadings and Strength of Transmlsslon Une Systems, Paris 1 Through 6."
(1977). Subgroup on Loadings and Strength of Transmission l.ine Systems, Thom, H. C. S. (1960). "Distribution of extreme winds ln lhe United States." / o/
Pap,rs A 77 228-0, A 77 229-8, A 77 230-6, A 77 231-4, A 77 232- 2, A 77 233-0, tire Structura/ Division, ASCE, 86 (ST4), 11-24.

•• IEEE Power Eng. Soe., Winter Meeling, New York, N.Y.

"Loadings for Electrical Transmlssion Structures." (1982) . Commil. on Eleclr.
Transm. Struct. of Commit. on Anal. and Design of Slruct. of Struct. Div., / o/
Thom, H . C. 5. (1968). "New distrlbutlons of extreme winds in the United
Slates." /o/lhe Structural Division, ASCE, 94 (ST7), 1787-1801 .

•••
White, H. B. (1985). "A practical approach to reliability design ." Pap,r 85 WM
lhe Structural Division, ASCE, 108 (ST5), 1088-1105 .
253-0, lEEE Power Eng. Soe., Winter Meeting, New York, N.Y.
"Longitudinal Loading Tests on a Transmission l.ine." (1978). Repari EL-905,
Electric Power Research lnstitute, Palo Alto, Calif. Wilhoite, G. M . (1972). "Wind recommendations for transmission towers." /
Slruct. Engrg., ASCE, 98 (STI), 447-463 .
"Longitudinal Unbalanced Loads on Transmission Line Structures." (1978).
"Wind Forces on Structures." (1961) Task Commit. on Wind Forces of Commit.

••
Repari EL-643, Electric Power Research lnstitute, Palo Alio, Calif .
on Loads and Stresses of the Struct. Div., Tra"sactions, ASCE, Pari li, 126,
Mehta, K. C, Ed. (1980). Report RP-1277, Electric Power Research lnstitute, Palo 112◄-1198 .
Alto, Calif.
Wlnkelman, P. F. (1974), "lnvestlgatlon of Ice and wlnd loads, galloplng, vlbra-

•••
Mehta, K. C. (1985). "Wind loads on electrlcal transmlsslon atructurH," Proc:. tlon1 and subconductor o..:Ulatíons." BonntYUlt Power Admlnl1tration , Sept,
Conf. on /nnovations in the Dtsign o{ Eltclrlcal Tronsmlssion Struclurts, Struc,
Dlv., ASCE, Kansas City, Mo., Aug., 11-20. Wood, A. 8., and Mclellan, M , (1982). '"l'r1n1mlsslon tine dHlgn-The ultlmate
load concept." Proc. /nl. Co"f. on ú,rge Higlo Voltage Eltetric Systems, CIGRE
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. (1982) . ANSI A58. l - Paper 22- 01, Sept.
1982, Amer. Nat. Stand. lnst., New York, N .Y.

•• Mozer, J. D., Peyrot, A. H., and DiGioia, A. M. (1984). "Probabilislic design of

lransmission line struclures." / Struct. Eng., ASCE, 110 (10), 2513-2528.

•••
 ••
•• GEOMETAIC CONFIGURATIONS 9

••
•• Chapter 2

•••
GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS

flA T SINCLE CIRCUIT

•• 2.1 INTRODUCTION

•••
This chapter presents some typical tower conflgurations. The geomet-
ric configuration of a latticed transmlssion tower is based on lhe over-
head ground wlre shield coverage, number of circuits, conductor phase
arrangement selected to satisfy the electrical and mechanical clearances,

••
right-of-way requirements, and aesthetic design criteria .
Three basic tower definitions are recommended: suspension, strain, and VERTICAL OEL TA
dead-end structures. The cônductor phases pass through and are sus- OOUBLE CIRCUIT SINCLE CIRCUIT
pended from the lnsulator support polnts of a suspension tower. The straln Tut,.,,,
FIG. 2. 1. -Ewnplt1 o{ S,lf-SuPl'Orllng

•• tower condudor attachment polnts are 1TU1de by attachlng the conductor to

a dead-end clamp, a rompression or bolted fittlng, and ronnecting lhe
clamp, lhrough the insulator string, directly to lhe tower. Toe jumper is A ~ingle circ~il struc!ure ~ay ha~e phases in a horizontal (fiai) config-

•• looped through or around the tower body to electrically connect the adja-
cent spans. Dead-end tower conductor attachments are lhe sarne as íor the
strain tower. Generally, dead-end towers have different tensions or con-
urataon, a vertical conf1gurat1on or 1n a delta configuralion. Toe horizon-
tal configurati~n _provide~ lhe !owest profile, the vertical configuration
requ1res lhe mm,mum w,dth nght-of-way, and the delta configuration
can reduce electrical line losses.

•••
ductor sizes on each side of lhe structure; thls creates an lntact unbalanced
longitudinal load. Overhead ground wlres are attached to lhe towers using
similar methods as oullined íor lhe conductors.
Additional nomencialure for the basic tower types is used to help
identify lhe tine angle ai a particular structure caused by a change in
direction of lhe tine. Toe terrn "langent" Is preflxed to lhe baslc tower
The conductor phases for a _d o~ble circuit tower can be placed directly
?ver one anolher. An altematave 1s to offset the phases horizontally; this
1s usually t~e practice_ ~here ice unloading (sleet jump) or galloping
cond_uctors 1s a poss1b1hty. Offsets also provide clearance to minimize
po!s,ble contact between wires during stringing. A delta phase configu-

•• type for zero tine angle and the terrn "angle" is used when there is a line
angle . Therefore lhe following terminology is recommended: tangent
suspension, angle suspension, tangent strain, angle strain, tangent
rallon can also be used .
~e developme~l of the tower configuration starts with the upper
port1on. Th1s sect,on of lhe tower Is designed for lhe· selected vertical

•• dead end, and angle dead end .

2.2 SELF-SUPPORTJNG TOWERS

and horizontal phase spaclng and electrical clearances around each con-
ductor. The configuration shóuld be u conipact as possible around each
conductor. The lower portlon of the tower is deslgned next. The wlder
lhe l?wer base lhe smaller the footing loads, bul widening the tower

•• Some typical self-supporting tower configurations for single and dou-

ble circuit towers are shown in Fig. 2.1.
base mcreases the length and weight of the bracing members. Therefore,
an economical balance must be reached between the tower base width
and lhe size of lhe bracing members . This is controlled by the face slope,

••
••
.•• {.

10 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS

..\ .· ..,.

•••
GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS 11

í TOWER
TOWER
BODY

•• BODY
20' EKTENSIONS

•••
50
ki~ENSIONS '

TYPICAL TENSION-COMPRESSION TENSION 50' ki~ENSIONS

•• SYSTEMS
FIG. 2. 2. - Bracirrg Systems
SYSTEM

•• or bevel, of lhe tower legs, which varies from ¾ in 12 lo 2½ in 12 .

Normally the heavier towers will have the larger face slopes .
The arrangement of lhe tower members should keep the tower geome-
(OTHER HEIGHT INCREMENTS ANO COMBINA TIDNS ARE ALSO USED)
FIG. 2.3. - Tow,r Extensions

•• try simple by using as few members as possible. ldeally, the tower

members should be fully stressed under more than one loading condi-
tion. The ultlmate goal is to strlve for an economlcal structure that is well

•••
proportioned and attractlve .
Fig. 2.2 shows tr,plcal web.brac:lng 1yatema u1td ln tranamlHion tow•
er,. 'rhe web brac ng c•n be d,1tg111d uelng a tenalol'l•toniprt11ion 1y1•
tem, a tension system, or comblnatlons of these systems. For towers
with high web member stresses under intact or stringing conditions,

••
such as dead-end or angle towers with over 20° line angle, it is common
practice to use a tension-compresalon bracing system.
,_ Typical transmission towers have a square body configuration, and in
the lower section lhe bracing ln ali faces is identical. Rectangular config-

•••
FLA T SINGLE CIRCUIT
urations have been used very successfully when proper attention is
given to lhe longitudinal strength. This configuration has less duplica-
tion of pieces; in addition, closer attention must be given to foundation
movements due to the increased height-to-width ratio of lhe longitudi-
nal faces of the structure.

•• Variable tower heights are obtalned by adjustlng the heights of the leg
extensions and/or adding tower body extensions. Heights of leg exten-
sions can vary from 5 to 50 ft. Tower body extensions are generally ln

•• height increments of 20 ft. (Fig. 2.3) .

2.3 GUYED TOWERS

•• Guyed towers are often used for single circuit lines. Typical guyed
tower configurations are guyed-portal, guyed-vee, guyed-wye, guyed-
CHAINETTE

SINGLE CIRCUIT
DELTA

•••
delta, and chainette (see Fig. 2.4). FIG. 2.4. -Examples of Guyed Towers

•
 ••
•• 12 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS
GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS 13

•• The laced columns of guyed structures have lension-compression

bracing syslems. Long slender laced columns musl be designed as beam
columns. Shear deformalions from wind loads and eccentricltles can
Pap,r C 73 378-7. IEEE Power Engr. Soe., Summer Meeting , Vancou ver, B.C. ,
Canada.

Alpert, 5. D. , Fo rtney, G . E., and Shaw, J. D. (1963). ''Tower d esign for lhe

•• reduce the buckllng capaclty of lhe overall column. The analysis of

chainette structures requires lhal the displacemenl of the conductor sup-
port assembly be considered under transverse loading .
Generally, guyed towers are used in fiai to rolling terrain. They can be
VEPCO 500 kV project." Pap,r CP 63-6 71, IEEE Sou theastem District Meeting
Richmond. Va. '

•••
Behnc~e, R., and White, H . B. (1984). "The Alicura 500 kV transmissio n sys-

used in rough terrain lf guy slopes are sufficiently steep so that the
downhill guy leads are not excessively long.
~-
tem. Proc. Int . Conf. º"
Large H1gh Voltage E/,clric Syslt ms, CIGRE Paper 22-02.
Bergstrom, R. N ., Arena, J. R., and Kramer, J. M. (1960). "Design of self sup-
ported steel lrans m,ssio n towers ." /. of lhe Power Division, ASCE. 86 (P03)

2.4 OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

.
•• 2 .4.1 Horizontal (Plan) Bracing
" BPA 1100 kV Transmission System Deveio pme nt." (1979). Pub/ication 79 TH
0057-0- PWR, IEEE Power Engr. Soe., Winter Meeting, New Yo rk. N .Y.
Ghan.noum, E., and La_m arre, M . (1985). " Hydro-Quebec's experience with the

•••
ln some structures horizontal bracing is requlred to distribute shear
and torslonal forces. Horizontal braclng Is also used in square and rec-
tangular towers and masts to support horizontal struts and to provide
stlfler structures to assist ln reducing dlstortion caused by oblique wind
loads. Horizontal bracing is normally used ai leveis where there is a
design and construcllon of 1500 km of 735 kV chainette transmissio n fines."
Pap,r 85 WM 200- 1. IEEE Power Engr. Soe., Winter Meeling, New York, N.Y.
Hoffman, G . 8 ., and Arena, J. R. (1966). "Alleghe n y power system design of
500 kV towers." Pap,r 31 TP 66- 20, IEEE Po wer Group, Winter Meeling, New
York, N .Y.

•• change ln the slope of lhe tower leg to assisl lhe bracing system ln
resolvlng the horizontal component.
ln square and reclangular. towen li 14 nol unusual for the 1tructure lo
Kravitz, R. A., and Samuelson, A. J. (1969). ''Tower designs for AEP 765 kV
Project." / . o/ lht Pow,r OivlsioN, ASCll, 95 (P02), 305-319.

•• extend 75 ft from the foundation to lhe firsl panei of horizontal braclng. Marslco, R., Ryan, R. D., and Retallack, R. L. (1985) . "AEP chainette s tructure
The cross section of the tower, the stiffness of the laclng members, and development." Pap,r 85 WM 201-9. IEEE Power En . Soe., Winter Meetin ,
lhe torsional load distribution normally determine how often horizontal New-'Yor~
cross-braclng is required. Petersen, W. O . (1962). "Design of EHV steel tower trans missio n lines ." /. of Ili,

•• For structures with a square or rectangular configuration greater than

200 ft high, or heavy dead-end towers, it is suggested that horizontal
bracing be installed at intervals not exceeding 75 ft. The spacing of
Power Division, ASCE, 88. (POl) 39-65 .
Sansom, H. J., Rathgeber, W. E., Kravitz, R. A. , and Manuel, F. S. (1982) .
"Colorado-Utes 345 kV steel latticed H frame line designed as a structural

•••
horizontal bracing is dictated by general stlffness requirements to main- system." Paptr 82 WM 203-8, IEEE Power Engr. Soe., Winter Meeting, New
tain tower geometry and face allgnment. Factors which affect thls deter- York, N .Y.
mination are type of bracing system, the face slope, the dead load sag of
lhe face material, and erection consideratlons that affect splice locatlons White, H . B. (1978). "A modular design system for guyed-V loweu ." Paptr F 78
151-3, IEEE Power Engr. Soe., Wlnter Meeting, New York, N. Y.
and member lengths.

•• 2.4.2 Member lntersedlon1

The lncluded angle between two lntersecling members should not be
Wood, D. L. (1962). "Optlmlzed tangent towers for 345 kV transmissio n ." / .
lht Power Division, ASCII, 88, (P02), 1- 8 .
o/

Yuuda, li. J., and Dttw1y, P. 8 . (1979), "BJ'A'1 n,w generatl<>n oi !500 ~V li~es."

••
Pap,r F 79 143- 6, IEEE l'ower l'!ngr. Soe., Summer'Mee ting, Vancouver. B.C. ,
less than 15º to provide for proper force distribution . Canada.

•• BIBLIOGRAPHY
"A Guide to lhe Conceptual Design of Transmlssion Une Structures." (1973).
Task Group on Une Loading and Strength for Transmission Une Structures,

••
••
 ••
•• METHODS OF ANALYSIS 15

•• .. 0

•• '
V
1 0
V
Chapter 3
{~~ o z
..
•• METHODS OF ANALYSIS
..
.
~
V
w

..
..
V

••• = w
V
•'
--. -
~
3.1 INTRODUCTION :! ..
',,, ' o
V ~
•

•••
z :,
This chapter describes various melhods whkh can be used lo calculale
lhe axial forces ln lhe members of a sleel lattked structure, seif- :; o !:!" !? ..
-o
..
~

supported or guyed. Moments normally exist in members of a tower ~ o

(because of framing eccentrlciHes, slightly eccentric loads, lateral wind
load on members, etc.); usually they are no! slgnlflcant. Since moments
=
•• are small and it is impractlcal to model every eccentrlc detail, towers are
analyzed almo1t excluslvely II Ideal trusses, l.e., as etructures mede up
of straight members or cables, pin-connected ai jolnta. Theae analyaet

•• produce only joint dlsplacement,, tentlon or compreulon ln members,

and tension ln cables. While not considered ln analysls, moments from
normal framlng eccentrldties of angles are accounted for ln lhe design of
lhe member by deraling lhe angles' load capacity. For other shapes

•• framing eccentricities must be considered in lhe design of the members .

•••
3.2 TOWER MODEL

A tower is described by a design drawing which shows overall dimen-

sions, joints, and member locaHons. Because of the high degree of sym-
melry of mosl towers, a transverse view, a longitudinal view, anda few

•• horizontal cross-section or plan views are sufficienl to describe the

entire structure. Fig. 3.1 shows various analysis concepts. For purposes
of analysls, a tower can be represented by a model composed of mem-
bers (and sometimes cables) lnterconnected at joints. Membera are nor-
....
!:
•• mally classüled as primary and secondary (also called redundanl) mem•
bers. Prlmary members form lhe trtangulated system (lhree-dlmenslonal .
lruss) that carries the loads from their application poinls down to the
o ..
.. Ili
:,
" l.
•• tower foundalion. Secondary members are used to provide inlermediate
bracing points to lhe primary members and thus reduce unbraced
lengths of the primary members. They can easily be idenlified on a
0

•• 14

••
-•.. _

•• 18 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS METHOOS OF ANALYSIS 19

•• F
3.2.6 Dynamlc Analysls

•••
Dynamic analyses of towers can be performed with general purpose
Fmax finite element programs, but there is no indication that such analyses
are needed for design purposes. (Guideli11es for Transmission Line Slruc-
tural Loading 1984; Long 1974) .
e

•• 3.3 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

•• 1 bl
3.3.1 Node locations

Toe locations of the nodes (or working points) in any computer model

•••
should be ai lhe intersection polnts of the centroidal axes of lhe mem-
bers. Slight deviations from these locations will not significantly affect
• the distribution of forces .

3.3.2 Practlcal Analysls Features

•• Por practlcal appllcatlona, 1 compuhtr program for lhe analysis of lat-

tked 1lructure11hould lndudt the lollowlng feature1: autom1tlc gener1•

•• (C)
llon of nodes and members 1h11 utlllz• linear lnterpolatlons and symme•
tries,--and--inte..achve-g,-ay,hle, to a s c t t t a ~ -tk,e-- - - -
geometry of the tower. The program should also include provisions for
automatic handling of planar nodes and mechanisms (unstable subas-

•• •max
FIG. 3.3. -Rtlationships Btlwtffl Mtmbtr Comprts-
,ion Forct and Shorltning. (a) Actual
semblies) which will develop in a small group of nodes and members.
Out-of-plane instabilities or mechanisms are generally prevented in
actual towers by lhe bendlng stlffness of conlinuous members that pass

•••
Mtmbtr. (b) Libtral Assumption. (e) Con- through lhe joinls. Rossow et ai. (1975) and Peyrot (1985) include discus-
seroolivt Assumption sions of lhe problem and possible soiutions. Nodes 3, 4, 5, and 6 ln
Fig. 3.1 are planar nades, i.e., ali members meeting at those polnts lie ln
the sarne plane. Joints 12 and 13 are also planar nodes if lhe redundant
member "ab" is nol included in the modei. The diaphragm in section D·

•• 3.2.5 General Nonllnear Analy1l1

D is a mechanism in the absence of member 8 (shown as a dotted line) .

3.3.3 lnfluence of Member Slzt■

•• lf, in additlon to consldering large displacements, the analyst wlshes

to consider the nonllnear stress-straln behavior of members (Mueller et
Toe results of a compute, analysis normally depend on the actual
member sizes which are used in the modei. lf two analysts use the sarne

•• ai. 1985), the actual eccentrlcities of the connections, and the slippage of member sizes and assumptions (linear, geometrically nonlinear, etc.),
bolts, which occurs at high loads, then a general nonlinear finite ele• they should obtain identical member forces. However, if they use the
ment analysis should be used. While this has been done in ~onnection sarne assumptions but different member sizes, lhe corresponding forces
with research projects, such analyses are not presently used m connec- may differ. lf they use programs based on different assumptions, then

•• tion with the design of new structures . lhe member forces may be quite different (Kravitz 1982).

••
••
••
r
METHODS OF ANALYSIS 21
20 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION lOWERS

•• r p

••• 1
. ''
X

••
••
•••
•• (.) CIOU IICTION

•• FIG. 3.4. - Broctd Sytltm• Under Skf'I• Load. (a) Stiff Brwclng. (b) ln,uffl•
d tnlly Sliff Bnuing
• IQUIVALINT

••
3.3.4 Computer Analysea to Verlfy Old Designa
When analyzing an existing tower, careful attention must be given to
the method of analysls employed when lhe tower was originally
I 11AM

FIG. 3.5. -Stgmrnl of úittictd Mast ldtaliztd as Btam

•••
designed (Kravltz 1982). 1f lhe tower was orlginally designed by manual
(algebraic or graphkal) methods and lhe design loads are not changed, it
is quite normal for any computer analysis to indicate forces in the sarne
members which are different from those from the manual methods. The
englneer should determine and document why the dlfferences exist
load H . Fig. 3.4(b), however, represents a case where the bracing sys-
lem, !>e<=au~e of lhe_ s~all val1;1e of lhe angle a and small diagonal mem-
ber stzes, 1s lnsuffic1ently stiff; therefore, the diagonais carry only a
portlon of lhe shear; the remalnder of the shear produces moments in

•• before proceeding wlth the computer analysis. 1f lhe tower Is to be

upgraded and new design toada specifled, then lt Is normally more cost-
effectlve to rely on a compuler analysls. A correlation of past model
the vertical members "AC" and "BD". If moments are anticipated in leg
members, li is prudent to use an analysis method that models leg mem-
bers as beams. Other members in the tower can still be modeled as ttuss
elemenls.

••
assumptions with present model assumptlons should be perforrned for
the entire structure, not just a pari of il .
3.4 ALTERNATE MODELING OP LATTICED MASTS
3.3.5 Moment, ln ug Membert

•• Occasionally, moments can occur in a leg or crossarm comer member

if the bracing is insuffidently stiff (Roy et ai. 1984). Fig. 3.4(a) represents
Guyed structures and H-frames may include masts built-up with
angles ai the comers and lacing in the faces as shown in Fig. 3.5. The
overall cross section of the mast is either square, rectangular, or triangu-

•• a situation where the bracing is suffidently stiff to carry ali the shear

••
••
•• 22 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS
METHODS OF ANALYSIS 23

•• lar. Latticed masts typically include a very large number of members and
are relatively slender, i.e., may be susceptible to second-order stresses .
One alternative to modeling a mast as a three-dimensional truss system
Bibliography
Beck, C. F. (1971). "Computer's role in transmission line design." /. o/ lhe Slruc•
lura/ Division, ASCE, 97 (STJ). 63- 79.

•• is to represent it by a model made up of equivalent beams. Toe proper-

ties of an equivalent beam that deflects under shear and moment can be
worked out from structural analysis principies. The beams are con-
nected together to form a three-dimensional model of the mast or an
Beck, C. F., and Zar, M. (1966). "Computer analysis of towers verified by test-
ing." f. of lhe Slruclura/ Division, ASCE. 92 (ST6), 361-384.

•••
Fang, 5-J .. Rossow, E. C. , and Roy, S. (1979). "Design and analysis of guyed
e ntire structure. That model may be analyzed with any three- transmission towers by computer." Proc. 7111 /EEE/PES Transmission and Dislri•
dimensional finite element program. lf large deflections are expected, a bulion Co,if. and Exposilion, 510-518.
second-order (geometrically nonlinear) analysis should be used (Peyrot
Hanna, A. W. G. , and Redwood, R. G .· (1973). ''Transmission towers under
1985). Once the axial loads, shears, and moments are determined in
torsional loads." /. of lhe Power Divisio,i, ASCE, 99 (P01), 105- 123.
each equivalent beam, they can be converted into axial loads in the

•• members that make up the beams. Kempner, L.• and Smith, 5. (1984). "Cross-rope transmission tower-line
dynamic analysis." f. Slrucl. Engr., ASCE, 110 (6), 1321- 1335 .

••
Lee, J. W., and Jen sen, H. G. (1980). ''Transmission tower limit analysis and
REFERENCES ANO BIBLIOGRAPHY design by linear programming." Pap,r 80 SM 681 - 7, IEEE Power Engr. Soe.,
Summer Meeting, Minneapolis, Minn .
References Lo, D. L. C., Morcos, A. , and Goel, S. K. (1975). "Use of computers in transmis•

•• BPA Towtr An•lysis Design (1987) Bonn•ville Power Adminlstratlon, Portland,

Oreg.
sion tower design." f. Slroclural Division, ASCE, 101 (ST7), 1443-1453.
Martin, D. A., and Roultt, J. P. (1970). "Computer calculations for the design of
tower members for H. V, transmlsslon Unes." Pa~r 10 CP 620.PWR, IEEE

•• Guidtlints for Transmiuion Lint Slroclu,.I Lo,ading (1984), Commlt, on Blect, Tran1,
Struct. of Commlt, on Analy, and Ottlgn of Struc. of Struct. Olv, ASCJl ,
Powtr Group, Summer Meetina, Lo1 Anael11, Calif.
Palmer, A. H, (1967). "Con,píct analy1l1 for towar atructurea." f, of tl1t P0wtr
-Dwiswti, A5CE 93 (NU) i-13

••
Kravitz, R. A. (1982). "Transmlsslon Une tower analysls and design ln revlew."
Pap,r 82 WM 204-6, IEEE Power Engr. Soe., Winter Meeting, New York, N.Y. Peyrot, A. H ., and Goulols, A. M. (1978). "Analysis of flexible tran,mlssion
lines." f. of lhe Slruclural Division, ASCE, 104 (STS), 763-779.
Long, L. W. (1974). "Analysis of seismic effects on transmission structures."
Peyrot, A. H ., Lee J. W., and Jensen H . G. (1981). "Application of cable ele-

•• IEEE Trans. P0wtr Appar. Sys. PAS-93 (1), 248- 254 .

Marjerrison, M. (1968). "Electric transmlsslon tower design." / . o/ lhe P0wtr
Division, ASCE, 94 (POl), 1- 23 .
111ents concept to a transmission Une with cross rope suspension structure•."
Paptr 81 WM 213-8, IEEE Power Engr. Soe., Winter Meeting, Atlanta, Ga .

•• Mueller, W. H., Prlckett, s, L., and Kemr,ner, L. (1985). "Nonllnear analysl• and
full scale test of a transmission tower.' Bonneville Power Admlnlstration .

••
Peyrot, A. H. (1985). "Mlcrocomputer based nonlinear structural analysis of
transmission line systems." /EEE Trans. P0wtr Appar. Sys. PAS-104 (11) .
Rossow, E. C., Lo, D. L. C. and Chu, 5-L. (1975), "Efficlent design analysis of

••
physically nonlinear trusses." /. o/ lhe Slroclural Division, ASCE, 101 (ST4),
83'1- 853 .
Roy, 5., Fang, 5-J., and Rossow, E. C. (1984), "Secondary stresses on transmis-

••
sion tower structures." /. Energy Engr. , ASCE, 110 (2), 157-172 .
Zar, M., and Arena, J. R. (1979). "Towers and transmission pole structures."
Stroclural tngineering handbook, Stcond Ed. , E. H. Gaylord and C. N. Gaylord,

•• eds. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, N.Y.

••
•• 1.,cSluN Ot- MEr.1BEHS 25

•• 4.3 MINIMUM SIZES

•• Minimum thicknesses of 1/a in. for members and 3/1• in . for conn eclion
plates are suggested . See Section 9.2.4 for steei exposed to corrosion ai
lhe ground line .

•• DESIGN OF MEMBERS
Chapter 4
4.4 SLENDERNESS RATIOS

•••
Limiting slenderness ralios for members carrying calculated co mpres-
sive stress shall be leg members: Ur s 150; other members: KUr s 200 .
The slendemess ratio KUr for redundant members shall nol exceed 2.50.
The slend emess ratio Ur for tension-only members detailed with draw

•• 4.1 INTRODUCTION shall not exceed 500. (See the Commentary on Chapter 4 for hangers.)

•••
4.5 PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS
The provisions of lhis chapler are lntended to apply lo lhe design of
hot-ro lled and cold-fonned members. Section properties, such as area, moment of inertia, radius of gyration,
section modulus, ele., shall be based on the gross cross section excepl
where a reduced cross section or a nel cross section is specified. The

•• 4.2 MATERIAL
reduced cross section shall consisl of all fully eHective elemenls plus
lhose whose widtha mui! be considered reduced ln accordance with
Sectlon 4.9.3. lf ali el<1ments are fully effectlve the reduced cross section
and the groaf crou aectlon are ldentical. Net cross section Is d eflned ln

•• Material conforming lo lhe following stan dard specifications, the lat-

est date of issue, is suitable for use under this Manual:
Sectlon 4.10.1.

•• 4.6 ALLOWABLE COMPRESSION

.
ASTM A36, Structural Stttl
ASTM A242. Hlgh-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Stttl Toe allowable compression stress F, on the gross cross-sectional area,

• /
ASTM A4-41,

ASTM A529,
ASTM A570,
High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Manganue Vana-
dium Stttl
Structural Stttl wlth 42,000 psi Minimum Yield Poinl
Hot-Rolied Carbon Stttl Shttt and Strip, Structural Qual-
or on lhe reduced area where specified, of axially loaded compression
members shall be

r. - 11 - 21(KL/r)'
c, ] r, ;
1
/

••
KL
ity • 7$; e, (4.6-1)
ASTM A572, High-Strength Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium Stttls of
Structural Quality
ASTM r _ 286,000

•••
A588, Hlgh-Strength Low•Alloy Structural Stnl wlth 50,000 pai
ASTM A606,
Minimum Yleld Polnt to 4 ln. Thick
Stttl Sheet and Strlp, Hot-Rolied and Cold-Rolied, High-
Strength Low-Alloy, wlth lmproved Corrosion Resistance
. (~)'; (46 - 2)

ASTM A6l)7, Stttl Shttt and Strlp, Hot-Rolied and Cold-Rolied, High-
Strength Low-Alloy, Columbium and/or Vanadium

•• ASTM A715, Shttt Stttl and Sm:r·, Hot-Rolied, High-S trength, Low-
Alloy, wlth Improve Formability (4.6-3)

•• 24 '.
1
I·
••
.•• ,, - ,-,. ;-
. ..
-, ~,. ..- ,....., ,, -- r.
• , . ,_,:
n ,..,,. ,....,,
.•.: '::-/ , _...,_ 1
= (,~'';:"I~
~,~~
\.
•• 26 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS DESIGN OF MEMBERS
27
I'
l

•• where ~t:" minlmum guarantttd yield stress (kal); E - modulua of elastic-

ily - 29,00U ksl; L - unbraced length (in.); r - radius of gyratlon (ln.); and K
• elleclive length coeflicienl .
4.7.4.2 Other Comprtssion Mtmbers
For members with a concentric lo~d at both ends of lhe unsupported
panei,
1
i
•• 4.7 COMPRESSION MEMBERS: ANGLES KL
- L,
- -;; . o s, s
L
120
.
(4.7-5)

•••
The provisions of this section are appllcable only for 90° angles. lf lhe
nngle legs are closcd, as in a 60º angle, lhe provlslons of Sectlon 4.9 shell For members with a concentrlc load at onc end and normal fram ing
be followed. eccentricity ai lhe olher end of lhe unsupported panei,
1-,

4.7.1 Madmum wl t Ratlo ~ • 30 + 0.75 ~; OS ~r S 120 (4.7-6)

••
r . ,
The ratio wlt, where w - fiai width and / - thickness of leg, shall not
exceed 25; see Fig. 4C.2 in the Commentary on Chapter 4. For members with normal framing eccentricilies at both ends of lhe

••
unsupported panei,
4.7.2 Allowable Compresslve Stress
~ • 60 + 0.5 ~- OS ~r S 120 (4.7-7)
The allowable compresslve stress on the gross cross-sectlonai area r . r'

•• shall be the value of F, accordlng to Section 4.6, provlded lhe largest

value of wlt does not exceed lhe limiting value given by Eq. 4.7-1 . For members unrestrained against rotation at both ends of the unsup-
ported panei,

••
,;
4.7,3 Ddermlnatlon of F., ·

If w/1 as defined ln Sectlon 4.7.1 exceeds (w/t)11m given by - --·

KL
r
L
,'
120 :S ~r :S 200

•• (4.7-1)
For members partially restrained against rotation ai one end of the
unsupported p_anel,

•• lhe allowable stress F, shall be the value according to Seclion 4.6 with F,
in Eqs. 4.6- 1 and 4.6-3 replaced with F" glven by
KL • 28.6 + 0.762 ~;
r r
120 S ~
r
S 225 (4.7-9)

•• Fa •
1
w/1 1
1.677 - 0.677 (u,/IJ11m F,;
w w 144
(,lum S f S ,/F._
'
(4.7-2)
For members partially restrained against rotation at both ends of the
. unsupported panei,

~r ~r
,,.r t• 'r

•• 9500
Fa • (wlt)';

4.7.4.3 Rtdundant Mtmbers

• 46.2 + 0.615 ~;
r
120 S S 250 (4.7-10)

••
4.7.4 Effective Lrngths

4. 7.4.1 Ug Mtmbtrs OS~ S 120 (4.7-11)

r

•• For leg members bolted in both faces at connectlons,

KL
-; -L
~; ,
OS~ S 150 (4.7-4)
lf members are unrestrained against rotation at both ends of the
unsupported panei,

••
••
•• ·- ... -wwwwzws _ _ _ _ _ ""'?_•• -+- ---------- -
•• 28 DESIGN FOR :;TEEL TAANSMISSION TOWEAS DESIGN OF MEMBEAS 29

•• 120 S ~r S 250
p V
•·.. f
(4.7-12)

•• lf members are partially restrained against rotalion ai one end of lhe

unsupported panei,

•• KL • 28.6 + 0 .762 ~;
r r
120 s ~
r
S 290
CJ" Ji,• e.)

(4.7-13)

•• lf members are partially restrained against rotation ai both ends of the

unsupported panei,
,.,,., J.. 'o
FIG. 4. l - Minimum lip deplh

4.8.3 Equivalent Radius of Gyration

•• KL • 46.2 + 0 .615 ~;
r r
120 S ~r S 330 (4.7-14) The allowable stress defined in Section 4.8.2 shall be compuled for lhe
larger of KUr, and KUr,1, where r,1 is an equivalenl radius of gyration

•• 4. 7.4.4 /oint Restraint given by

A single bolt connection ai either lhe end of a member or a point of 2 - :,

-, 1 + ✓ :,
1 + :, 1 )' + 4 /-u,- )'
1 - ::, (4 .8-1)
intermediate support shall not be considered as furnishing restraint r ,, r, r. /r , r• r, r, r,,.

•• against rotation. A multi pie bolt conneclion, detailed to minimize eccen-

lricily, shall be considered to offer partia! restraint if the connection Is to
a member capable of resislipg rotalion of the joint.
whert (4.8-2)

•• \
'
4. 7.4.5 Test Verification

Where tests and/or analysis demonstrate that specific details provide

n~constant; / • SI. Venant torsion constant; K, • effective
- -?--..;;;,-cw:.=ae..r!'il""
length coefficient for warping restraint; • un race engt o mem r; r,
• radius of gyration_!lbout u-axis; u, • distance between shear center and
___!

•• restraint different from the recommendations of this section, the values

of KUr specified in this section may be modified .
centroid; r,, • ✓t,,JA • polar radius oi gyration about shear center; 1,, •
t. + 1, + Au! • polar moment of inertia about shear center; /, ~ moment of
inertia about u•axis; f, • moment of inertia about z-axis; and A • area of
cross section .

••• 4.8 COMPRESSION MEMBERS: SYMMETRICAL LIPPED Values of K and KL/r shall be laken as defined in Seclion 4.7.4, using
ANGLES K, • 1 in Eq. 4.8-2 .

4.8.1 Maximum wlt Ralio 4.8.4 Minimum Lip Depth

•• The ralio w/1 of the leg shall not exceed 60; see Fig. 4C.2 in lhe Com-
mentary on Chapter 4 .
The minimum depth, d, of a lip ai lhe angle 8 with lhe leg (Fig _4.1)
shall be delermined by

•• 4.8.2 Allowable Compression Stress

d • 2.81
(sin 8)líl
'✓(~)'
I
_4000
F,
> (sin4.81fl)lil (4 .8-3)

•• I The allowable compressive stress on the gross cross-sectional area

shall be the value of F, according to Section 4.6, rrovided the w idth-to-
thickness ratio of lhe leg wlt :S 220/.JF... lf wl exceeds 220/.JF.., lhe
design shall be based on a reduced area'according lo Sections 4.5and
where wll • fiai width-to-thickness ralio of the leg.

The ralio w,lt o f lhe lip shall nol exceed 72/ff,; see Fig. 4.1 .

•••
4.9.3.1.b .

•
.,. "
••• 30 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS DESIGN OF MEMBERS 31

••
4.9 COMPRESSION MEMBERS NOT COVERED IN
SECTIONS 4.7 ANO 4.8 lt IIIIIln ~ lz 11 IIIlnnn ►
4.9.1 Allowable Compresslve Stress
1
1
1 11 1
: "4l1Ilüfl,z
•• : 1
1
.
1
1
1
1

u
The allowable compressive stress on lhe gross cross-sectional area, or 1
on the reduced area defined in Sechon 4.5 if wlt for any element exceeds "\ IÍI----

•• the limit in Section 4.9.3.1 for which b m w, shall be the value of F,

according to Section 4.6. Radii o f gyration used to determine F, shall be
computed for the gross cross section, and limiting values of wlt and the
b1

•••
effective widths of elements defined in Section 4.9.3.1 shall be deter- w w
mined with / = F, . FIG . 4.2- Elmitnts with strtss gradient
lf a reduced area applies and the force P does not act ai the center of
gravity of the reduced area, the resulting moment shall be taken into
UI - 220
account according to Section 4.12. b - w; -
, <"T
- (4.9- 3)

•• 4.9.2 Maxlmum wl t Ratlos

b•
325 (
-./f 1 -
71 )
(T)-.ff I;
w
-> -
220
"T
(4 .9- 4)

••
1
The ratio wlt of flat width to thickness shall not exceed 60 for elements
supported on both longitudinal edges and 25 for elements supported on
only one longitudinal edge; see Fig. 4C.2 in the Commentary on excepl thal for flanges of square and rectangular sections,

•• Chapter 4 .

4.9.3 Effective Wldths of Elements _ln Compresslon

b- ID,
w - 240
"T
•• 4.9.3.1 Uniformly Compressed Elements
b•
325(
-./f 1 -
63)
(T)"T t;
w - 240
- >-
, "T (4.9-6)

•• a. Toe effective width b of an element supported on only one longitu-

dinal edge shall be taken as follows:
where / - compressive stress, in ksi, in an element computed for compres-
sion members as prescribed ln Section 4.9.1 and for members in bending in

•• b • w; (4 .9- 1) Sectlon 4.14.1. The rortion of lhe element consldered removed to obtaln lhe
effectlve wldlh shal be laken symmetrlcally about lhe centerline .

••
108 ( 24 ) 4.9.3,2 E/1mc,nt1 wlth Strt11 Gr11dlc,nt
b- -./f 1- (T)-.ff I;
(4.9-2)
a. The effectlve wldth b of an elemenl aupported on only one longitu-
dinal edge shall be determlned as ln Sectlon 4.9.3.1.a, using for/ the

•• where / • compresslve stress, ln ksl, ln an element computed for co~pre_s-

sion members as prescribed ln Sectlon 4.9.1 and for members ln bend1ng m
Section 4.14.1. The effective wldth shall be taken adjacent to lhe supported
maxlmum compressive stress ln the element.
b. Toe effective widths b1 and b2 (Fig. 4.2) of an element supported nn
both longitudinal edges shall be determined as follows:

••
edge .
w _ 110 e
b • ~ -<-- (4.9-7)
b. Toe effective width b of an element supported on both longitudinal 2 2' 1 ,/T,
edges shall be taken as follows:

••
•
••
•• 32 DESIGN FOR STEEL TAANSMISSION TOWEAS
DESIGN OF MEMBEAS 33

•• b2 -
82C\
,/f; 1-
36C l
(-f),/f; t;
w _ 110
->--
t
e
,rr;
(4.9- 8)
4.9.7 Closed Cross Sections
Members with closed cross sections need to be investigated only for

•• b, - - ~ b_ _
1.5- 0.5 {
(4.9-9)
flexural buckling .

4.9.8 Nonsymmetric Cross Sections

•• .)f
1
The allowable compressive stress for nonsymmetric shapes shail be
determmed by tests and/or analysis . See lhe Commentary on
Chapter 4 .

•• where C - 2 + 0.75 (1 - / 2//1) 2 ; / 1 - compressive stress shown in Fig. 4.2, to

be taken positive; /2 - stress shown in Fig. 4.2, positive indicales compres-
sion, negative indicates tension .
4.9.9 lips

•••
Element lips shail be dimensioned according to s~ction 4.8.4.
The stresses/, and /, shall be based on the reduced section, and /, shall
be the larger if / 2 is compressive. Jf the sum of the calculated values of b, 4.9.10 Eccentric Connections
and b2 exceeds the compressive part of the element, the element is fully
effective. lf lhe centers of gravity of the member connections cannot be made
coincident with the center of gravity of the member cross section, either

•• 4.9.4 Doubly Symmetrlc Opcn Cro11 Sectlona

Members with doubly symmetrlc open cross sectlons whose unsup-

gross or reduced as appiicable, the resuiting bending stresses shall be
taken lnto account according to Section 4. 12.

•••
ported length for torsional buckllng exceeds the unsupported length for
flexural buckling about lhe weak axls shall be checked for torsional 4.10 TENSION MEMBERS
buckling as well as for flexural buckling. The allowable torsionai- Glr.1 Allowable I ens11TSfi'ess
buckling stress is the value of f, according to Section 4.6, using the
radius of gyration r, of Eq. 4.8-2 computed for the gross cross section. •

•• 4.9.5 Singly Symmetric Open Crosa Sectlons

The ailowabie tensile stress F, on concentrically ioaded tension mem-
bers shaUbe F{ on lhe net cross-sectionai area A., where A, is the gross
cross-sechona area A, (lhe sum of the products of the thickness and the
gross widt~ of each eiement as measured normal to the axis of the

•• Members with singly symmetric open cross sections shall be checked

for flexural buckling in the plane of symmetry and for torsional-flexural
buckling. The allowable torsional-flexural buckling stress is the value of
m~mb~r) m1~us the ioss du~ to holes or other openings ai the section
bemg mvesttg~ted . lf there ts a cham of holes in a diagonal or zigzag
ime, lhe ne~ w1dth of an eiement shail be determined by deducting from

•• F, according to Section 4.6, using the radius of gyration r,1 of Eq. 4.8-1
computed for the gross cross section. •
lhe gross w1dth the sum of the diameters of ali the hoies in the chain and
addlng for each &•ge S('ace in the chain the quantity s 2/4g, where s •
longitudinal spacmg ([>llch) and g • transverse spacing (gage) of any

•••
4.9.6 Polnt-Symm1trlc Cro11 Sectlon1
Members with point-symmetrlc open cross sections shall be checked
for torsional buckllng as well as flexural buckling. Toe allowable
torsional-flexural buckling stress is the value of F, accordlng to Sec-
two c:on~ec:utlvl holo. The criticai net crosa•sectlonai area A, li obt@lned
from th1t chaln whlch glvea the 1.,0,1 1101 w idth .
. Plain and lipped angles bolted in both legs at both ends may be con-
s1dered to be concentrically loaded .

•• tion 4.6, using the radius of gyration r, of Eq. 4.8-2 computed for the 4.10.2 Angie Members
gross cross section. • The allowabie tensile stress F, on lhe net area of plain and lipped
angles connected by one leg shall be 0.9F, . lf the legs are unequal and
~ t r, and ,, reler to th• prtncip■I ■x•• (u, z) oi angles. Stt Section 4C.9.3 in the

•• 1
Commentary on Chapter 4 for conversion to principal axes of other shapes .
the short leg 1s connected, the unconnected leg shall be considered lo be

••
.,
_. _
•• DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS
DESIGN OF MEMBERS 35

•• 4.10.S Guys

The allowable tenslle load ln guys shall not exceed 0.65 times the

•• specified minimum breaking strength of lhe cable. See the Commentary

on Chapter 4 for recommendations on stretch of cables .

•• 4.11 STITCH BOLTS

Stitch bolts shall be spaced so that lh e goveming slendemess ratio

•••
Aw•0.2'(1 ♦ 2'I between bolts for any component of the built-up member does not
., ,0.2,. exceed lhe following:
For compresslon members: three quarte rs of the goveming slendemess
FIG. 4.3 - Block shtar dtltnnination ratio of the built-up member.

•• the same slze as the connected leg. lf the centrold of the bolt pattem Is
not tocated between the heel of the angle and the centerline of the
connected leg, the connection shall be checked for block shear by:
For tension members: lhe govemlng slendemess ratlo of the buill-up
member or 300.
lf the connected leg of a compression member exceeds 4 in., a minimum

•• P • F.(0.62 A, + A,) (4.10- 1)

of two bolts shall be used at each stitch point .

•••
where P • allow1bl• tensile force on connection; F, • specllled mlnlmum
tensUe stnngth of tht member (k1l); A, • mlnlmum net 1rt1 ln 1hHr atona•
Une of tnnsmitted force (sq. ln.); 1nd A, • mlnlmum n,t 1rea li\ t1n1lol\
from the hole to the toe of the angle perpendicular to lhe llne of force (sq.
in.); see Fig. 4.3.
4.12 AXIAL COMPRESSION ANO BENOJNG
Ecce ntrlclty of load on angle members Is provlded for in Sec-
tion• 4 7 4 2 aru.1.4.8.4-.-0ther membeRl-$Ubjected-to.botlWlxial-compres--
sion and bending shall be proportioned to satisfy the following
formula :

•• 4.10.3 Eccentric Connedlons

·Eccentricity of load on angle members Is provlded for in Sec-

f
P,
+ M, __ 1 _ + M.,_ __ l_ < l
Mi, 1 - PIP., M,, t - PIP,.,
(4.12-1)

•• tlons 4.10.1 and 4.10.2. Other members subjected to both axial tenslon
and bending shall be proportloned according to Section 4.13. where P • axial comr,reulon; P, • allowable axial compresslon accordlng to
Sectlol\ 4.9; P., • "El,l(K, L,)2; P,., • ir2E// (K,t,)2; 1, • moment of lnmla
about x-axls; 1, • moment of lnertla abóut y-axls; K,L, and K L. • lhe

•• 4.10.4 Threaded Roda and Anchor 80111

Threaded-rod members shall have a mlnlmum guaranteed yleld F,.

effective lengtlís in lhe corresponding planes of bending; M, and'M • lhe
moments •~ui lhe X• and y-axes, respectively; and M., and M,.,' • the
correspondmg allowable moments according to Section 4.14.

•••
The allowable tenslle stress F, on the stress area A, shall be F,. A, Is given
by 4.13 AXIAL TENSJON ANO BENOING
2
(4,10- 2)
A • -" ( d -0.974
-- ) . Eccentrlcity of load on angle members Is provlded for ln Sec-
• 4 "
llons 4.10.1 and 4.10.2. Other members subjected to both axial tension
J
•• where d • nominal dlameter and n • number of threads per in .

Anchor bolts shall have a mlnlmum guaranleed yield F,. See Sectlons
and bending shall be proportioned to satisfy the following formula:

(4. 13-1)

•• 5.3.2, 5.3.3, 5.3.4, and Chapter 9 for design requlrements .

• •
••
•• 36 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS
DESIGN OF MEMBERS 37

•• where P, - axial tension; P, - allowable axial tension according to Sec-

tion 4.10; M, and M, - the moments about the x· and y-axes, respectively;
and M,. and M,, - lhe corresponding allowable moments according to
S, - x-axis section modulus; C,, - warping cons1an1•; / • St. Venant lorsion
conslant; and L • unbraced lenglh.

•• Section 4.14.
For simply supported members wilh transverse load Cm = 1; formem-
bers with end moments M, and M, at the ends of the unbraced lenglh
and no lransverse load;

•• 4.14 BEAMS

4. 14.1 Propertles of Sedlons

Cm - 0.6 - 0.4M 1/M2 >0.4

~here M 1 is lhe smaller momenl and M 1/M 2 is positive when the bend ing is
(4.14- 2)

•• Allowable bending moments shall be determined by multiplying

allowable bending stresses F, prescribed in the following seclions by lhe
section modulus of the gross cross sectlon or of the reduced section
m reverse (S) curvature.

~e a)lowabl~ stress on the extreme fiber in compression for the 1

•••
sectton m bendmg about lhe y-axis shall be taken equal to F ; for chan-
defined in Section 4.5 as applicable. Radii of gyration used to determine nels see Section 4.14.7.b. '
lhe value of F, for lhe extreme fiber in compression shall be based on lhe
gross cross section. Effective widths of sectlon elements shall be deter- 4.14.S Other Doubly Symmetric Open Sectlons
mined as prescribed in Section 4.9.3, uslng for f lhe stress on the ele-

••
menl based on the allowable momenl previously defined. Limiting val-
ues of wlt shall be those given in Section 4.9.2.
Toe allowable bending stress F, on lhe extreme fiber in compression
for laterally unsupported members of doubly symmetric open cross sec-
tlon not covered in Sectlon 4,14.4 ahall be lhe value of F, according to

•••
4. 14.2 Allowable Ten1lon Section 4.6 determined as follows:
The allowable bendlng 1tr-es1 F, on the extreme flber ln ten,lon 1hall be For X•axl• bendlng follow Sectlon 4,14,4 (Eq . 4.14- 1).
'i F, . or y-axis bêndmg lollow Sêêlton 4.14.4 (Eq. 4.14-1) bot w , , 1, an
ii S, substituted for K,, 1,, and S,, respectively.

•• 'I
1
4.14.3 Laterally Supported Beams

The allowable bending stress F, on the extreme fiber in compression

for members supported against lateral bucl<llng shall be F, .
4.14.6 Slngly Symmetrlc I and T Sedlons

•••
;, Th! allowable be~ding stress F, on lhe extreme fiber in compression
for smgly symmelri~ 1-shaped members with lhe compression flange
4.14.4 I, Channel and Crudform Sedlons larger than lhe ten~1on flange and for singly symmetric single web T-
sha~d members wtlh lhe flange in compression, in bendlng about the
1 Toe allowable bending stress F, on the extreme fiber ln compression x-ax1s (lhe axis perpendicular to lhe web) and not supported againsl

•• 1

I·
for doubly symmetric I sectlons, slngly symmetric channels, and slngly
or doubly syrnmetric crudform sectlons ln bending about the x-axls {lhe
x-axis Is to be taken perpendicular to lhe web of the I and channel, but
may be elther principal axls for the crudform) and not supported against
lateral buckling, may be taken lhe sarne as lhe value for a section of the
sarne deplh wilh a tension flange the sarne as the compression flange of
lhe I or lhe T sectlon. The allowable moment shall be calculaÍed by
multlplytng the allowable stress ao obtalned by the compression flange

•• ,,
1
lateral bucl<llng, shall be the value of F, accordlng to Sectlon 4.6 with K
- ./K,K, and r given by: '

d...rr:. ✓e.,+ 0.04/(k,L)l

section modulus of lhe slngly syrnmetrlc shape.
The allowable bending stress on the extreme flber ln compresalon for
lhe sectlons previously descrlbed in bending about lhe y-axls (the axls of

•• il .. r2 - (4.14-1) symmetry) shall be determined according to Section 4.14.7.a .

• For lhe I NCtlon, Cw - 0.25d21,. A good epproxlmatlon for lhe ch1nnel i• O. ts,121, . For lhe

•••
where K - effectlve-length coefficient for y-axis bendlng; K, - effective- cnmform oect1on Cw • O. The oecl ion deplh - d .
ri length cciefliclent for warping restralnt; 1, - moment of inertla about y-axis;

•
•-
. (_
•• 38 DESIGN FOR STEEL TAANSMISSION TOWEAS
DESIGN OF MEMBEAS 311

•• 4.14.7 Other Slngly Symmetrlc Open Sedlons

Toe allowable bending stress F• on the extreme fiber ln compression

•• for members with singly symmetric open cross section and not sup-
ported against lateral buckling, other than those covered in Sec-
tions 4.14.4 and 4.14.6, shall be the value oi F, determined according to

•• l Section 4.6 as follows:

a. For members ln bending about the axis ol!Y!Pmetry (lhe y-axis is to be
taken as the axis of symmetry) use K • ✓K,K, and r from Eq. 4.14- 1.
.,z

•• )
'.d.
1
b . For members in bending about the x-axls (axis perpendicular to the axis of
symmetry), use K • K1 and r glven by
Shearc.nter
1·

•• ""'
:;-

'1
l r' • .JÇ
C,..J,,
1± i'if, + V
/ pi, + :;IK
/
[e. + 0.04/(K,L)'[ } (4.14- 3)
1
w

•• . ~-
l
i• [ J,l.(z' + y') xdA] - y, (4.14-4) 'u ·11
1

••
1
where S,. • aectlon modulu, of compraulon f11nge 1bout x•1xl1; y, • dls•

~
tance from centrold to shear center; A • area of crosa sectlon; 1 • y-axls
moment of inertla; /, • x'axis moment of inertla; K, • effectfve-length li
coefficient for y-axis bendlng; and Cw K,, C.,, /, and L as deflned ln

•• Eqs. 4.14-1 and 4.14-2.

Toe positive dlrection of the y-axis must be taken so that the shear
FIG. 4.4-1..oad on angln

Values of M, are given by:

•• í ~ center coordinate y, is negative. Toe plus sign for the term rf[, in
Eq. 4.14-3 is to be used if the moment causes compression on the shear-
center side of lhe x-axls and the mlnus sign if it causes tension.
For load perpendicular to a leg:

M • 0.66Eb41 1 t 1
•• 4.14.8 Equal Leg Anglee
Provlded the eccentrlclty of the load wlth resped to the ahear center la
' (KL)' +
0.81 (KL)'t'

For load ai lhe anglt 8 wlth the_z•axlt (Fig. 4 .4):

b• ±1 (4.14-7)

•• l not more than one-half of the leg width (Fig. 4.4), the allowable bendlng
moment for a laterally unsupported equal-leg angle may be taken as the
smaller of:
M •
' (1
2.33Eb't
+ 3 coa'8) (KL)'
I✓ .2
•ln 8 ~
0 .162 (1 + 3cos'8)(KL)'I'
,,.
·
:1: tln 8
1

••• l
1
a. Toe moment M that produces tenaile yield ,tress ai the extreme flber, or (4.14-8)
!
·7 b. Toe moment M.
thal causes lateral buckllng glven by lhe followlng:

11 M, s o.s Mie ; M• • M, (4.14-5) where E • modulus of elastlclty (bl); F, • yleld ,treu (ktl); /1 • wldth of 1
- t/2 (ln.); 1 • thickness of leg (ln.); L • unaupported length (ln.); and 1( .1 l
lf lhe angle ia almply supported on the x- and y-axes at Hch end or 0.5 lf lt 11 l
•• 1-
li M, ~ 0.5 Mrc ;

where M,. • moment causlng compresslve yleld ai extreme fiber; and M, •

(4.14-6) flxed agalnst rot1tlon about the x• and y-axes at each end.
Toe plus slgn for the last term ln Eq1. 4.14-7 ( :1: 1) and 4.14-8 ( :1: aln 8)
applles when lhe load acts ln lhe dlrectlon 1hown ln Fig. 4 .4 and the minus
slgn applles when li acts ln the opposlte dlrectlon.
·l

•• 'r ! elastic cntical moment.

•• _,I
••
•• 40 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS DESIGN OF MEMBERS 41

•• b s• - 3,/'j_
~ (4.14- 11)

•• 4.15 ALLOWABLE SHEAR

4. 15.1 Beam Webs

•• Shear center
The ratio hlt of lhe depth of a beam web to its thickness shall not
exceed 200. The allowable average shearing stress F,, on lhe gross area of

••
a beam web shall not exceed the following :

h - 440
F, • 0.58F1 ; -<- (4. 15- 1)
-ff,

•••
1

F • 255./F, 440 -h-557

- <-<- (4 .15-2)
" hl t ' -ff, 1 -ff,
142,000 h 557

•• F, • (h l t)' ;

where F1 equals yleld stress (ksl) .

-> -
1 -ff,
(4 . 15-3)

•• FIG, 4.5-Shtar /ood on •ngln 4.15.2 Anglea

--'fhrstreanmnponentrV,ancHt, ofToelilfõwa15Têsl,ear ps , on

•• The yield moments M,. and M,. are given by M 1 ln lhe following:

At lhe heel of lhe angle:

single-angle beams (Fig. 4.5) shall not exceed the value that satisfies the
following equations:

•• Fy • ::t:
M, stn e
S, (4.14-9)

v,[2 ~I + 71:S: 0.58F

(4. 15-4)

•• AI lhe toes of lhe angle:

1

where V, • component of V ln leg 1,1 (klps); V, • component of V ln leg "1

(4 .15-5)

•• (4.14- 10) (klps); • • dlstance from shear center to lntersection of load plane with leg 1,1
(ln.); b1, b, • wldth of leg ~ 112 (ln.); 1 • thlckness of leg (ln.); 1 • St. Venant
torslonal constant (ln.') • (1,1 + b,)tl/3; and F1 • yleld stress (ksl) .

•• where S, and S, are sectlon modull (ln,3), for the u- and z-axes, respectlvely.

The plue elgn denotes teneion and the mlnu1 elgn compreuton, The

•• appllcable 1lgn1 are determlned according to the type of 1tre11 produced

at the extreme flber belng checked. The following section moduli based
on centerline dimensions may be used in lieu of those based on overall
dimensions:

••
••
.(
•·
•• CHAPTER 4 COMMENTARY 43

••
••
•• COMMENTARY ON CHAPTER 4
~ IJffiJ1
ANGLE
60'

••
ANGLE

•• 4C.1 INTRODUCTION

This commentary provides guidance for the selection of members. 1t is

x--t~--• •-t -Y
'
·-• ~
~
X- - -
'
1
- ·--X X +Y X

••
y y y
intended for use following conventional tower-design procedures in CHANNEL WIDE fLANGE TEE SECTION v
which specified loads are multiplie? by overload capacity fact~rs an~ the ÇRUClfORM
members and connections are des1gned to stresses approachmg failure

••
in yielding or buckling. Members are normally treated aa a_xlally loaded
tension-compresslon members. Design proceduree are mcluded for
angles where end connecllons art not hamtd concentrically, ThtH pro•
FIG. 4C. l - Some Typiail Cross Sections
lleted 1pecUlcatlon1 or other fubll■hed 1ptclflc1tions whlch e■tablish the
ptoperilel 1nd 1ultablllty o the material. A ratlo of F,/F, ~ t .15 Is

••
cedures are appllc1bla for the amall Jotnt ecrentriclll111 comtnonly found suggeated for steel uaed for members.
ln transmission towers and reflect the experlence of extensive tesling ln
the laboratory and on full-scale towers.
Additional testa which have been reviewed show that the recommen-

••
dations are suitable for steels with yield points up to 65 ksi and for
width-to-thickness values of 22 for projecting elements, such as angle
legs and channel flanges. The recommendations are inlended for both
4C.4 SLENDERNESS RATIOS
Damaging vibration of steel members in latticed towers usually occurs
ai wind speeds less than 20 mph since a nearly constant veloclty is

•• hot-rolled and cold-formed membera. Recommendations have also been

included covering guyed transmlssion structures.
Test experience may indicate that these recommendations are conserv-
ative for specific shapes or connections. Higher values may be used
required to sustain damaging vibration. Tests on a number of shapes
with Ur values of 250 show that the posslbility of damaging vibration is
minimal (Carpena and Diana 1971; Cassarico et ai. 1983). Tension-

•• where they are verified by tests, provided the results are ad1usted to the
ASTM yield and tensile values of the material and for differences
between the nominal design dimensiona of lhe member and the actual
hanger members are prone to vibration, but Ur values as large as 375
have been used successfully.
ln areas of steady wlnds over extended periods, such aa mountain
p1111a or flat plahu, 11llow1blt Ur value1 may need to bc rtduced.

•••
croa■-1ect1on1l dlmen,tons of the t11t 1pecimens. Th• propertl•• of th• Where severe vibratlon Is • eoncem, careful attentlon must be glven to
material should be determlned by tests on standard coupons taken ln framlng detalls. The practlce of blocklng the out1t1ndlng leg of 1ngle1 to
accordance wlth the requlrements of lhe AISI Speclflcallon (1986). facllltate lhe connectlon should be avolded .

•• 4C.2 MATERIAL
The listing of sultable steels does not exclude the use of other steels
4C.5 PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS
Typical cross sections are shown ln Fig. 4C. 1. The x- and y-axes are
principal axes for ali cross sections shown except the angle, for whkh

•••
which conform to the chemlcal and mechanical properties of one of lhe

42

•
••
•• 44 DESIGN FOR STEEL TAANSMISSION TOWEAS CHAPTEA 4 COMMENTAAY 45

•• edition of lhe Manual. Tesl experience on lower members is limiled in

1~:
2t• Moximum bend rodius
for design colculotion, lhe range of Ur from O lo 50, bul indicalions are lhal the SSRC formula

b
applies equally well in lhis range if concentric framing delails are used.

•• 9
• lf bend rodiu1

it ~!!
1
~oi
bend rodius to 4C.7 COMPRESSION MEMBERS: ANGLES

•••
•N determine • ·

{::D,....., [ Moxlmum bend rodiu1

for de1i9n colculation1
A single angle in axial compression can fail by torsional-flexural buck-
ling, which is a combination of torsional buckling and flexural buckling
about the u-axis; by z-axis flexural buckling; or by local buckling of lhe
legs. Local buckling and purely lorsional buckling are idenlical if lhe

•• HOT - ROLLED SECTIONS - 4C.2o

·..
COLO - FORMEO SECTIONS - K. 2b
angle has equal legs and is simply supported and free lo warp ai each
end; furthermore, lhe criticai stress for torsional-flexural buckling is
only slightly smaller lhan lhe criticai stress for purely lorsional buckling,

•••
and for this reason such members have been cuslomarily checked only
for flexural and local buckling.
FIG. 4C.2-Dtftrmination of wlt Rlltios
4C.7.3 Determination of F"
the principal axes are u and z, wilh u being the axis of symmelry for

•• equal leg angles.

Evaluatlon of torsional-flexural buckling involves some propertles of
the cross sectlon whlch arenot encountered ln flexural buckllng. Proc:••
The ratio wlt of flat wldth to lhickness which enables the leg to reach
yleld 1tre11 wllhout buckling locally has been set at 80/-n;.The reduced
strength of legs with larger values of wlt Is glven by r.qs. 4.7- 2 and
4.7-3, Th,11 dUfer 1llghlly from the correspondlng forrnul11 ln lhe flnt

•• dure• for computlng the toralonal conatant /, the w1rpln9 con■tanl C..
the shear center, and olher properties are given ln Cold-Formed Steel
Design Manual (1968), Timoshenko and Gere (1961), Yu (1986), and olher
edlllon oi thls Manuaf. The t llect of th• reduced loc,al,buckllng slrenglh
on the-llexural-buckling➔trength--i1 acgiunted for by 111hetib1th:1e tbe
reduced value f,. for fy in Eqs. 4.6-1 and 4.6-3. Unequal leg angles can

•• sources .
For cold-formed shapes wlth small lnside-bend radil (twice the thick-
ness), section properties can be determined on the basis of square cor•
be deslgned following thls procedure by establishing the allowable
stress based on lhe wlt value of the long leg. Member strengths com•
puted by thls procedure are in very good agreemenl with test results on

•••
ners. Equatlons based on round comers are glven ln the Cold-Formtd both hot-rolled and cold-formed single angle members (Gaylord and
Steel Design Manual (1968). Normally, lhe differences ln propertles based Wilhoite 1985).
on square or round comers are not signiflcanl .
Fig. 4C.2(a) shows the melhod of determining wlt, the_ratio o_f fiai 4C.7.4 Effedlve Lengtha
width to thickness of a member element. For hot-rolled sechons, w is the
distance from the edge of the filiei to the extreme fiber, while for cold-

••
formed members li is the distance shown ln Fig. 4C.2(b). A larger bend
radlus can be used ln fabricatlon, but for design purpoaes w should be
baaed on a maxlmum lnalde-bend radlua o( two time■ the element
The recommendalions of the 1971 edilion of this Manual for angle
members have been retalned ln thls edilion. These specify K factora
whlch depend upon the connectlon design for the member. The e(fec-
tlve length of leg aections havlng bolted connectlons ln both legs is

•••
thickness . assumed to be the actual length (1< - 1). For other angles ln compres-
sion, eccentriclty of lhe connectlon is the ;redomlnant factor ln the
lower Ur range and Is accounted for by spec lng effective slendemess
4C.6 ALLOWABLE COMPRESSION values KUr. ln lhe hlgher Ur range, rotationa restralnt of lhe members
becomes the predominant factor and Is also accounted for by specifying

•• The Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC) formula (1978) for

the ultimate strength oi the centrally loaded column ln the i~elastlc
range and the Euler formula in the elastic range are retained m thls
effective slendemess values KUr. The break point of lhese lactors is
taken as Ur - 120.
Curves 1 and 4 in Fig. 4C.3 are plots of the basic formulas (Eqs. 4.6-1 and

••• 1
 ••
•• 46 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS CHAPTER 4 COMMENTARY 47

•• 50

" 1\.
4.6-2) for 50 ksi yield material. Curve 1 is lhe SSRC formula (O :s; Ur :s; C,),
while Curve 4 is lhe Euler formula (Ur .!:: C,,). Curves 2, 3, 5, and 6 are
modifications of lhe basic curves. For Curve 2, which applies to angle

•• \ \ members with concentric load ai only one end, the allowable stress ai Ur
• O equals the Curve 1 stress at Ur - 30 (48 ksi). For Curve 3, which
45 applies to members with framing eccentricities at both ends, the allowa-

•••
,,Sn\ \ ble stress ai Ur - O equals the Curve 1 stress at Ur - 60 (42.2 ksi).
Curves 2 and 3 intersect the basic curves ai Ur • 120. For Curve 5,

40
\ \ \ whlch appltea to memben partlally rHtralned agalnst rotatlon at one
end, the allowable stress at L/r • 225 ls the Curve 4 stress ai Ur • 200 1'
\
1\ \ L--- Curve 1 (7 .2 ksi). For Curve 6, which applies to members partially restrained

•• .s=
o 35
1\

\ \\
against rotation at both ends, the allowable stress at L/r • 250 is lhe
Curve 4 stress at L/r • 200. Curves 5 and 6 intersect lhe basic curves at
L/r • 120.

•••
.!: The effective-length recommendations are based on a review of for-
~
o
1\ À- Curve 2 mulas that have been used by the tower industry for many years and are
supported by the results of laboratory and full-scale tower tests. Values
:,
O'
li)

.,... 30
\ \\ of KUr to account for partia) fixity in members with large slendemess
ratios (greater than 120) are based on the AISC Specifications (1978) for
\ \1
•• CL
.,
CL
:i y - Curve 3
bracing members in compression and on tests by the Bureau of Stan-
dard• (1922). Fig. 4C.4 shows the partia! restraint utilized in lhe AISC
formulas for braclng. Teat resulta on anglea wlth one bolt ln one leg and
on anglea with two bolts ln one leg correlate closely with thls curve. For

•• .E
~
.,
25 \1\
\~
reference, the Euler curve wlth I factor of 1afety of 1.92 and • K • 1 Is
compared to the AISC workln -stress curve. A va ln K is obtained
comparing the two. A varylng K is also obtained y comparing t e ata

•• ~
~
:,
.,
20
'\
'
in the Bureau of Standards tests with the Euler curve. These relative K
vaiues are averaged to provide lhe values shown ln the inseri ln
Fig. 4C.4. As can be seen, lhe degree of restraint in the end connections
is significant in the higher Ur range.

•••
~
:õ The effective lengths prescribed give results that are in very close
~
o agreement with numerous tests on both hot-rolled and cold-formed
~ angles (Gaylord and Wilhoite 1985).
~ 15
\~ Curve 6 To justlfy using lhe values of KUr corresponding to Curves 5 and 6 of
Fig. 4C.3, the following evaiuation is suggested:

•• 10
Curve 4 ~~
~
Curve 5
•· The re1tr•lned member must be connected lo lhe reslrainlng member
wlth •t leut two bolt1. ·

•• -- ~ --
r--... b. The re1tr•lnlng member must h•ve ■ atlffneu factor 1/l in lhe 1tre11 pl•ne
7.2
r--.- -- - -- - ~
(/ • moment of inertla and l • length) thal ~uals or exceeds lhe aum of
lhe stiffness factors ln the stress pl•né of lhe reatr•lned member• lh•I are
connected lo li. An example Is shown ln Fig. 4C.5.

•• 5
o 50 100
L
150 200 250
Angle members connected by one leg should have the centroid of the bolt
pattem located as dose to the centroid of the angle as practicabie. Normal

•••
r framing eccentricity ai load transfer connections implies that the centroid of
FIG. 4C.3. -Comprmion CurvtS for 50 ksi <F,) Stul

•
••
•• 4B DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS
CHAPTER 4 COMMENTARY 49

•••
40
6'-s!l"
16
,-..... --------· Amer icon Bridge 2 bolts, 1 leg
JS

•• L/ r K

"" \ -
125
150
175
1.0
.9J
.8 6 3

••
JO 200 .78
1\
CRC formulo
AJ6 s teel L>,
•• 25
\
,\
"f
..E
- 1

•••
- - L - -- -;:;;:_;;_-;_-;_:;-::;-;,~~~-=-=-=-=-' -'------'
20 ~
286,000 - -- - - 1.0
(L/ r ) 2 1\ ',, ,
1
--- · 00 .92
.88
• o .80
E
o
u
J!
l Joint ©
e l\._Joint@
\_ lx--. 1
1 '
1 1

..
:f 15 1 "
õ Lood
1
\ 1 1 1

••
1 - ,-,A
~
-__
,
~ AISC Se condory
Mem ber -

1.0 · 1\ í\ ',
1

',,
1:
1 1
1:
~
:e
1/L _ rA
/.Ir
10
"

•••
> ,T
~ K- (D 1.2 )( 2 )( 1/1- one bolt connectlon-jolnt re■tulnt not • con1ider1tlon. -
-- li

õ
~ 0 .9J - --
0.8 5 • -- -
> 0 .775 --- - -- ~, K
-= l-:,-.
1•
1 ',,
' r Americ on Bridge
1 boi!, 1 le l
ten.t lon meaiber.
{i> and@ 1.21/z x 2''2 x l/10-two bolt connecllon - L - 110 ln.; r,. - 0.778;

••
5

o
1--

1
AISC Moin 149,000 .../.
Member ( L/ r ) 2
1 1
' '
)r--....
..._,
~ r--
-r - t--
A - 0 .902 sq. in .
,A o.nllOIO.n
Ur -
a >< 0.902 .
S - 0.005 (m tnm plane).
G) 1.211, x 21/z x l/10; L - 155.6 ln.; ,., - o.ns; A - 0.902 sq. ln.
o 50 100 150 200 250 JOO J50 rA O.n a >< 0.902 .

•• ~ Ur - 155,610.778 • 0.004 (m lnlss plane).

r
Jolnt restralnt not • conslder1llon - tension member.
FIG. 4C.4 - Portial Rtstntint us,d by A/SC Bntcing Fonnula @ and @ L4 >< 4 >< l/4; L - n .8 ln.; r., - 1.25; A • 1.94 sq. ln.

•• the bolt pattem, except for some of the smaller angle .slzes, Is located
between lhe centrold of lhe ang)e and lhe center Une of lhe coMected leg;
when joint eccentrldties exceed thls aiterion due conslderation should be
rA 1.25 >< 1.94
Ur - n .Sll.2S - 0.039 (ln tniss plane).
)olnt @
·

G) < (D 0.004 < 0.005 No restralnt for (D.

•• given to the additional stresses introduced in lhe member,

Redundant membel'9 provide lntermedlate 1upport fot 1tresaed mem-
bers. ln practlce the Ur limltations spedfled ln Section 4.7.4.3 normally
ensure that the redundant Is adequate to provide support for the stressed
)olnt (i)
Jolnt e
Slngle bolt connoctlon- no reatr1lnt.
@ + <i) > (l) + <i)
for (D and @ ai thls jolnt .
2 >< 0.039 > 2 >e 0,005 - Partlal ,,_,tralnt

Member (v-Partlal restralnt ai one end; r., - 0.495; (Eq. 4.7- 9)

•• member. Studies lnclicate lhat the magnitude of lhe redundant support

required is dependant on lhe initial crookedness and lhe Ur value of the
supported member. The magnitude of lhe load in lhe redundant member
Ur., - 11010.495 - 222.2; KUr., - 28.6 + 0.762 >< 222.2 • 198; member
meets requirements oi compresslon member.
FIG. 4C.5-Mtmbtr R,stn,int Dtltnnination

•• can vary from 0.5 to 2.5% of the load in lhe supported member.

•• 1
•-
•• .' 50 DESIGN FOR STEEL TAANSMISSION TOWEAS
•• 4C.8 COMPRESSION MEMBERS: SYMMETRICAL LIPPED
ANGLES
•• Lips lncrease lhe local buckling strength of lhe legs of an angle and ln
some applications show an advantage over plaln angles. Since the local
•• bucl<ling strength of the lipped-angle leg Is nol equivalent to torsional
buckling of the angle, torsional-flexural buckling must be considered.
The allowable compressive stress for torsional-flexural buckling is deter-
••
mlned by uslng an equlvalent radius of gyratlon r• (Eq. 4.8-1) ln lhe
column allowable stress formulas (Eqs. 4.6- 1 and 4.6-2).
The effective-length coefficient in Eqs. 4.6-1, 4.6-2, and 4.8- 2 is K • 1
if lhe member is free to warp and relate ai each end. If warping and
•• rolalion are prevenled ai bolh ends, K • 0.5; if warping and rotation are
prevenled ai only one end, K - 0.7. Mixed end conditions can be trealed
by replacing r, and r. in Eq. 4.8-1 with r/K, and r.fK. and by using K, in
•••
Eq. 4.8-2 where K, and K. are lhe effective-length coefficients for lor-
sional and u-axis bucl<ling, respectively. Eq. 4.8- 1 in this form gives the
value of Klr,1 by which L is multiplled for use in Eqs. 4.6-1 and 4.6-2 .
However, K - 1 should be used ln Eq. 4.8-2 when it is used in conjunc-
lion wlth the effectlve lengths speclfled ln Sectlon 4.7.4. Gaylord and
•• Wilhoile (1985) and Zavelanl (1984) provlde addlllonal test verlflcatlon, .
lf no lnlermedlate supports exl■t, the allowable 1tre11 11 glven by
Bq,_. 4.6-1 and_4.6-2, uslng for KUr tht large,t of KUr1, l<U, , or 1<u, ,. lf
•• lntermedltte 1upport1 do e,dst, th• length l. used to aettmn 1nl tlte s1en•
demess ratlo depends on lhe nature of the support, i.e., whether li
restralns only flexural bucl<ling, only torsional-flexural buckling, or
••
both .
••
4C.9 COMPRESSION MEMBERS NOT COVERED IN
SECTIONS 4.7 ANO 4.8
••
4C.9.2 Maxlmum wlt Ratlo•
Most of the shapes other than angles that are likely to be used ln
transmission towers will have element slendemess ratios, wlt, small
•• enough to develop a uniform distrlbution of the stress F, glven by
Eqs. 4.6-1 and 4.6-2 over the full cross-sectional area. Where this is not
lhe case, lhe postbuckling strength of elements which buckle prema-
•• turely is taken loto account by using an effective width of the elemenl ln
determining lhe area of the member cross section. The effective width ~f
an elemenl is lhe width which glves the sarne resultanl force at a um-
•• formly distributed stress F, as the nonuniform stress which develops in
lhe entire element in the postbucl<led state.
•••
CHAPTEA 4 COMMENTAAY 51
()
ºti
,
ff,.
4C.9.3 Effectlve Widths of Elemenls ln Compresslon
.,(
~
t•
Effective widths in this section are derlved from formulas in Specifica-
llon for lhe Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members (1986) .
Only lhe effective widths of Section 4.9.3.1 are needed for the uniform
stress distribution in axially loaded compression members. Stress gradi-
ents (Section 4.9.3.2) occur in members in bending, and effeclive widths
for this case are needed only for beams and eccentrically loaded com-
·1
presslon members .
Note that lhe effective widths for axially loaded members are deter-
mined at lhe allowable stress F, based on the radius of gyralion of the
gross cross seclion, while lhe allowable force P is obtained by multiply-
ing F, by lhe gross area if all eiements are fully effective and by lhe
reduced area if lhe effeclive widths of lhe elemenls are smaller lhan lhe
actual widths.
The types of buckling that must be checked for axially loaded mem-
bers with symmetric cross sections are covered in Sections 4.9.4-4.9.7.
For members which may be subject to torsional or lorsional-flexural
bucl<ling, an equivalent radius of gyralion, r,, for doubly symmetric and
polnt 1ymmetric secllona and r,1 for slngly symmelric secttons are 1pecl-
fied lo be uted ln determlnlng the allowable stre11 F, by Eq1, 4.6- 1 and
4.6-2. Note thal r• and ,, (Eqs. 4.8-1 and 4.8-2) are refened to the
principal ax11 u and rol angles (Fig. 4C.1). ln adjuatina the fonr"d•- f~r
lhe ,e 1nd y prl11dp•I tl<tl of othtr ,vction,1 Nmembcr th•t u is the aids of
~ m met . Therefore when e ther lhe x-axls or the -axls Is lhe · o
symmetry, il must substituted for u in Eq. 4.8-1, and also wherever il
appears in lhe list of symbols following Eq. 4.8-2.
4C.9.8 Nonsymmelrlc Cross Sectlons
An analysls based on the elastlc buckling stress of a nonsymmetric
member, which requires the solution of a cu&ic equation, is 1uggested in
Zavelani and Fagglano (1985). ln general, thls wUI glve an upper bound
to the allowable value. A lower bciund can be obtalned by proportlonlng
lhe member so thal lhe maximum combined stress due to lhe axial load
and moment equals lhe yield stress (Madugula and Ray 1984).
4C.10 TENSION MEMBERS
4C.10.5 Guys
ln lhe analysis of guyed structures, lhe stretch of lhe guys can usually
be lgnored if it does not exceed 0.2% of lhe length and the lenglh of lhe
guy does not exceed 200 ft .
••
•• 52 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS CHAPTER 4 COMMENTARY 53

•• 4C.12 AXIAL COMPRESSION ANO BENDING

Eq. 4.12-1 is the same as the corresponding AISC and AIS! speclfica-
4C.14 BEAMS
Formulas ln this section for determining allowable moments differ ln
form from those in the AISC and AIS! specifications in that lhe allowa-

•• tion formulas, except that in the AISC specification it is given in terms of

axial stress and bending stress instead of force P and moment M. ln
addition, the coefficient C., is omitted. For lhe cases covered in this
ble compresslve stress for laterally unsupported members is computed
from the allowable-stress formulas for axial compression through lhe
use of an equivalent radius of gyration. Also, instead of the coefficient e.

•••
section, the coefficient e. in the AISC formula for allowable bending ln the AISC formulas, its reciprocai C., is used for the reasons discussed
stress is very clôse to the reciprocai of C., and is speclfied to be taken ln Section 4C.12 .
equal to unity when computing allowable moments for the interaction
formula in order to avoid applying the correction for nonuniform 4C.14.4 1, Channel and Cruciform Sedlons
moment twice. ln this Manual, C., is used in the formulas for allowable

•• moment in Section 4.14 lnstead of lts reciprocai C,., and because it is not
to be taken equal to unity ln computing values of M., and M., used ln
Eq. 4.12-1, the effect of C., is automatically included.
Eq. 4.14- 1, which gives the equivalent radius of gyration for doubly
symmetric l's, symmetric channels, and singly or doubly symmetric cru-
ciform seclions, takes both the St. Venant torsional stiffness, f, and the

•••
Both the AISC and the AIS! speclfications give an altemate aimplified
formula which may be used lf f,IF, is less than 0.15. The aimpllflcation
consists of dropping the term 11(1-P/P,) ln Eq. 4.12-1. Because this case
is likely to be rare in transmisslon tower work, the corresponding for-
mula is not shown ln this Manual.
warplng stiffness, C.,, lnto account. Two formulas are used ln the AISC
speclficatlon. One Is obtalned by taklng C,. -o and the other by taklng I
- Oand expressing the results ln terms of other more familiar propertles
of the cross section. The larger of the two ailowable stresses so obtained
Is used because both underestlmate the buckllng strength due to the

•• oml11ions just mentioned. The two formulas can be used only for d ou-
bly 1ymmetrlc l's and slngly symmetric I'• wtth the compre11lon flange
larger than the tenalon flange. Only one of th• two 1pplle1 to channeís .
On the other hand, formulas ln the AIS! 1peclflc1tion1 are derived by

•• 4C.13 AXIAL TENSION ANO BENDING

The terrns 11(1-P/P,) ln Eq. 4.12-1 account for the increase ln the
assumlng / - O because lt Is usuaily relatively email for thln-walled
s apes o[ cotd:fõrmed members. However, wlth the values of C,. glve.,
in the footnote to Section 4.14.4, and with f - "3'tbt', Eq. 4.14-11s not
--,
1

•• moments M, and M1 due to the eccentricity of the compression force P

caused by the bending of lhe member. U the axial force is tension,
however, its effect decreases lhe moments. Therefore, the inclusion of
difficult to use, and it has the advantage of giving more accurate values
of lhe buckling stress.
4C.14.6 Slngly Symmetrlc I and T Sedlon1

•••
temis ln Eq. 4.13-1 for decreasing the moments would be logical. Thls is
not usually done, however, and lhe resulting slmpler formula Is used in The approxlmate procedures for T's and slngly symmetric l's glve very
this Manual. good results and are used ln the AISC specification.
Note that M., and M., are to be determined according to Section 4.14.
Therefore, the effects of lateral buckling for members not supported 4C.14.7 Other Singly Symmetrlc Open Sedion1

•• laterally are taken into account even though lhe lateral-buckling

moment is baaed on a compreHive •ttt••·
ln othtr worde, l!q, 4.13-1 li
not bued on the additlon oi axial tenslon and tenslle SITt11es due to
Tht formulu ln thl1 Hctlon are t11prt11•d ln dlfftrent ttrm1 from
those in the AISI speclfleatlon . How11ver, they glve ldentkal results.

•••
bending. This loglc can be seen by considering the case in whlch P and Gaylord and Gaylord (1977) illustrate • typical example.
M, are both zero. This glves M, - M.,, and il lhe member is not sup-
ported against lateral buckling, M., should be the lateral-buckling 4C.14.8 Equal leg Anglea
moment.
Eq. 4.13-1 is the same as the corresponding equation ln lhe AISC The formulas ln this section glve criticai moments for pure bending

•• Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Steel Buildings (constant momenl) of equal leg angles and therefore are conservative for
(1986) . cases where there is a momenl gradienl, as for a unlformly loaded beam.

••
•
••
•• 54 DESIGN FOR STEEL TAANSMISSION lOWEAS CHAPTEA 4 COMMENTAAY
X
55

•• However, they do not account for twistlng of the angle, so they are uncon-
servative if the load does not act through the shear center. Tables of allowa-
ble uniformly dlstributed load perpendicular to a leg, based on formulas
that account for twist due to load eccentricity of :t b/2, and which have
Yz~z
X g' Leg Requirements:

•• been confirmed by an extensive series of tests, are available (Madugula and

Kennedy 1985; Leigh et ai. 1984). The loads are based on an allowable stress
of 0.6 F, ln Madugula and Kennedy (1985) and 0.66 F, ln Lelgh et ai. (1984),
-'
Ur,. criticai factor
Concentrk loading

•••
" Ur.,-Eq. (4.7-4)
so that the tabulated values must be divided by 0.6 and 0.66, respectively,
to obtaln values ln conformlty with tower design practlce. Eccentricities ai . leg
Predictions of the formulas ln this section for load perpendicular to a leg spliçes should be mini-
are in good agreement with lhe values ln Leigh et ai. (1984) for beam spans mized.
up to f/r - 250. The tabular values range from about 92% for the relatively The thicker leg sections

•• thin angles (b/t • 16) to about 115% {bit about 8) of the formula values
using the centerline sectlon moduli of Eq. 4.14-11, and from about 94% to
130% using overall dlmension sectlon moduli. The overpredictlon of the
-'
should be properly
butt-spliced .
This method of support •

••
thin angles is partially compensated for by the fact that the formulas give
minimizes rolling of the/
the criticai unlform moment. Nevertheless, if lhe formulas are used for angle under load .
angles with b/t larger than 16, lt is suggested that thP. resulting allowable
moments be reduced by 10% if lhe member is not to be tested .

•• The tables ln Madugula and Kennedy (1985) and Leigh et ai. (1984)
also give allowable uniform loads for angles wlth unequal legs.
Deflectlons may be computed as the resultant of the u- and z-axls
-'
l

•••
deflectlon components détermlned by resolvlng lhe moment M lnto the
u- and z-axls. There are no established limite of deflectlon for beams ln Tower - - - - - - ~
Face
transmlsslon tower applicatlons. l.8 x 8 x 9/10, wlt • 12.1; r., - 1.59; r,. - r,., - 2.50; A • 8.68 sq. ln .
For 36 ksl yield steel; w/t11m - 80/v'36 - 13.3; L - 121 ln .;
U r,. - 121/1.59 - 76; F • 36 ksi.

•• 4C.15 ALLOWABLE SHEAR

4C.15.1 Bum Webs

From Eq. 4.6- 1, F, - 29.5 ksi; Value - 29.5 x 8.68 - 256 kips.
l.8 x 8 x 9 /10, wlt • 12.1; r,. - 1.59; r., - r-, - 2.50; A - 8.68 sq. ln.

•••
For 36 ksl yleld steel; wllum - 13.3; L - 238 m .; Ur,. - 238/1.59 - 150;
The upper limlt of h/t ln the AISC specification Is glven by a formula F, • 36 ksi.
involving F,. Toe llmiting value 200 of tl)is section, which is the sarne as From Eq. 4.6-2, F, • 12.7 ksi; Value - 12.7 x 8.68 - 110 kips.
the AISI specificatlon limit, equals the AISC limlt for F, - 60 ksi and is,
therefore, adequate for steels wlth F :S:60, lt is unlikely that webs thin- L6 x 6 x 5/10; wlt - 16.6; r,. - 1.20; r,. - r,., • 1.89; A - 3.65 sq. ln .
1 For 36 ksl yield steel; w/111m - 13.3; Allowable F" - 30.0 ksi.; L - 180 ln.;
ner than those allowed by lhe 200 hmit will be needed ln transmisslon

•• ,l
t~ers.
The aliowable shearlng stres■es glven here are the sarne as those ln the
AISC and AISI speclfkatlons multlplied by the AISC and AISI factor1 of
Ur. - 180/1.20 - 150.
From Eq. 4.6-2, F, - 12.7 k1I.; Value - 12,7 x 3 .65 - 46,4 klp1. .
l.8 x 8 x 9/10; wlt - 12.1; r,. - 1.59; r,. - r,., ,. 2.50; A - 8.68 sq. ln.

•• 1
safety. For 50 ksl yleld steel; w/t11m - 11.3; Allowable F,, • 47.6 k1i.; L - 121 ln.;
Uru - 76 .
From Eq. 4.6-1, F, • 36.2 ksl.; Value - 36.2 x 8.68 - 314 klps.

••
EXAMPLES l.8 x 8 x 9/10 except L • 238 ln.; Ur,. - 150.
From Eq. 4.6-2, F, - 12.7 ksi; Value - 12.7 x 8 .68 - 110 kips.
Toe following examples are included to iliustrate lhe application of
these recommendations.

•• EXAMPLE 1. Angle Leg With Symmetrical Bracing

••
••
•• 56 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS CHAPTER 4 COMMENTARY 57

••
HH
l

•• Tower
face
Leg @ (2/JL)/ru controls

•••
Leg memben should be sup-
pôrted in both faces ai the sarne
elevation every four paneis .
.., ..,
~ Tension system with Single bolt connec- Multiple bolt connec-

•• compresslon struts .

Urª criticai factor

tions
No restraint ai ends
Lra from 120 to 250
tions. Partia( restraint
ai both ends. See state-
ment ln text concem-

•••
Eccentricity ln criticai Eq. 4.7-8 lng partia) restralnt.
axis Ura from 120 to 250
Ura from O to 120 Eq 4.7-10
Leg @ Llr.. controls Eq. 4.7-7
Leg members should t;,e sup-

•• ported in both faces at the sarne

elevation every four paneis.
Ll¾ X 1¼ X 3/16

'ª • 0.27 A - 0.53

L • 32 ln.; Urª • 32/0.27 • 119; Eqs. 4.7-7
and 4.6--1
F, - 19.8 ksl.; Value • 19.8 x 0.53 • 10.5
klps. L • 54 ln.; Urª .. 200

•• aq. ln .
36 .!5!1..yield steel L • 54 ln.; Ur_ •
54/0.27 • 200
Eqs. 4.7-10 and 4.6--2
f, • 10.D EI.; value -
Eqs. 4.7-8 and 4.6--2 10.0 x 0.53 • 5.3 kips.

•• F, - 7.2 ksi.;
Value • 7.2 x 0.53 •
3.8 klps .

•• Leg © 1.2L/r,. controls

••
For these configurations some
rolling of the leg angle will
occur. Eccentricities ai leg
splices should be minimized.

•••
The thlcker leg sections should
be ptciperly butt-spliced. The
controlling L/r values shown
above shall be used wlth a K .. 1
as specified by Eq. 4.7-4 .

•• EXAMPLE 2. Equal Leg Angles Used With Staggered

Bracing
EXAMPLE 3. Effect of End Connections on Member
Capacity

••
••
1.
~-~~
•• 58 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS CHAPTER ◄ COMMENTARY 59

••
••
•••
HH Tension syslem Single bolt
Brocing Requirements
Multiple bolt con- Multiple bolt

•••
wilh compres- connection. neclion at ends . connection.
Tension system with Single bolt Multiple bolt connec- sion struts. No restraint at Single bolt con- Partia! restralnt
compression struts. connection. tion. Partia) restralnt at ends or nection at interme- ai ends 1nd
No restralnt at ends. ends. See stalement ln 0.5Ur0 or Uryy lntermedlate. dlate polnt. lntermedlate. 5ee
Ur,. or Urw criticai Ur,, or Urw from 120 text concernlng partia! criticai factor. o.su,D 0f u,.,,_ Partia( restralnt ai statemenl ln text
factor. to 200, Eq. 4.7-8 . restraint. Eccentricity ln from 120 to 2W, one end. No concerning par-
Concentric loading. Ur,, or Ur., from 120 criticai axls. Eq. 4.7-8. restralnt ai inter- tia! restrainl.

•• Llr,. or Uryy from O to

120, Eq. 4.7-5.
to 250, Eq. 4.7- 10. 0.SL/rD Of Ur,,
from O to 120,
Eq. 4.7-7.
mediate. 5ee state-
ment in text con-
cerning partia!
restraint.
0.5Ur0 or U:r,_
from 120 to 250,
Eq. 4.7-10.

•• EXAMPLE 4. Concentric Loading, T~o Angle Member 0.SUr0 from 120

to 225,
Eq. 4.7-9 .
P1rtl1I re1tr1lnt 1t

•• both ends. See

statement trn
conceming partial

••
reslralnl .
~',. from 120 to
250, Eq. 4.7- 10.

•••
Ll¾ X 1¼ X Ur.,, criticai; L • 44 in.; Ur,. • 44/0.37 • 119;
Tension-compression Concentric load ai Concentric loading at 3/16 Eqs. 4.7-7 and 4.6-1 F, • 1'1.8 ksi.
system with compres- ends, eccentric load- ends and 'ªr •• 0.27
0.37
Value • 19.8 x 0.53 • 10.5 klps
sion struts. ing at intermediate in intermediate.
both directions. 0.5L/r,,. or Ur'J from O
;f • 0.53 sq. in. IJ_'_y, • 7410.37 • Urw • 200 Uryy • 200
36 ki yield steel 2uu Eqs. 4.7-10 and Eqs. 4.7-10 and

•• Multiple bolt 0.5L/r,, or L/rD' from O to 120, Eq. 4. - 5. Eqs. 4.7-8 and 4.6-2 4.6-2
connections. to 120, Eq. 4.7- 6. 4.6-2 Value • 10.0 x 0.53 Value • 10.0. x
O.SL/r,, or L/r., cricti- Value • 7.2 x 0.53 • 5.3 klps 0.53 • 5.3 klps
cal íactor. • 3.8 kips

•• Partia( restraint at
ends and intermedl-
ate. See statement ln

•• text concernlng par-

tia! restralnt.
0.Sllr.,. or Ur., from
EXAMPLE 6. Effect of Subdivided Paneis and End
Connections

•••
120 to 250, Eq. 4.7-10.
EXAMPLE 5. K-Bracing, Two Angle Member

•
••
•• 60 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION lOWEAS CHAPTEA 4 COMMENTAAY 61

••
••
••• Broclng Requirements

Tenslon system Single bolt

wlth compres- conneclion.
Multlple bolt
connectlon ai
Multlple bolt
connectlon .

•• slon struts. No restraint ai

ends or
0.5Ur,. or Urn inlermediate.
ends .
Single bolt con-
nection at inler-
Partia!
reslrainl ai
ends and

•••
criticai factor. 0.5Ur,. or Ur _ mediate poinl. intermediate .
Concentrlc 11
from 120 to 2uu, Partia) restraint See statemenl
loading Eq. 4.7-8 . at one end. No ln text con-
0.5Urn or UrYI restraint ai inter- ceming par-
from O to 120, mediale. See tia! restralnt.

•• Eq. 4.7-5. statemenl in texl

concemlng par-
tia! restraint.
0.5Ur,, or
Ur11_~rom 120
lo l!lU,

•• Tenslon-compresslon system- memben connected ai t.. Tenslon mem-

ber wilh force equal to or greater than 60% of lhe force ln lhe compres-
0.5Ur,. from 120
lo 225
Eq. 4.7-9.
Partia) restralnt
Eq. 4.7-10.

•• sion member; parti ai restraint from lhe tension member ai lhe l . Criticai
factor L1/r,. or (L1 + 0.5 L,) + ",,,· Eccentricity in criticai axis; controlling
1:/r from O to 120 use Eq. 4.7-o.
at both ends .
See statement in
lexl conceming

•••
Single bolt connection. No reslrainl ai ends; controlling Ur from 120 lo partia! reslrainl.
200 use Eq. 4.7-8. ~",,, from 120 to
l!lU, Eq. 4.7- 10.
Tension member wilh force less lhan 60% of lhe force ln lhe compres-
sion member; no restrainl ai lhe l for lhe y-y axis of lhe compresslon

•• member, L,lr,. or L,lrr, .

For multiple bolt connections and concentrlc loadings other allowable

•• values as stated in the examples may be used. _

•• EXAMPLE 8. Concentric Loading, Two Angle Member,

Subdivided Paneis
•• EXAMPLE 7. Llr Determination, Diagonal Bracing

••
••.
- -- --
•• 62 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS CHAPTER 4 COMMENTARY 63

•• z,
x--1--x
y
1
w • 2.6775" 0.3225"

•••
1
y
'z INSI0E RAOIUS
• 0 . 1875" Comp.
Strut

TENSION DIAGONALS-

•• COMPRESSION STRUT.

•• F, • 50 ksi.
C, • 106.9, r., • 0.586. Area • O.iTl sq. in. L • 117 in .
l
2 3 J" fy

m
• 50 k 51,· Ce • 106.9

•••
wlt • 2.6775/0.135 • 19.8, w/111m • 801#, • 11.3, llm • ; . • ~ • 31.1
wlt - 1441#, • 20.4, 11.3 < 19.8 < 20.4.
1.5t • 0.2 3" w 2.33 '
Then F! • ~1.677 - 0.677 x 19.8/11.3)50 - 24.6 ksi. and C, • rlffTf; • - • - • 17.3 < 31.1

bJ
1 0.135
3.14 ✓ x 2l{J.'JJ • 152.5. 6 2 4000

•• For a single bolt connection-Ur,. • 11710.586 • 200 > C,

. 286 000
K .. 1 (liq, 4,7•8); Valut • F, ,e  • ~ i< 0.777 • 5,6 klp•.
u
d•"
d""" • 2.81 '(~~ -

•a.," 0,135
V,/~F
• 4000
(sin 8 • 1)

17,32 - -;;- • o.• 3 ,~. e d

•• For a two bolt connection-Lr., • 200 > C, use (Eq. 4.7- 10).
KUr • 46.2 + 0.615 x 200 • 169.2.
A • 1.03 ln.'

m • 0.30 ln.
-~
~~~ C:., '" 0.441 ln.•
,.t-
, • l .?9~h....,, ....,,~-~ ·H
1, • 0.616 ln.•, r, • 0.773 in.

•• Value - F, x A • ffi?9~ x 0.777 • 7.8 kips.

r, •
Ug
J •
✓0.441 + 0.04
• 1.34 + 0.30 • 1.64 in.
0.00623 in.•
X
5. 18
0.00623 X i)ôl
•
1,. • 1.79 + 0.616 + 1.03 X 1.642
• 5.18 ln.•, r,. • 2.24 ln.
O 6B9 .
· m.

•••
Change unsupported length to 4 ft 10"2 in. L/r., • J~ift, - 100. 2 l 1 ✓ 1 l l 4 1.64 )1
For a two bolt connection:
7., • 0.689' + 1.32' + (o.689' - 1.322) + (o.689 x 1.32 x 2.24
• 4.903
Ur., < C,-eccentric connection, both ends use Eq. 4.7-7.
✓4.~ 3 •
••
r,1 - 0.639 in. < r.,
KUr - 60 + 0.5 x 100 • 110,
110 2 .!:. •~• (two bolt connection; Eq. 4.7-10)
F, = 11 - 0.5 ( 152 _5 ) J 24.6 • 18.2 ksi. r, 0.639
141

••
1
Value • F, x A • 18.2 x o.m • 14.1 klps . ~L • 46.2 + 0 .615 x 141 • 133
r,,
F 286,000 2k .

•• EXAMPLE 9. Cold-Formed Angle

, • (l )> • 16. SI •
33
Value • F, x A • 16.2 x 1.03 • 16.7 kips

• EXAMPLE 10. Cold-Formed Lipped Angle

: 1
••
•• 64 DESIGN FOR STEEL TAANSMISSION TOWEAS
CHAPTEA ◄ COMMENTAAY
65

•• 1.97"
y M4 x 13 F, • 50 ksi, C, • 106.9
A • 3 .81 sq. in., ,, • 0.939
r, • 1.66, / • 0 ,19, Uo • 0
y
lnside rodius • 2\-
x
1, - 4.34;

e,,•
0
•
r -
n, • 0.493;
o.354; ,, -

-(i + m) • -0 .847; / • 0.004;

0 .239;

•••
1.37; r, • 2 .06, , , • 0 .48;
I, • 10.5, / • 3.36
s, • 5.24, s, •1.71
K • 1, I,. • 13.86, e. • 11.06
,,. • 2 .28;
t,,, • 5 .3; A • 1.02 sq. in. I< • 1
F, • 36 ksi.; C, • 126; L • 48 in.
Aange wlt • 1.57/0.371 • 4.23 Determine column value for concen-
X --41-l--Xio

••
Allowable 72/../sõ • 10.2
trlc load .
X Web wlt • 2 .38/0.254 • 9.4 Note: X-X is axls of symmetry.
Allowable 220/../sõ • 31.1 t • 0 . 12"
Local bucl<llng of elements Is not criticai. Eq. 4.8-2; ,, •

•• r--
"'ó y
1. Determine column value,
concentrically loaded;
L • 96 ln., K, • 1
{1.37 + 0 .04 x 0.004 (48)' • O57
\/ 5.3
Eq. 4 .8- 1; Terms use U- U as sym·
.

•••
metrkal axls. (Use X-X values ln
place of U- U values)
'• • ✓ 11.06 + 0.04_x 0.19 (96)2 • 2.419 (Eq. U - 2) ,, - 0 .939 : . ,, controls
y
13 86
2 1 1 _1 _ _ 1 )' + 4 (.,--,-.:::..:º·84:..:c.7~ ) '
u,, - 9610.939 - 102.2 < e, :.F, -11 - 0 .5 G:::n 50 - 27.15 ksi.
----+--+
,,1 0.572 2.062 (0 .572 2.062 0 .57 x 2 .06 x 2 .28

•• Value • F, x A • 27.15 x 3.81 • 103.4 klps .

2
-;;j • 6 .23; ,,, • 0 .57

••
2 . Determine if sultable for 50 kip load if member is connected on one flange ai
each end (eccentricity • ~.O ln.)
,, < ,, or ,,1 Ur, • 48/0.48 • 100 F, • -r-u:5~~-24':1 ksl. • /
Use Eq. 4.12- 1; P, • 103.4 klps (prior calculallons); K, - 1; L • 96 ln.; K, • 1

•• p • -.2E 1, • 3.142 x 29,000 x 10.5 • 326

" (K,L,)2 962
Check flanges wlt • 1.1410.12 • 9 .5; Eq. 4.9- 1 •
Check web wlt • 5.2810.12 • 44; Eq. 4 .9- 3 •
121✓f
220/✓f
• 721✓24.'f • 14.5
• 2201✓24.'f • 44.3

•••
M, - M 2 end moments; C,. - 0 .6 - 0 .4 (-1) • 1
Elements are fully effective. Value • F, x A • 24.7 x 1.02 • 25.2 klps .
Eq. 4 .14- 1; r2 • l.0 ~
4
✓11.06 + 0.Õ4 x 0 .19 (962) • 3 .15; r • 1.775 Determine if channel Is sultable for 8 .7 klps load lf connecllon Is to back oi web.
End moments M 1 and M1 are equal: C,. • 1.0; Eccentrlclty aboul
Y-Y axis • t • 0 .354 + 0.06 - 0 .41; S,., - 0 .23911.09 • 0.22 (toe oi flange)
u, - 9611.775 - 54; F, -11 - o .5 (11~ _9)'} 50 - 43.6 ksl.

•• Max • F, x S, • 43.6 x 5 .24 • 228.5 ln. klps; M., • O

2
M,, • 36 x 0.22 • 7.9 in. kips; P,, • -. E 1/(K,L,)
2
•
3.14' x 29,000 x 0 .239
48I .

••
50 50x2 1
Eq. 4 .12- 1; 103.4 + 228.5 x t-5Õf326 • 0.484 + 0 .515 • 0 .999 < 1.0 M., • O; P,, - 29.7

Value of member Is 50 klps. (Thls Ulustratea lhe lmportance of mlnlmlzlng eccen• Eq. 4 .12-1; !~ + 8 ·7 ;}·
41
(
1
_ _~ 129 _7)- 0.35 + 0.64 • 0 .99
8
< 1.0

••
2
tritles ln end connecllons.)
Value of member is 8.7 kips (This illustrates the importance of minimizing eccen-
tricitles ai the end connections.)

•• EXAMPLE 11. M-Section as Column Member

EXAMPLE 12. Channel as Column

••
 •
(.""
· ('• r.- ,-., ~

'
~-

•• 66 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS CHAPTER 4 COMMENTARY 87

•••
1.5 in. REFERENCES ANO BIBLIOGRAPHY
References
Carpena, A., and Diana, G . (1971). ''Behavior to wind action of 1ngle and T-ban
c.l

•• vi
"• • -1.178; ,, • 6.282; on H. V. lattice structures." Paptr 71 TP 668-PWR, IEEE Power Engr. Soe.,
r, - 1.504; 1, • 6.168;
.5 Summer Meeting, Portland, Oreg.
:{!
r, • 1.491; r,. • 2.423;
X .,: A • 2.775 sq. ln.; F, • 50 kst.; Cassarlco, G ., DePonte, S., and Fagglano, P. (1983). "Experimental lnvestigation

••
of lhe aeroelastlc lnstability of thin walled open -tions." Constr. Mttal. 1.
C, - 106.9; Cw • 13.567;
= =
_5:i----1 / • 0.0327; ,,. • 16.3; Cold-Fonntd Stttl Design Manual. (1968). Amer. lron and Steel lnst. , Washington,
w, L • 120 in.; K • 1; t • 1.412 D.C., Pari Ili.

•• J.0 in. y d
Gaylord, E., and Gaylord, C. (1977). D,sign of stttl structum, second ed.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, N.Y.
Gaylord, E. H., and Wilhoite, G. M. (1985) . "Transmission towen: Design of

•••
Determine value of concentric load . cold-formed angles." /. Struct. Engrg., ASCE, 111 (8), 1810-1825.
. /13.567 + 0.()4 X 0.0327 Guidt for D,s/gn of Stttl Tn1nsmission Towm, Manual No. 52. (1971). Task Commlt .
Eq . 4 .8 _2,. r, - V 16.3
X 12()2
- 1.41 on Tower Design of Commlt. on Anal. and Design of Struct. of Struct. Dlv.,
ASCE.
Eq. 4.8- 1; Terms use U-U as symmetrical ••11.

•• ~
2 1
CU•• Y-Y v1lue1 ln place oi U-U valueo)
1 ✓( 1 1 )2 (
+ 4 1.41
-1 11s )2
Guldt lo Stabillty Ctlitrla for Mt lll Structu,n, (1978), Thlrd lld. li. C. Johnston,
ed., John Wlley & Sons, lne., New York, N.Y.
Lelgh, J., Thomas 8 ., and Lay, M . (1984). "Safe load for laterally unsupp.,rted

•• • 1.412 + 1.5042 +

l_ • 1.407
r,? r,1 • 1.19 < r,
1.412 - 1,5042 X 1.504 X 2.42 angles." Amer. lnst. of Steel Constr. Engr. /., New York, N.Y.
""Maclugu , ., an~ y ; - t : " í 1 9 8 5 ) : - S i n g ! M m ~
Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, New York, N .Y.

•• Llr,1 • 12011.19 • 100.8; Eq. 4.6-1. f, • [ 1 - 0.5 (!::~)150 • 27.7 ksi • f

Madugula, M. K. S., and Ray, S. K. (1984). "Ultimate strength of eccentrkally
loaded cold-formed angles." Canad. /. Civ. Engr. 11 .
Manual of Stttl Construction-LDad and R,sistanct Factor D,sign. (1986) . First Ed.,

•• wift • 18.6
w,lt • 3.98
w,lt • 13.96
Eq. 4 .9- 3
Eq. 4.9-3
Eq. 4 .9- 1
2201../27.'f
2201../27.'f
721../27.'f
• 41 .8 > 18.6
• 41.8 > 3.98
• 13.68 < 13 .96
Amer. lnst. of Steel Constr., lnc. Chicago, Ili.
Spteifie11llon for tht D,slf,n o{ Cold-Fonntd Stttl Structun1I Mtm~" (wlth Commen•
tary). (1986). Amer. ron and Steel ln1t., Washington, D.C .

•• Maximum for w1 • 13.68 x 0 .188 • 2.572 ln. (w1 Is 2.624 ln .)

New area • 2.775 - 2 x 0.188 (2.624 - 2.572) - 2 .775 - 0.020 - 2.755 sq. in .
Specification for lht D,sign, Fabrication and Em:tion o{ Structun1I Stttl for Buildings
(with Commentary). (1978) . Amer. lnst. of Steel Constr. lnc., Chicago, IU.

•• Value • f , x A • 27.7 x 2 .755 • 76.3 klps. Ttehnologic Paptrs o{ lht Burt11u o{ Standards (1922). No. 218, U.S . Dept. oi Com•
merce, Washington, D.C .
Tlmoshenko, S ., and Gere, J. M. (1961). Thtory o{ tlastic ,tability, Second Ed.

••
McGraw-HIII Book Co., New York, N .Y.
Yu, W.-W. (1986). Cold-fonntd stttl structum. McGraw-HIII Book Co., New York,
N.Y.

•• EXAMPLE 13. T-Section as Column

Zavelanl, A. (1984). ''Design recommendations for cold-formed sections." pre-
sented ai ASCE Spring Convention, Atlanta, Ga .

•••
67
••
•• Zavelanl, A., and Fagglano, P. (1985). "Design of cold-formed latti~ tranamls-
sion towel'!l." /. Struct. Engr., ASCE, 111 (11), 2427-2445 .

•• Blbllography

Co/d-Formtd Stttl Cmign Manu.al. (1983). Amer. lron and Stttl lnst., Washington,

•• o.e.
Fagglano, P. (1985). "Lattlce tower design ustng cold-formed 1h1pe1." Proc. ümf.
on lnn01111tfon1 ln tht Cmlgn of Eltetrlad Tran,mlufon Structum, Struct. Dlv., DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS
Chapter 5

•• ASCE, Kansas City, Mo., Aug. 37-46.

Gaylord, E. H. (1985) "Cold-formed angles for transmlaslon towtl'!l." Proc. úmf.
on lnnovotions in tht D,sign of Eltetria,1 Tnmsmission Structurrs, Struct. Dlv.,

•• ASCE, Kansas City, Mo., Aug., 57-68.

Kennedy, J. B., and Madugula, M. K. S. (lm). "Buckling of stttl angle and ttt
struts," /. of tht Structural Dir,/s/on, ASCE, 98 (STll), 2507-2522. 5.1 INTRODUCTION

•••
Kennedy, J. B., and Madugula, M. K. S. (1982). "Buckltng of 1ngle1: State of the
art." J. of tht Structura/ Diruúm, ASC!l, 108 (ST9), 1961-1980. Bolted connections for transmission structures are normally d~signed
as bearing type connections. It is assumed that_ bolts connechng one
Manual of Stttl ümstruction (1980). l!lghlh Bd., Amer. lnst. of Slttl Con1t., lnc., member to another carry lhe load ln lhe connection equally.
Chicago, UI .
The mlnlmum end and edge distances detennined by_the provlsl~n•

•• Mueller, W. H., and Wagner, A. L. (1985). "Plaatlc behavior of 1tttl angle

coiumn1." Rt1t11rth R,port, Bonntvillt Powtr Admin.
Wilholle, G. , Zandonlnl, R., ■nd Zavelanl. A. (1984). ''llehavlor and 1trength of
of thls chapter do no/ inc/udt an allowance for fabrlcahon and rolhng
lolerances. • d d h 1
Unless otherwlse noted, these provlsions perta~n to stan ar o es,

•• l.e., holu nominally 1.. ln. larger than the bolt d1ameter. ·
1
angle1 ln compreulon: An ttperimenlal lnvt1tig1tlon." pn,uni.d ai ASCB
Structurw1 Congn,.,, San Pr111cllco, C11ll.
Wilhoite, G., Zandontnl, R., and Zavel■nl, A. (1984). '1leh1vlor and strength of 5,2-GENER,U...REQ.UlREMENIS

•• T-shapes ln compresslon: An ...pertmental tnvestlgation." presenttd 11 ASCI!

Structures Congress, San Francisco, Callf.
Za;eiani, A. (1985). "Design and ltsl of cold-formtd stttl memben." Proc. úmf.
The Engineer of Record (EOR) shall approve the shop detail drawings,
see Section-6. 1.2.

•• on fnn01111tions in lht Dtsign of Eltetrlai/ Transmission Structurn, Strud. Div.,

ASCE, Kansas City, Mo., Aug., 69-78.
5.3 FASTENERS

•• 5.3.1 Materiais
Toe commonly used fastener specUlcalions for latticed steel transmls•

••
sion towers are ASTM A394 for bolts and A563 for nuts .

5.3.2 Bolt She.u Capaclty

•• Allowable shears for A394 bolts shall be taken lo be the ahear

strengths tabulated ln the ASTM specification .
For bolts that do not have an ASTM-specUied shear strength t~e
if'
•• allowable shear stress F, on the effective area shail be 0.62~,, where IS
lhe specified minimum tensile strength of the bolt matenal. Toe e ec-
tive area is the gross cross-sectional area of the bolt if threads are

•••
69

•
••
•• 1

1
' 70 OESION FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS

excluded from the shear plane or the rool area if threads are in lhe shear
OESION OF CONNECTIONS

of force, shall be nol less than the value of tm1 0 determined as the largest
71

•••
-l plane. value of t from Eqs . 5.5-1, 5.5-2, and 5.5-3:
1
,<..__ 5.3.3 Bolt Ten1lon Capaclty t • 1.2 PIF,t (5.5-1)
t • 1.3 d (5.5-2)
! • t + d/2 (5.5-3) ·
Bolts shall be proportioned so thal lhe sum of lhe tensile stresses

•• cau~ed by _lhe applied externai load and any tensile stress resulting from
prymg achon does not exceed lhe allowable tensile stress f, as follows: where F, • specified minimum lensile atrenglh of lhe connected fªrt (ksi); 1
• lhlckneaa of lhe connecled pari (ln.); d • nominal dlameltt o boll (ln.);

••
and P • force transmilled by lhe boll (klps). For redundant members lhe
i a. for bolls havlng a speclfled proof-load stress, F, • ASTM proof-load
stress by lhe length-measuremenl melhod; values of tm,n shall be delerrnined as lhe larger value of t from Eqs. 5.5-3 and
5.5-4: ~
J 1- b. for bolls with no specified proof-load stress, F, • 0.6F,; and
e. lhe stress area A, is given by

•• __:j

j
1
!
A, • ,r/4 [d - (0.974/n)P (5.3-1)
t • 1.2 d

where d • nominal diameler of bolt (in.).

(5.5-4)

•• ~ ·;

✓
where d • nomlnal dlameler of lhe bolt (ln.); and n • number of lhreads per
lnch. Eq. 5.5-3 Is not applicable for either stressed members or redundant
members if the holes are drilled.

•• 5.3.4 Bolts SubJect to Comblned Shear and Tenslon

For bolts subject to comblned shear and tenslon lhe allowable tenslle
stress F,,,, shall be
5.5.2 Center-to-Center Bolt Hole Spaclng

•••
.1 Along a llne of transmltted force, lhe distances between centers of
holes shall be not less than the value of s.,,. determined as
F,,,, • F, (1 - (/,IF,)2) 112 (S.3-2) .
~ .212/.f,I + O 6d
where F, • allowable lensile stress deflned ln Sections 5.3.3.a and 5.3.3.b
(ksi); F, • allowable ahear at,:ess deflned ln Section 5.3.2 (ksij; and /, - .

•• \ ,....,
compuled shear stress on effectlve àrea (ksi). Toe combined lensile and
shear stresses ahall be làken ai lhe sarne cross seclion in lhe boll, eilher in
lhe lhreaded or lhe unlhreade~ portion .
Reler to the Commentary on Chapter 5 for suggested minimum spacing
requirements for assembly purposes.

•••
5.5.3 Edge Dlstance (See Fig. 5C.2)

5.4 ALLOWABLE BEARING STRESS Toe distance /from lhe center of a hole to lhe edge of lhe member shall
,r- •
be not less than the mlnlmum edge distance /,..0 :
Toe maxlmum bearlng stress, calculated as lhe force on a bolt divlded For a rolled edge
1: 1 by lhe product of lhe bolt diameter times lhe thickness of lhe connected

•• ,! :

r,
pari, shall not exceed 1.5 times lhe specified minimum tensile strenglh
f, of lhe connected pari or lhe boll; see Commentary on Chapler 5. '""" • 0.85 ...,.
For a sheared or mechanlcally gulded flame cut edge
(5.5-6)

•• 5.5 MINIMUM DISTANCES , ..,. • 0.85 t..,. + 0.0625 (5.5-7)

•• r.
5.5.1 End Dlstance (See Fig. 5C.2)

For stressed members lhe dislance t measured from the center of a

hole to lhe end, whether this end Is perpendicular or inclined to lhe line
where tm1n • minlmum end dl,tance from Section 5.5.1.

••
••
r. .

1
 •
,...,. " "
· .• t;,, ,._.'
r- • • •""'-
'

•• 72 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION lOWEAS

5.6 ATIACHMENT BOLES

•• Thls section Is valld for hole diameter to bolt diameter ratios

force P for a bolt in an attachment hole shall be limited by:
:s 2. The

•••
P ~ 0.75 (L - O.Sd,) 1 f, (5.6-1)

or
COMMENTARY ON CHAYTER 5

•• P ~ 1.35 d t F,
where L - minimum dislance from lhe cenler of lhe hole lo any member
(5.6-2)

••
edge (in.); d - nominal diameler of boll (in.); d, - attachmenl hole diameler
(in .); 1 - member lhkkness (ln.); and f, - specified mlnlmum tensile
strenglh of lhe member (ksi) .
SC.1 INTRODUCTION

•• The purchaser's procurement specification should specify if the end

and edge dislances are minimum vaiues which cannot be underrun .

•••
Tolerances for sheared and cut ends are normally established by lhe
supplier. Edge distances are controlled by lhe gage lines selected, and
the detailer must provide for normal rolllng tolerances lo avoid possibie
underrun of lhe edge distances. The roiling tolerances contained ln
ASTM Specification A6 should be used as a guide (Standard Specifica•

••• tions for General Requirements, etc. 1986) .

SC.3 FASTENERS
SC.3.2 Boi! Shear Capaclty

••• l
Bolts, such as A394 bolts (Standard Speclficatlons for Zinc-Coated
Steel Transmission Tower Bolts 1986) are typically lnstalled to lhe drawn
tight condition or to some specified mlnlmum torque. Thus, the load
transfer across a boit is govemed by direct shear rather than friction .

•• i
,1
ASTM A394 provides lhe specified minimum shear vaiues when threads
are inciuded in or excludecf from lhe shear plane. The allowable shear of
0.62 f, for boits that do not have an ASTM specified shear stress is

•••
_! conservative (Fisher and Struik 1974). ·
SC.3.3 Boi! Tenelon Capaclty

The specified tensile stresses approxlmate those at whlch lhe rate of

•• elongation of lhe bolt begins to increase significantiy. The ASTM froof•

load stress is approximately equal to the yield stress, and 0.6 , Is a
conservatlve estimate for boits for whlch lhe proof load is not specified .

••
lf allowable stresses exceed lhe yield stress, permanent stretch can

73

••
 ••
•• 74 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS CHAPTER 5 COMMENTARV

and the thickness of the connected pari. Test data confirm that relating
75

••
occur in the bolt. This could loosen the nut and cause a loss of tightness
in lhe joint. the ratio of end distance to bolt diameter to the ratio of bearing stress to
tensile strength gives a lower bound to the published test data for single
SC.3.4 Bolts Subject to Comblned Shur and Tenslon fastener connections with standard hoies (Fisher and Strulk 1974). The

•••
Tests on ríveis and bolts indicate that lhe interaction between shear
and tension in lhe fastener may be represented by formulas which plot
as ellipses (Fisher and Strulk 1974; Higgins and Munse 1952; Chesson et
ai. 1%5). Therefore, an elliptical expression, with major and mlnor axes
end d istance required by the above expression has been multiplied by
1.2 to account for uncertainties in lhe end distance strength of the mem-
bers (Fisher and Strulk 1974; Proposed Load and Resistanct Factor 1983). For
l
adequately spaced multipie bolt connections this expression is
conservative .

•• based upon lhe aliowable shear and tension values given ln Sections
5.3.2 and 5.3.3, has been specified.
Eq. 5.5-2 Is a lower bound on end distance which has been success-
fuliy used in tower practice ln stressed members. A minimum end dis-
tance of 1.2d has been specified for redundants slnce they cany only

•• 5C.4 Allowable Bearlng Stress

secondary stresses, which are much less than stresses in lhe members
they brace .
Latitude is provided to use the minimum end distances and determine

•• The AISC (Manual o/ Stttl Construction 1980) aliowable bearing stress

has been seiected as lhe maxlmum allowable bearing stress. While thls
value may seem unduly conservatlve, li confonns with the experience ln
the aliowable bearing stress for thls condition. Eqs. 5.5-1 and 5.5-2 ailow
the flexlbility to determine what combination of bearing value and end
distance satlsfies the engineering and detailing requirements. Eq. 5.5-3

•• lhe tower lndustry. Designs produced with bearing vaiues iess than or
equal to 1.5F. and confonning wlth lhe other provisions of this docu-
ment have demonstrated satisfactory control over bolt hole ovalizatlon
places an end distance restrictlon on thick members such that punching
of the holes does not create a possible break-out condition. lf the holes
are drUled ln members where the end distance would be govemed by
Eq. 5.5-3, this requirement is not applicable .

••
during fuil-scale tower te~ts. lt must be remembered that the end and
edge distances allowed may be le11 than lhe minlmum AISC 1peclfied
values .
When applylng these provisiona, lhe designer must recognize that the
Satlsfactory runching of the holes ln thick material 11 dependent on
the ductillty o the steel, the adequacy of the equlpment (capability of
the punchin ui ment and ro r malntenance of punches and dies),

•• required end and edge distances depend upon the bearing stress in the
connection. lt may be usefui to reduce the bearing stress below the
maximum allowable, as thls may pennit a reduction in the end and edge
lhe allowed tolerances between t e pune an 1e, and lhe lemperalüre
of the steei. The following guidelines have been used satlsfactorily: for
36 ksi yield steel the thickness of lhe material should not exceed the hole

·•• distances requlred.

The allowable bearing value on lhe bolts must be checked if lhe tensile
strength, f,. of lhe member material exceeds the F. value of lhe bolt.
diameter; for 50 ksi yleld steel lhe thickness of the material should not
exceed the hole diameter minus 1/,o ln .; and for 65 ksi yield steel the
thicknesa of the material should not exceed the hole diameter mlnus 1/1

•• This would occur lf a A394, Type O, bolt (f•.• 74 ksl) is used to connect a
A572-Grade 65 material (f. • 80 ksl). The fuli diameter of the bolt
should be used for this calculation, with an allowable bearing stress
equal to 1.5F. of the bolt (Wilhoite 1985).
ln .
Fig. SC.1 illustrates the end dlstances for a A394, Type O, 3/• ln. dlam•
eter bolt used to connect A36 ateei stressed members. The maximum
bearing stress of 1.5F, has been used unless shear govems the maximum

•• SC.S MINIMUM DISTANCES

force ln the bolt. Table 5C.1 contalns the tabulated values for Fig. SC.1
and shows that Eq". 5.5-1 govems ue, through a thici,JlesS of ''•• ln., Eq .
5.5-2 govems for thicknesse1 of 3/o in. through •t,e in., and Eq. 5.5-3

•••
SC.5.1 End Dlstance
' The provisions óf this section are applicable to sheared and mechani-
cally guided flame cut ends. Eq. 5.5-1 provides the end distance
governe for thicknenea of 5/, in!'·ànd above unlesa the holes are drllled .
For ·drilled holes, Eq. 5.5-2 would continue to govem over thls ,.nge oi
thicknesses. The range of thlcknesses over whlch each equation governa
changes lf the bearing stress is ~duced below the maxlm~m . allowable
bearing stress of 1.5f,. Fig. SC.2 i!lustrates lhe proper application of th_e

•• /
required for strength. The required end distance is a function of lhe load
being transfered in the bolt, lhe tensile strength of lhe connected part,
required end distance when a member is clipped and lhe sheared surface IS
not perpendicular to the primary axes of lhe rnember.

••
•
·································~·
-~ ,.7-

:!! dismnce, 1n. ... .

a,

li
Ç)
:!!
Ç) <n o o - - - -
0 ~CD CD o - ~ ê.,. :.. V" o, ..... CD i.o
?)
...
1
:,.
1.
CI
1
:,.
W
:f
a,
3
gJ~i
C11 Q:,.,

3 ........
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;.,
,'f
1
o
u~I~
,.,
.0

U'
,.,
-!'
"'
i.,,
~I7
'f om
)
i.,,
ir 2. c-i"2. ~ 1
L..---- 1

s-
"
~
- 3 ;; ....
("\

!f ~;!&
~ ~; S'i
, C7Q.

;
o

" /
1,#
I/
,,/ L..---- !. "'
..,
õ
1 1D
i5
.,,z
)
'j
,

f ::-. 3·§.:.2 1 o i
1 §1
~ :.. ,.,., .)
ã
Q
í'"'õ/5.
:.,. cr~n ~
~ !g.~ !-
i
i 3
3

~
~
.. 1 "'
....
1D
m
m
r- ·.)
i:t: (1) ~i~..,
1
0
:-
-. UI
"' i.,,
....
Ir i
~
-õ ---:!'
~1:;n
: :i •.o :i
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···_)

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li g,g ~

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li q-...
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~~'i 5" ,.
ijj
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"'if
_...,!t._ r1
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:.. ·!"
;'( 1
1 õ
z -~
- :• \ e"~ "....
ÕQ.
, 3
~
~
1
S..3i o ¼. 1 m
:•o i,,
r--... __, ,__, :D
•3
ti' l .
~
.,,
m

Q!9~
..
o • ~ :r o

.-·-º
Q.
1~ Xi
Q.
X
J°
U)
o 3:, [ !
o
• i~
'I

Table SC.1: A.394 Bolt Connecting A.36 Steel

V ~ for md, rolled edge and center-t<Hlistana,s ior a Am, Type O, 3/• in. diameter bolt u5ed in
singleshe~through _thethreads to connect ~ - 1 stres5ed members. Bearing stress • 1.SF.
_,.,
Memba Baring Force Suggested
Thickness Stttss Bolt Eq. 5.S--1 Eq. 5.5-2 Eq. 55--3 Eq. 5.5-5 Erection Eq. 5.5--6
l(in..) 1.5F.(ksi) P{kips) ,(in.) ,(in.) ,(iiL) e_.(in.) s..,,(in.) Spacing(in.) s....(in.) '"""(in.)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
Ili 87.0 8.16 1.35 . 0.98 0.50 1.35 1.80 1.67 1.80 1.15
3/)6 87.0 12.23 1.35 0.98 Q.56 1.35 1.80 1.67 1.80 1.15 o
:r
1/• 87.0 16.31 1.35 0.98 0.63 1.35 1.80 1.67 1.80 1.15 ►
5/)6 87.0 16.65- 1.10 o.98 om 1.10 Less 1.67 1.67 0.94 ~ ,T
m
3/t 87.0 16.65- rtess 0.98 0.75 0.98 Than 1.67 1.67 0.83 :D ... ~.,·
,,.. 87.0 16.65- < Than 0.98 O.SI 0.98 Col. 9 1.67 1.67 0.83 "'
0.98 0.118 o
1h 87.0 16.65- I..Col. 5 0.98 1.67 1.67 0.83 o
'tl6
'li
11/)6
°lf•
87.lJ
87.0
87.0
87.0
16.65-
16.65-
16.65-
16.65-
0.98
0.98
0.98
0.98
0.94
UI)
1.116
1.13
0.98
1.00
1.06
1.13
1.67
1.67
1.67
1.67
1.67
1.67
1.67
1.67
0.83
0.85
0.90
0.96
~
~
m
~:D
·~
13/16 87.0 16.65- 0.98 1.19 1.19 1.67 1.67 1.01 <
7/a 87.0 16.65- 0.98 10.118"
0.98" 1.67 1.67 0.83"
1"116
1
87.0
87.lJ
16.65-
16.65-
0.98
0.98
0.911'
o...
0.98"
0.981>
1.67
1.67
1.67
1.67
0.831'
0.83"
!e
+
Eq. 55--1 • l.2P/(F,.t). Eq. 5.5-5 • l .2P/(F,.t) ""1
; Bolt diameter • O.75 in.. ( .
Eq. 55--2 • 1.3d.
Eq. 5.5-3 • t + 412. Eq. 5.5--6 -.~....
Erection • n u t c ~ n + 0.375.

1
Bolt shear strength • 16.65 kips.
Point to point nut dimension • 1.30 in.
Member tensile strength (F.) • 58.0 ksi. -
., · ·- - ,;'f
(,'?
\~~

a. P limited by single shéar strength {thru threads) of bali. ;:j

G';
b. t • 13/a; suggested mnimum punching thickness {l°J/a in. O hole in A36 steel). Distance shown is for drilled holes.
e
~
G
 ••
•• 78 DESIGN FOR STEEL TAANSMISSION TOWEAS CHAPTEA 5 COMMENTAAY 79

••
SC.5.2 Center-to-Center Bolt Hole Spacing
(t_ of d. ond d
Two factors must be considered when determining the minimum
center-to-center bolt spaclng. Eq. 5.5-5 is the strength expression for end See text for adjustments

•• distance (Eq. 5.5-1) plus 0.6 times lhe diameter of the adjacent bolt. Toe
term 0.6d has been specified instead of lhe more commonly recognized
0.5d to provide greater control over the reduction in center-to-center
to this dimension

•• material due to hole break-out during punching. For low bearing values
lhe spaclng requtrements predicted by Eq. 5.5-5 may be less than the
spacing required for installation. Spacing requirements for convenient
installation should be determined by adding 3 /s in. to the width across

•• lhe points of the nut being used. Fig. 5C.1 and Table 5C.1 show that the
installation requirement governs for thick members .

•••
SC.5.3 Edge Dlatance

Severa) studies have considered how end and edge distance affects
d
lhe strength of connections for stressed members (Bodegom et ai. 1984;
Kennedy and Sinclair 1969; Gikhrist and Chang 1979). Tests in Bode-

•• gom et ai. (1984) establish a ratio of lhe rolled edge distance to lhe
sheared edge distance to preveni a tension tear-out of lhe rolled edge .
Eq. 5.5-6 combines the results given ln Bodegom et ai. (1984) with lhe
L

•••
minimum end distances in Eq. 5.5-2. Toe sarne ratio is retained for
determining lhe relationship between ali end distances and lhe required
rolled edge distance. When lhe edge distance is to a sheared or mechani-
cally guided flame cut edge, 1/16 in. is added to the rolled edge distance .
Fig. 5C.1 shows lhe relationship belween lhe rolled edge anrl end

•• distances .

•••
SC.6 ATIACHMENT BOLES
Oversized holes are commonly used as load attachment points for
insulator strings, overhead ground wires, and guys. These holes are not
used where conneclions are designed for load reversai. Toe possible
p

••
failure modes considered are bearing, tension, and shear. These recom- FIG. SC.3-Appliaition o/ Ovrrsiud Holts
mendations do nol exclude the use of other attachment holes or slots
designed by rational analysis .
Eq. 5.6-1 assume, the member wlll faU ln shear wtth shear plane■ ahowa that the aum of the ten1Ue stre11 PIA 11nd the tenslle bendlng

•• developing ai each slde of lhe bolt through lhe edge of the member; Fig .
5C.3 illustrates the various terms used. Toe equation was developed by
replacing t in Eq. 5.5-1 with (L - 0.5dh), solving for P, and multiplying
stress do not exceed 0.67 F , where F, ta the member yleld stress.
Eq. 5.6-1 has been llmiteJ to hole dtameters less th1n or equal to two
bolt diamelers. Thls represents lhe range of experlence over which lhe
equation has been used ln pradice. No adjustment to the equatlon Is

•• lhe result by 0.9. Given that L is defined as the distance from the center
oi lhe hole to any member edge, the member will always fatl ln shear
before it fails in tension. Toe dimension L shown for lhe edge distance,
perpendicular to lhe line of action of P, may be reduced if analysis
required for slight chamferlng of lhe hole.
For allachmenl plates subjecl to bending, additional analysis will be
required to determine lhe plate thickness. Eq. 5.6-2 limits lhe bearing

•••
•
~••-
•• 80 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS CHAPTER 5 COMMENTARY 81

•• stress lo O. 9 limes lhe allowable value for standard holes to provide an

additional factor for possible wear.
For everyday loadlng, as specified by lhe purchaser, P should not
Blbllography

8rockenbrough, R. L. (1983) . "Considerations in the design of bolted joints for

weathering sleel." Engrg. /. Amer. lnst. of Steel Const., 40--45.

••
exceed O.Sdtf, to avoid indentation of the material under sustained load-
ing and excessive wear. Everyday loading may be defined as that result- Fisher, J. W. (1965). "8ehavior of fasteners and plates with holes." /. o/ tlrt Struc-
ing from the bare weight of lhe conductor ai 60º F final sag unless lhe tural Division, ASCE, 91 (ST6), 265- 286.
location is subjected to steady prevailing wind. li the location is sub-

•••
Marsh, C. (1979). "Tear-out failure of boll groups." /. o/ tht Structural Division,
jected to steady prevalllng wind, lhe everyday loadlng may be consld- ASCE, 105 (STlO), 2122-2125.
ered to be lhe resultant load caused by lhe bare welght of lhe conductor
and lhe prevailing wind at 60ºF final sag .

•• REFERENCES ANO BIBLIOGRAPHY

References

•• 8odegom, J. V., Evensen, 8 ., and Gtdlund, ). 1. (1984). "Single bolt connectlons

of angles ln tranamlsslon line towera." CIGRE Rq,ort, Study Commlttee 22,
Working Group 08, Aug .

•• Chesson, E., Faustino, N. L., and Munse, W. H. (1965). "High atrength bolts
subjected to tenslon and ahear." /. of tht Stn,clural Division, ASCE, 91 (STS),
155- 180 .

•••
Fisher, J. W., and Strulk ). H. A. (1974). Guidt to dtsign criltri• for bolttd •nd
rivoted joinls. John Wiley and Sona, New York, N.Y.
Gilchrist, R. T., and Chong, K. P. (1979) . ''lnin llght-gage bolted connectlons
wlthout washers." /. o/ tht Stn,ctural Divlsion, ASCE, 105 (STl), 175-183.

•• Hlgglns, T. R., and Munse, W. H. (1952). "How much combined stress can a
rlvel lake." Engrg. NtwS-R«., Oec. 4, 40.
Kennedy, ). 8., and Sinclair, G. R. (1969). "Ultimate capaclty of alngle bolted

•••
angle connectlons." /. o/ lht Stn,clural Division, ASCE, 95 (STS). 1645-1660.
M•nual o/Slttl Constn,clion . (1980). Elghth Ed., Amer. lnst. of Steel Const., lnc.,
Chicago, Ili.
Proposed l..oad and Rtsistanct Facto, Dtsign Sptdfiaition for Stn,clural Stttl Buildings.
(1983). Amer. lnst. of Steel Const., lnc., Chicago, Ili. 87-88 .

•• "Standard Speclflcatlon for General Requirements for Rolled Steel Plates,

Shapes, Sheet Pillng, and 8ars for Structural Use, Deslgnatlon A 6." (1986) .
Annual boolc of ASTM standards, Sectlon 1, Vol. 01.04, Amer. Soe. for Testlng

•• and Materiais, PhUadelphia, Pa.

"Standard SpecUlcatlon for Zlnc-Coated Steel TranamiHion Tower Bolt1, Deaig•
natlon A 394." (1986). Annual boolc of ASTM 1tandard1, Sectlon 15, Vol. 15.08,

•• Amer. Soe. for Testlng and Materiais, PhUadelphla, Pa.

Wilhoite, G. M. (1985). ''Bolted connectlons for ateei towers." Proc. Conf. on
lnnovations in tht Dtsign of Electriad Transmission Stn,cturts, Struct. Oiv ., ASCE,

•••
Kansas City, Mo., Aug., 79-85 .

• 1
•• ut:TAn.lNl, ANlJ FAorllCAI IOr. d3
1

•• 6.1.3 Connections

•••
Usual d elailing practice is to connect members directly to each other
with minimum eccenlricily. lf specific joint details are required by lhe
EOR they shall be show n on the design drawings as referenced in the
Chapter 6 contract documents .

•• DETAILING ANO FABRICATION 6.1.4 Bolt Spaclng

•• Minimum bolt spacing, and end and edge distances, as specified in

the design sections of this document, shall not be und errun by mil! or
standard fabricalion tolerances. Toe purchaser's specificalions shall slate
if end distances, edge dislances, and cenler-to-center hole spacing

•• 6.1 DETAILING dimensions include provisions for mill and fabrication tolerances; if they
do not, dimensions used for detailing must be adjusted to ensure that
minimum dimensions are provided in the fabricated member.

•••
6.1.l Drawlngs
6.1.5 Dctail Failures Durlng Testlng
Tower detail drawlngs conslst of erectlon drawings, shop detail
drawings, and bilia of material. Erectlon drawlngs shall show lhe
lf a tower is tested and a structural failure occurs because of an inade-
complete assembly of the structure indicatlng clearly the positioning

••
quale connection detail, a review shall be made by the EOR to determine
of the members. Each member shall be piece-marked and the number
the reasons for th e failure and to specify the required revisions.
and lenglhs of bolts shall be glven for each connection . Shop detail
drawings can eilher be ahown by asaembled sectlons (ln place) or
6.1.6 Material

•••
picce by plece (knocked down), either hand drawn or computer
drawn. Layout drawlngs are requlred when details are not shown by
assembled sections. Computer generated bills of material are gener- Detail drawings shall clearly specify member and connection materiais
ally acceptable. such as ASTM specificalion and grade designalion .
Tower detail drawings are usually prepared by lhe fabricator or an

•••
independent detailer in accordance with the contract documents. 6.1.7 Weathering Steel

6. 1.2 Approval of Shop Detall Drawlnga lf the structure is made of weathering steel, special deta iling proce-
dures may be required; see Brockenbrough (1983) and Brockenbrough
and Schmitt (1975).

••
Shop detail drawings shall be approved by lhe Engineer of Record
(EOR) regarding compliance with the purchaser's specüications and lhe
strength requirements of the design. Toe EOR shall be the utility struc- 6.1.8 Tension-Only Members
tural engineer, a consultlng structural engineer, or the fabricator's struc-

•• tural engineer, dependlng on who generated the structural tower

design. The EOR'a revlew and approval of the ahop detall drawlnga
lncludea responaiblllty for lhe etrength of connect!ona but doe, not per•
Tenslon-only members shall be detalled sufficiently short to provlde
draw. Draw muat conslder the length and elu of the rnember. To fadlt-
tate ere<:tlon, these mernbtt,.. ahouíd hav• at leaat two bolt, on one end.

•• tain to lhe correctneas of dlmenelonal detail calculatlon1 which are lhe

responslbility of lhe detailer. lt also does not lmply approval of means,
methods, techniques, sequences, or procedure of constructlon, or of
Members 15 ft in length, or less, are detalled 1/o ln. short. Members more
than 15 ft long are detailed 1/o ln. short, plus 1/ 16 in. for each additional 10
fl or fraction thereof. lf such members are spliced, the draw should
provide for lhe slippage at the splice.

••
safety precautlons and programs .

82

••
•
 ••
•• 84 DESIGN FOR STEEL TAANSMISSION TOWEAS DETAILINO ANO FABAICATION 85

•••
6.1.9 Shop Assembly
The purchaser's specifications should include a requirement for shop
assembly of new tower details, to be done partially by sections and in
lhe horizontal position. This helps validate detailing calculations and
Cold bending is normally done on pieces with simple bends ai small
bevels. Hot bending is necessary on pieces with moderate bevels and/or
compound bends; heating should be done evenly and should be of
sufficient length and temperature to minimize necking down of lhe
section ai lhe bend tine. Pieces requiring bends ai severe bevels may

•• dimensions, minimize fit-up conflicts, and assure proper assembly in

the field .
have to be cut, formed, and welded. Specific preparation instructions
and welding symbols must be shown on the shop detail drawings in this
case.

•• 6.1.10 Other Conslderations

Ali dimensions on detail drawlngs shall be shown in English units

with dimensional accuracy to lhe nearest 1/,o ln.
Toe actual position of any punched or drilled hole on a member shall
not vary more than 1/32 in. from lhe position for that hole shown on lhe
shop detail drawing.

•• Welded connections and built-up components may require seal welds.

Closed sections should be detailed with vent or drain holes U they are to
be galvanized. Caution should be used to avoid explosive effects, which
Toe purchaser should review fabricators' quality contrai procedures
and agree on methods before fabrication begins. lf there is disagree-
ment, this should be settled in writing prior to fabrication.

•••
can injure workers or damage the component during lhe galvanizing
process. 6.2.4 Pitce Marks

Each tower member shall have a number conforming to the piece mark
6.2 FABRICATION
on lhe erection drawlngs stamped with a metal die. For galvanized

•• 6.2.1 Material
Since variou• ateeis are usitd ln tr1n1ml11ion towers, ■ qualll)' control
material these marks shall be stamped prior to galvanizing. Marks shall
be mlnimum of "2 ln. high. For 1peclal plecea ,uch ,s anchor bolte,
where dia stamping Is not feaalble, an lndalll>lt lr,k mtrkl11g or 1peci•I

•• program Is nece11ary and 1hould at1rt wllh the fabrlc■tor', purch■se

order. A36 steel Is consldered the baslc ateei. Ali other ateeis shell have •
special marking starting ai lhe mlll, be inventoried separately ai the
tagslni whlch 11 durab!• and w,1. rproof r,,ay bt usod. Some purchuer
~lflcations r uire that hi her stren th ateei members include a sufflx
such as "H", on the piece mark.

•••
fabrication plant, and be properly ldentified during lhe fabricating pro-
cess. Mill test reports are usually kept on record and are sufficlent as 6.2.5 Weldlng
certification of material, unless lhe purchaser's specification calls for
other requirements.
Welding procedures shall comply with ANSIIAWS 01.1. Speclal care
shall be tal<en regarding seal welds to assure proper galvanizing and to

•• 6.2.2 Spedflcations
Fabrication shall be performed accordlng to the purchaser's specUica-
tion. If this specUication does not cover fabricatlon procedures, the latest
avoid acld "bleeding" ai pockets in .structural assemblies.

6.2.6 Galvanizlng

•• edition of the AISC Steel Construction Manual, or other specifications

applicable to transmisslon towers will be used. These documents pro-
vide a descrlption of acceptable fabricatlon methods and procedures. Galvanizlng shall be ln accordance wlth ASTM A-123 and A-153. Ref-
erence to ASTM A-143 will provlde guidellnes to avoid material

•• 6.2.3 Shop Operations

Shop operations conslst essentially of cutting (sawlng, shearing, or
embrittlement.

6.2.7 Shlpplng

•• flame cutting), punchlng, drllllng, blocklng or clipplng, and either cold

or hot bendlng. Hot bending will requlre steel to be heated to
1400-1600ºF, U the steel Is not produced to fine grain pradice; see The
Toe purchaser's specification shall clearly state the packing, bundllng
methods, and shipping procedures required .

•••
Making, Shaping and Tmiting of Steel (1976) .

•
•• 88

••
DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

•• References

Brockenbrough, R. L. (1983). "Consideraflons ln the design of bolted joinh for

•• weathering steel." Engr. /. Amer. lnst. of Steel Constr., 40-45.

Brock,nbrough, R. L., and Schmitt, R. /. (1975). "Con1idention1 ln th, ~r-
form1n" of bare hlgh-1trength low-1lloy 1teel tr1n1ml11lon towere." Paptr C
Chapter 7

•••
75 041-9, IEEE Power Engr. Soe., Winter Meeting, New York, N.Y. TESTING
Tlrt M•king, Shaping, and Tmiling of Stttl (1976). Eighth Ed. H. E. McGannon,
ed., United States Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa., 1035-1038.

••
Blbllography

Cod, of Standard Practict for Stttl Bui/dingr and Bridge, (with Commentary). (1976). 7.1 INTRODUCTION

-. Amer. lnst. of Steel Constr., lnc., Chicago, Ili.

"Standard Speciflcation for Zinc (Hot-Dlp Galvanized) Coatings on lron and Tower tests may be perfonned for various reasons. ln a traditional

•• Ste,I Products, 0esignation A 123," (1986). Annua/ boolc of ASTM standard,,

Section 1 Vol. 01.06, Amer. Soe. for Testtng and Materiais, Philadelphla, Pa.
"Standard Recommended Practlce for S1feguardtng Againat Embrittlement of
proof test the test is set up to confonn to the design conditions, thal is,
only slalic loads are applied, lhe lower has levei, fixed foundations, and
the restraints at the load polnts are the sarne as in lhe design model. lf a

•• Hot-0lp Galvanlzed Structural Steel and Procedure for Oetectlng Embrittie-

ment, Deslgnation A 143." 11986). Annu•I boolc of ASTM llandArd,, ~tion l,
Vol. 01.06, Amer. Soe. for Testing and Materiais, Philadelphla, Pa.
proof test is ordered, il should be done on a full slze prototype structure
before lhat tower, or another tower of similar design for the sarne Une, Is
fabrkaltd in quantlty, Thls kind of lest will verify the ~d~u~cy of the

••
Structural Wtlding Codt-Stttl (1986). ANSI/AWS 01.1-86, American Welding members and thelr conneclions to wlthstand the stattc design loads
Society, Miami, Fla. s ified for that structure as an individual entit under controlled con-
11tons. roo tests provide insight mto actua stress ,stn utton of
unique configurations, fit-up verifiçation, action of the structure in

•••
deflected positions, adequacy of connections, and other benefits. The
test cannot confirm how the tower will react in the transmission tine
where lhe loads may be dynamic, the foundations may be less than
ideal, and where there is some restraint from intact wires ai the load
points.

•• Toe following guidelines are based on performing a proof test using a

test frame that has facilities to anchor a single tower to a fixed base, load
and monitor pulling lines in the vertical, transverse, and longitudinal

•• ''
1
directions, and measure deflections .

•• 7.2 FOUNDATIONS

Tests shall be made with the lower on rigid foundations. Toe EOR and

•• the test facility engineer should establish allowable setting tolerances .

Posilioning of the foo tings shall be checked to ensure that accurate ahgn-
ment prevenis an r abnormal stresses in lhe tower membcrs .

•••
87

1
•
, •. ,_.
', . "':_ ·) ..
•• 88 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWEH:S TESTING 89

•• 7.3 MATERIAL

For a test, the structure shall be made of material that is representative

.
TO ~

••
of lhe material that will be used ln the production towers. Mill test d
reports or coupon tests shall be available for ali important members in
.
~
e
lhe tower including as a minlmum the members designed for only ten- :S 10
sion loading and compression members with a KUr less than 120.

•••
;::
Proper interpretation of the data obtalned from testing Is criticai in
establishing lhe true capacity of Individual members. There Is concem
about using members in a test tower which have yield points considera-
.
l
i 50
~

bly higher than the minimum guaranteed yield value that is used as the
basis for design. The actual yield points of tension members and of ..•• ~

•• compression members with KUr values less than 120 are criticai ln deter-
mining the member capacity. Consequently, lhe guidelines shown in
Fig. 7.1 are suggested as a basis for determining the maximum yield
J 40

•••
point values for these members of the test tower. Ali other members of
lhe test tower must conform to the standard material specifications, but
their actuai yield points are not as criticai to their load-carrying
..
li
1
... 'º 40
I

50 10 70 10
capabilities .
Me1•111 ectual Yleld Palnt oi ,...,.• ., (hll.

•• 7.4 FABRICATION
Tenelon .,.,...., or C-•nlon a1111hr
•llh KL/r < 110.
Fig. 1.1. - Maxlmum Ovmlrtnflhl

•• Pabricatlon of the prototype towtr shell be done ln tht •ame manner

as for lhe towers ln the productlon run. A tower that is specUled to be
galvanized for lhe transmission line need not be galvanized for lhe test,
but the purchaser has the option of specifying that lhe test tower must
done after ali tower members are ln place. Pick-up points that are
designed into lhe tower shall be used during erection as pari of the test

•• be galvanized . procedure. The erected tower shall conform with the special require-
ments of the purchaser's instructions; many purchasers specify mini-
mum Iorque for bolt tightening, and that the vertical axis shall not be out

•••
7.5 STRAIN MEASUREMENTS of plumb by more than 1 ln. for every 40 ft of height .
Stress determination methods, primarily strain gaging, may be used
to monitor the loads ln individual members during testing. Comparison
oi lhe measured unit stress to the predicted unit stress is useful in 7.7 TEST LOADS

••
vaildatlng the proof test and reflnlng analyal• method1. Care muat be
exerclsed when lnstrumentlng wlth strain gages, both as to locatlon and
number, to assure valid correlatlon with design stress leveis.
The loads to be applied to the test tower shall be the load cases speci-
fied for design and shall include ali overload capaclty factors. The·test
specifications shall state if the tower is to be tested to destruction. Wind-

•• 7.6 ASSEMBLY ANO ERECTION

on-tower loads shali be applled as concentuted loads at aelected panei
points on the tower. These loads shali be applied at panei poinl1 where
stressed members intersect so that the loads can be resisted by the main

•• The method of assembly of the test tower shall be specified by the structural system of the tower. The magnitudes and points of applica-
purchaser. If tight bolting of subassemblies is not permltted by lhe con- tion of ali loads shall be designated by the responsible engineer and
struction specifications, the test tower shall be assembled and erected approved by the purchaser. ln some cases the responsible engineer may
with ali bolts finger tight only, and tightening to final Iorque shall be be the Engineer of Record (EOR) .

••
i.. :'
••
•• 90 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS TESTING 91

•• 7.8 LOAD APPLICATION

Load llnes shall be attached to the load points on lhe test tower ln a
arrangement should be avoided. Strain devices shall be used in accord-
ance with manufacturer's recommendations and calibrated prior to and
after lhe condusion of the tower testing.

•••
manner that slmulates lhe ln-service application as dose as possible. The
atlachment hardware for the test shall have the sarne degrees of freedom
as lhe ln-service hardware. V-type lnsulator strings shall be loaded at the 7.11 DEFLECTIONS
point where lhe insulator strings intersect. lf the insulators for lhe tow-
ers in lhe line are V-type strings that wlll not support compression, it is

•• recommended that articulated bars or wire rope slings be used to simu-

la te the insulators. lf compresslon or cantilever lnsulators are planned
for lhe towers, members that simulate those conditions should be used
Tower deflections under load shall be measured and recorded except
as waived by the responsible engineer. Points to be monitored shall be
selected to verify the deílections predicted by the design analysis.

•• in lhe test. Compression on unbraced paneis dueto bridllng of load llnes

shall be avoided.
As a structure deflects under load, load tines may change their direc-
Deflection readings shall be made for the before and off load conditions
as well as ai ali intermediate holds during loading.
Ali deflections shall be referenced to common base readings such as
the initial plumb positions taken before any test loads are applied.

•••
tion of pull. Adjustments must be made ln the applied loads or lhe test
rigging shall be offset accordingly, so that the vertical, transverse, and
longitudinal vectors at the deflected load points are lhe loads speclfied
in the tower loading schedule. 7.12 FAILURES

•• 7.9 LOADING PROCEDURE

The number and 1equenée of load c1111 te■ted 1hall b4I lpedlitd by tht
When a premature structural fai!Úre occurs, lhe cause of the fallure
mechanlsm and lhe corrective measuret to be taken shnll be determlned
ln conjunctlon wlth lhe EOR,

•• responsible englneer and approved by the purchaser. lt Is recommended

that those load cases havlng lhe least influence on lhe results of succes-
sive tests be tested first. The sequence should simplify lhe operations
Palled membert ând mon,bcn affocttd by eonsequential damage shall
be replaced Ihe load case whkh caused lhe failurc.,ahaH be repeated
Load cases previously completed need not be repeated.

•••
necessary to carry out the test program .
Loads are normally incremented to 50%, 75%, 90%, 95%, and 100% of
lhe maximum specified loads. After each increment is applied there
shall be a "hold" to allow time for readlng deftections and to permlt lhe
englneers observlng the leal to check for slgns of slructural dislress. The
After lhe tower has successfully withstood ali load cases lhe tower
shall be dismantled and ali members inspected. The following shall not
be considered as a failure:
• · Residual bowlng oi membert deslgned for only tenslon,

•• 100% load for each load case shall be held for tive minutes.
Loads shall be removed completely between test load cases except for
noncrltlcal load cases where, wlth the responsible englneer's permls-
sion, lhe loads may be adjusted as required for the next load case.
b. Ovalizatlon of nu more than one-half lhe holes in a connectlon .
e. Sllght permanent deformallon of no more than one-half the bolts ln a
connecllon .

•• Unloading of the tower shall be controlled to avoid overstressing any

members. 7.13 DISPOSITION OF TEST TOWER

•••
7.10 LOAD MEASUREMENT
Ali applied loads shall be measured as dose to the point of attachment
to the tower as possible. Loads shall be measured through a suitable
The lest apeciflcatlons ahould ateie what use, lf any, m•y be made of
the test tower after the test is completed. An undamaged tower Is usu•
ally accepted for use ln the tine after ali components are vlsually
inspected and found to be structurally sound and withln tolerances. lf a

•• arrangement of strain devices or by predetermined dead weights. The test exceeding lhe design loads has been performed, caution should be
effects of pulley friction should be minimized. Load measurement by exercised in accepting the paris that appear to be undamaged since they
monitoring the load in a single pari of a multipart block and tackle may have been overstressed .

••
•
'
 ••
,'."' r-

••
-

92 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION lOWERS TESTING 93

•••
7.14 REPORT Peyrot, A. H . (1985). "Strength data base for LRFD of transmlsslon llnn." P,oc,
Conf. on lnnovalions in lht Dnign of Eltt:lriail Tran,missinn Sln,ctures, Struct.
The lestlng organlzatlon ahall fumlsh lhe number of copies required Dlv., ASCE, Kansas City, Mo., Aug., 126-134.
by lhe job specificalions of a lesl repor! lhal should include: "Recommendatlons for and Cuide to Full-Scale Testing of Transmisslon Une
Structures." (1973). Task Group on Une Loading and Strength for Transmls-

•• a. The designatlon and descriptlon of the tower tested.

b. Toe name of the utility that will use the tower.
c. The name of lhe person or organlzatlon (responslble englneer) that specl-
sion Une Structures, P•~r C 73 005-6, IEEE Power Engr. Soe., Winter Meet-
lng, New York, N.Y.
"Structural Development Studles at the EPRI Transmlsslon Llne Mechanlcal

••
fied the ioadlng, eiectrlcal clearances, technlcal requlrements, and gen-
eral arrangement of the tower. Research Facility." (1986). lnltrim Repari 1. Repari EL-4756 Electric Power Res .
d. The name of the Englneer of Record . lnst., Palo Alto, Calif.
e . The name of lhe fabrlcator. Wilhoite, G. M. (1%4). "Tests verify design for TVA's 500-kV towers." /. of lhe

•• f. A brlef descrlptlon and the locatlon of the test frame.

g. The names and affillations of the test wltnesses.
h. The dates of each test load case .
1. Design and detail drawlngs of lhe test tower lncludlng any changes made
Pawtr Division, ASCE, 90(!'03), 81-90 .

•• during lhe testlng program.

j. A rigging diagram with details of the points of attachment to the tower.
k. Calibration records of lhe load-measuring devices .
1. A loadlng dlagram for each load case tested .

•• m. A tabulatlon of deflectlons for each load case tested.

n. ln case of faUure:
Photograph1 of the faUure.

•• Loads ai the time of f1Dure .

A brlef deaaiptlon of the faUure.
The remediai actlons taken.
The physlcal dimensiona of the faUed members.

•• Test coupon reports of faUed members .

o. Photographs of the overall testlng arrangement and rlgging.
p. Alr temperature, wlnd epeed and dlrectlon, any preclpltatlon, and any

•• other pertinent meteorologlcal data.

q. MUI test reporto II eubmltted dueto the requlrements of Sectlon 7.3 .

••
r. Addillonal inforrnatlon speclfled by the purchaser.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

•• Arnold, F. (1985). "Straln gaglng and data acqulsltlon ai TI.MRF." Proc. Conf. on
Jnnovalions in the Design of EledriaJ/ Tunsmission Stn,ctures, Struct. Dlv., ASCE,
Kansas City, Mo., Aug., 116-125.

•• Lemaster, R. A. (1985). "TLMRF research lnltiatives." Proc. Conf. on lnnovations in

lhe Design of El«triail Transmission Sln,ctures, Struct. Div ., ASCE, Kansu City,
Mo., Aug, 106-115.

•••
Loading Tests on Overhead Une Towers. (1979). IEC Standard Publicatlon 652, lnt.
Electrotech. Comm., Geneva, Switzerland .
Mueller, W. H., Prickett, S. L., and Kempner, L. (1985). "Nonllnear analysis and
full scale test of a transmlsslon tower." Research Repari, BonnevUle Power

•••
Admlnistration.

•
••
••
••
•••
Chapter 8
QUALITY ASSURANCE (QA)-QUALITY
CONTROL (QC)
••
•• 8.1 INTRODUCTION
•••
A well planned and executed quality assurance (QA)-quality control
(QC) program is necessary to ensure delivery of acceptable material in a
t1'!'ely manne~. The_ objective of lhe program is to establlsh that trans-
m1ssmn matenal Is m confonnance wlth the speclfications of the pur•
•• chase contract. A clear and condse contract between purchaser and
supplier is an lmpa~ant pari oí the procedure necessary to obtain
acceptable transm1ss1on towers. lt Is helpíul lf the responalbllities of
•• bo1h the purchaser and the suppller can be deíined ln the contract so
lhat no part oí the process used to purchase, design, detail, test, fabri-
cate, and d~liver transmlssion material Is omitted. Purchasers and sup-
••
pliers have m-house quality assurance-quality control programs. ln this
Manual lhe purchaser's program is deíined as quality assurance (QA)
and the suppller's program Is deflned u quslity control (QC). Thls Man•
uai provldes some suggestlons for lhe preparatlon of speciflcation,
•••
which include QA-QC program requirements.
. The purchaser's QA program outlines the methods, types o( inspec•
t1ons, and records that are necessary to provide suitable production
contr?ls. The purchaser should advise the supplier o( this infonnation in
th_e b1d docum~nt to ensure proper coordination o( the QA program
•• w1th the suppher's QC program. Often this coordination is accom-
plished before a supplier is allowed to bid on a contract.
The supplier's QC program Is a wrillen document or a series of Infor-
•••
mal memorandums that establish procedures and methods of operation
which aHect the quallty of the product. The aupplier hu complete con.
lrol over thls Q';= program an_d modlfles lt to adjust to changlng require-
ments of a particular operalton. The purchaser should review the QC
program lo be certain that it is satisfactory for the purpose o( the
•• conlract.
94
•• 1
•
OUALITY ASSUAANCE (OA)-QUALITY CONTAOL (QC) 95
8.2 QUALITY ASSURANCE (QA) PROGRAM
Quality assurance is responsible for lhe methods followed to establish
appropriate rev iew and interface with the supplier's quality control pro-
cedures. This will ensure that the contract can proceed smoothly; that
proper communicalion channels are established with the responsible
personnel to minimize confusion; that lhe purchaser's requirements are
properly met; and to provide/roper guidance and adequate technical
support throughout the perio of the contract .
To es tablish effective coordination with lhe supplier, lhe purchaser
must clearly define personnel that have the responsibility for contract
perfonnance, engineering, inspection, and receipt of material.
a. Conlracl performance covers enforcemenl of lhe terms of lhe conlracl
relative lo paymenl, delivery commitments, contract changes, and legal
matters .
b. Englneerlng covers technical matters relative to design adequacy, detail
requirements, productlon controls, structure testing, and shlpment of
material.
e. Inspeclion covers the purchaser's material certification and production
requirements . This requlres a dose ln-shop relationship with the sup-
pller. ln some instances, the purchaser utilizes contract personnel for this
activity.
d . Receipt of material by the purchaser'• dHignaled representative covel'9
lnvoice certificalion th•I correct malerial has been received in the field.
8.3 QJJALID'...CONTROL IQO PROGRAM
The program must be established in a manner that prov1aes open
avenues o( communication throughout the plant. li is headed by a man-
ager wlth the overall authority and responslblllty to estahllsh, revlew,
malntaln, and enforce the program. As a mlnlmum, key personnel are
responsibie for planning and scheduling, engineering, drafting, pur-
chasing, production, shipping and appropriate quality control checks.
a. Planning and scheduling is responsible for assuring that lhe work pro-
ceeds in an orderly manner.
b. Engineering is responsible for specilication, design, and shop drawing
review in accordance wilh accepted standards and loading crileria. Engi•
neering shali also assure that lhe appropriate revision of ali applicable
codes and drawings are used by ali parties.
C, Draftlng covtrf shop delall drawlngs whlçl1 <ol'l'o,ctly •nd adequ~toly
l11terprt l the d•1ign drawlng 1nd Jp«l/icatlon,. Thue drawlngs sh•li be
revlewed and approved by the pur<:haser and lhe Engineer of Recorçl
(EOR) .
d. Purchasing secures appropriate materiais and services in accordance wilh
the requiremenls of the conlract drawings and specification. Normaliy
 •
r--. /"'.
, •• t_ J
,...,
. '

•• 96 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS OUALITY ASSURANCE (OA)-OUALITY CONTROL (OC) 97

•• BIBLIOGRAPHY
copies of lhe material orders are provlded to lhe purchaser's representa•
tive. Accepted material shall be marked for ldentlficatlon and invento-
ried. Documentation such as leal reports, mill certlficates, and letters of AISC Quolity úrtification P,ogn1m. (1980). Amer. Jnst. of Steel Const., lnc., Chi-
compliance shall be retained on file. cago, m.

•• e. Production is responsible for ali fabricatlng activities, receipt of material,

storage, material /reparation, processing, marking, welding, galvaniz•
lng, assembly, an shipf.lng. Ali operations shall be performed in accord-
ance with drawlngs ref ectlng lhe appropriate revlslons. Ali procedures

•••
shall be ln compllance wlth the speciflcatlons, drawlngs, and appllcable
codes.

•• 8.4 ACTIVITIES NORMALLY COVERED .

8.4.1 Prellmlnary Revlew

•••
A joinl review should be made and agreemenl reached on ali QA-QC
requirements prior to ordering any material. When the purchaser has
prior experience with lhe supplier, a satisfactory procedure may already
exisl; if nol, basic procedures should be jolntly establlshed .

•• 8.4.2 Materiais and Subcontrad1

•• Agreement should cover the requlrements for revlew and acceptance

of the supplier's material specifications, sources of supply, material
identification, storage, traceability procedures, and acceplance of certi-

•• fied mill test reports .

8.4.3 lnspeclion

••• l-
i
The purchaser should specify that a designated representative will
inspect the supplier's equipment and facilities to ensure that the proce-
dures followed during production meet the specific job requirements .

•• The inspection should cover material certification, material handling,

cutting and piece mark identification procedures, bending, welding,
nondestructive testing required, galvanizing, fit-up requirements, and
bundling for shipment .

•• 8.4.4 Toler1nces

•• The purchaser has the responsiblllty to establish the allowable toler-

ances, and the suppller has the responsiblllty to ensure that the requlre-
ments are mel in the finished product .

•••
•
 ••
•• FOUNDATIONS 99

loads. For the foundation design, some engineers apply a small additional

•• factor to lhe tower reactions to compensate for variability in ultima te values

of soil or rock. lt is rccommended that the ultimate design stresses of AO
318 (Building Cale Req11imnrnls 1983) be used for the design of concrete and

•• Chapter 9
reinforcing steel using unfactored loads times lhe overload capacity factors
used in the tower designs instead of AO load factors . TI,e tower design
should indicate the load conditions and reaction values of uplift. down-
thrust, and shear for the goveming conditions.

•• FOUNDATIONS
9.2.2 Diffrrential Movemenl

•••
When the foundations of a tower displace and lhe geometric relationship
of the tower to its foundations remains lhe sarne, any increase in load due
to this displacemenl will have a minimal effect on lhe tower and ils founda-
9.1 INTRODUCTION tion. However, foundation movements which change lhe geometric rela-
tionship will cause a redistribution of loads. lnis will usually cause greater

•• Foundation design requlres competenl engtneerlng judgmenl and

experience. The most effectlve foundatlon design will be achieved by
lhose who understand how tower Joadlngs relate to foundation per•
reactions on lhe foundation that moves least, which in tum will tend to
reduce the diHerential displacement. Sowers (1979) gives a suggested
timitation.

•• íormance and rellabUity, and how they can be lntegrated to make an

economical installatlon. Soll data lnterpretatlon Is criticai and engineers
will design foundatlona dlfferentlf. based on düferent geotechnical
models. Foundatlon co1t1 vaiy cons derably dependlng on the line loca•
Normally, the effects of foundation movements are not lncluded ln lhe
tower design. Several options are avallable should the engineer decide to
conslder them. These optlons include dnignlng the foundatlons to eatisfy
performance erlteria whkh wU1 not causo •lgr\lfkant secondary loads on lhe

•••
tion and lhe soil conditlons encountered .
Soil and rock properties can vary slgnlflcantly along a transmlsslon
line, maklng lhe evaluatlon of geotedinkal parameters uncertaln. ln
addilion, constructlon variables, such as installatlon procedures and
backfill compaction, greatly iníluence lhe foundation performance.
tower, or to design lhe tower lo withstand specifled düferential foundation
movements. Toe raHo of tower hetght to baM width often detcnnines the
allowable movement of the (ooting. As this ratio incresses, foundation
settlementnnusrbnn~trolled,-
Member stresses in guyed towers are less affected by differential founda-

•• Slruclural steel and concrete have well defined physical properties

and lhe coefficients of variation are normally small. However, geolech-
nical parameters may have large coefficients of variation and evalualion
tion movement and setting tolerances than member stresses of seU-
supporting towers; as a result, foundation performance can be less rigid.
For guyed towers, excessive movement can affect clearances from lhe con-

•• can be uncertain.
Toe Jnstitule of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has pub-
lished a Trilll-U~ Guidt for Tnmsmlssion Stn,clurt Foundation Dtsign (1985)
ductor to the tower or lo the ground .

9.2.3 Unequal Hrlght ~ Exten.tlons

••
on the geotechnical aspects of foundatíon design. Toe Electric Power
Research lnstitute publlshed a comprehensive study on transmission
tower foundation design (Tran1mission Une Structure 1983) covering
extensive research and references.
leg exten.sion can be greater and =
When! there are unequal leg eKtensions, lhe shear taken by the shorter
aeate larger loads in lower bracing
members. Toe tower should be analyzed with lhe extreme leg combina-

•••
tions that are used o n a single structun!. Toe larger loads may be uSt!Cl. ln
foundation design or lhe foundation can be designed for lhe specific site
9.2 FOUNDATION DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE loads.
CRITERIA
9.2.4 Interioration Consldrratlon1

••
9.2.1 und and Ovuload Capadty Facton
Toe Nalional Electriail Safety Codt (1987) and GuidtlintS for Transmission Ünt Steel exposed lo corrosion ai lhe ground levei, or below, should have a
Stroct11ml l.cading (1984) provide guldance for detennlning the tower design minimum thickness of 3/1• in., if galvanized or otherwise protected .

•• 98

•• 1
•• 100 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS

so
FOUNDATIONS 101

••
m-t ~:t*~~
Conaete foundations should be properly aloped to drain that water
pockets do not accwnulate wlth ground material and cause excesslve corro-
sion of the tower base material. lf towers are located where ground water
can be highly co1TOSlve, such as ash plts, industrial drainage areas, and oi!

•••
refineries, conaete foundations should be used. lf steel Is exposed to such a
ground water envlronment, special protection Is essential. Proper drainage
around the steel should be established and perlodic lnspections conducted. (A) (1) ICl (Dl (E)
ln some cases, it may be necessary to apply an additional protective coating ITUL el!ILLAHI l'l!UstD l'LAU COIIClltTI'. 1"11111

••
such as a bitumastic compound to the steel. lf new towers are located in this
FIG. 9.1 . - Typical Foundations
environment, any steel members exposed to this severe ground condition
should be increased in thickness a mlnlmum of 1/10 in. as a corrosion
allowance. 9.5 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

•• 9.5.1 Steel Grillage

•••
9.3 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION
To select and design the most economlcal type of foundation for a specific
location, soll conditions at that site should be detennlned through exlsting
The members formlng lhe pyramid shown ln Fig. 9. l(a) do not rely on
lateral support from lhe surrounding soil. The stub angle, or leg member in
Fig. 9. t(b) is designed assuming support ai lhe shear plate and lhe base of
the grillage .

•• site knowledge or new explorations. The cosi of new field and laboratory
soll investigations Is small cotnpared to lhe Une rost per mile. lnspection
durlng construction should also be coNldered to verify that lha seleded
9.5.2 PrnMcl Plate

•• soil parameters are wlthln lhe design llmlts.

The subsurface lnvestigation program should be conslstent wlth founda-
tion loads, experience ln the right-of-way condltions, variabillty of soil con-
Th• 1tub angle, or 1~membef ahoW1l 1" Pig. 9. l(c) Is deslgned assuming
-8.Uppon at tbe pressecL11e plate.and-t~er-A-lelatively-thlàc~
plate washer is welded to the bottom of the stub angle. This allows an
--

••
dltions, and the deslred levei of rellabillty. A cosi beneflt analysls can be
made to obtain the optimum levei for addltional aoU exploration Investiga•
tions. For a given levei of rellabillty, the optimum exploration levei would
be where the cosi of the foundation plua the exploration Is the least. On
attachment for bolting to the pressed plate and provldes a transfer of the
axial load from lhe stub angle to the comera of the pressed pia te.
9.5.3 Conaete Foundatlons wlth Anchor Bolta

•• many llnes, full-scale foundation teste can reduce foundation costs and
maintain the sarne levei of rellabillty. The IEEE Triai-Use Guide (1985) and
the "Tranamlsslon Une Structure Foundations" (1983) provide dlscusslons
9.5.3.1 Smooth Bar Ancho, Bolt,

•• on subsurface investigations. The tensile load in the anchor bolt shown ln Fig. 9. l(e) is transferred to
the conaete by the end coMection. When the base plate is in contact wlth
lhe concrete, lhe shear load ln the base Is transferred to the concrete by

•• 9.4 FOUNDATION lYPES

shear friction based upon the clamping force on the base plate.

9.5.3.2 Defomud Bar Anchor Bolt,

·

•• There are many types of tower and guy foundations: 1teel grillage foot-
lngs; pressed plates; conaete apread footings; precas! concrete; roclc foun-
dations· drllled-shaft foundations; pile foundations; and anchors. A
lf lhe anchor bolt hu 1ufflclent embedment length, the tenslle load Is
transferred to the concrete by a bond between lhe concrete and the bolt .
When the base plate is in contact with the conaete, the shear load ln lhe
1

••
' !
1
descriptlon of these foundations Is avallable ln the IE~E Trial:Use Gui~
(1985).
base Is transferred to the concrete by shear frlction based upon the clamp-
ing force on lhe base plate.

••• :'
•• A " .til\ 4 ~ , t b .:t::L f'1I>, d~ ,Oh. • , h li:,, ,
'1 JI., J,.. .,,..

•• 102 DESIGN FOR STEEL TAANSMISSION TOWEAS FOUNDATIONS 103

••• r
9.5.3.3 CompressiVf! Load Ttansfer with Anchor Bolts
Nonnally, base plates are used to transfer downthrust loads to the con-
crete. Some utilities place the base plate directly on the concrete with nuts
installed on top of the base plate. Other utilities use a leveling nut on the

••
anchor bolts under lhe base plate anda nut on top of the base plate; grout is
lnstalled )ater to provide support for the base plate and the anchor bolt and
to pennlt ahear frictlon tranafer. Another commonly used method la to
aupport the base plate dlrectly on the anchor bolt nuta; the ahear load ln the o

•• anchorage must be transfened to the concrete by the side bearing pressure

of the anchor bolt, if the base plate is not ln contact with the concrete or
grout. fl:,

••
1-
Ili
9.5.4 Concrete Foundationa wlth Stub Angles
Ili Ili
Toe tensile and compressive load ln the stub angle shown ln Fig. 9.l(d) is ~i
~~
•• r.. transfened to the concrete by the shear connectors shown in Fig. 9.2. Toe
shear load is transfened by the slde bearing pressure on the concrete .
~~
IIIC

•• 9.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR STRUcnJRAL

MEMBERS

•••
Toe destrc recommendations for structural members of grlllages, pressed
plates, anc or bolts, and stub angles are specified in Chapter 4.0 . ãi
Toe AO Cale Rtquimnents for Nuclear Safrty (1985) base anchorage
requirements for design on F. of the anchorage material; this is to ensure
that a ductile failure occurs in the structural material instead of a brittle

•• ,- failure ln the conaete. AO recommendations can be used for detennining

the anchorage requirements. ln this Manual, where AO formulas are speci-
fied, F, and /; have been converted to ksi units .

•• r· 9.6.1 Anchor Bolta wlth Base PlalH on Conaete or Grout

Toe area of steel requlred for tension and shear shall be ~i '1
••
·\
1
A
'
.!+ __V_
F, (u) 0.85 F,
(9.6--1)
~~1!=
•• r·· The atttss area, A., Is glven by

¾1d- o,:4r (9.6--2)

Jl
:?
"<

•• r-
1
'!
◄ V'I
1
where T • tensüe load on lhe anchor bolt (l<lps); V • shear load perpendicular
"'e,;
••
to lhe anchor bolt (l<lps); F, • specified minimum yleld strength of anchor bolt
11
1
(ksi); d • nominal diameter (ln.); n • the number of threads per inch; and u •
coefficient of friction, see Fig. 9.3.
~

••
• :'
 ••
•• 104 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS FOUNDÁTIONS 105

•• where A. • net area of angle (sq. ln.); P • lensile or compressive load on lhe
angle (ldps); V • shear load perpendJcular to lhe angle (kips); and F, • specl-
fied mlnlmum yield strength of stub angle (ksi).

•• 9.7 DEVELOPMENT OF ANOIOR BOLTS ANO STUB

•• (al
11•0.9
(bl
11•0.7
(e)
u•0.55
ANGLES IN TIIE CONCRETE FOUNDATION
9.7.t Smoolh Bar Anchor Bolta ·

•• FIG. 9.3. -Coefficimt of Frictlcm (µ.) Valuts for 1111rious Omditicms

Values for u are:

Toe anchorage value is limited by the pul]-<>UI strength of the concrete
based on a uniform lensile stress, ln ksi, o(0.126 ~ acting on an effectlve
stress area, which is defined by the projected area of stress cones radiatlng

•• i r
a. 0.9 for conarte or g,out agalnlt IH'Olled llll!el wlth lhe conlact plane a fuU
plall! thlcknets below lhe concrete surface.
lowards lhe surface from lhe bearing edge of the anchors. Toe effective area
Is limiled by overlapplng stress cones, by lhe lnlersection of lhe cones wilh
concrete surfaces, by lhe bearing area of anchor heads, and by lhe overall

•••
b. 0.7 for concrete or g,out placed agalnlt u-rolled llll!el wflh contact plane thickness of lhe conaete, Toe angle for calculatlng proiected area shall be
colnddental wflh lhe concrete surface. 45º. Toe ~ factor shall be taken as 0.65 for an embedCÍed anchor head. U
e. 0.55 for g,oull!d condltlons wilh lhe contact plane between g,oul and u- lhere is more than one bolt ln a line, lhe effective area is limited by any
rolled steel above lhe concrete tnnface. overlapplng stress cones .
The anchor head of lhe bolt can be a nul, boi! head, or plale (Calt

•••
Under certaln condltlona, anchor bolt baia may be eubjected to down- Rtqulmnmt, for Nucltslr Safety 1985). Toe bearing requirement, (Buildi"g
thruat and ahear toada only, 'Tht aheu frlctlo11 may lnduet ltNloll ln tht Codt Rlllfl4ll'fmml1 1983) do not h■ve to be m,t U th• anchor head ..tisflet
anchor bolts; consequently anchor bolts shall be cliecked u foUow11 the foUowtng rendlHõt\!I:

A,• V-0.35 D -..-ine-beãring arei o ~ l f e a d (l!Xdudh,g l h e ~

•••
(9.6-3) component) is ai least 1.5 times lhe area of the tensile stress cnmponent.
(u) F1
b. The lhlckness of the anchor head is at least 1.0 times lhe greatest dimension
hom the outermost bearing edge of the anchor head to lhe face of the tensile
where D • downthrust load, ln klps (lhe net dlfference ln compresslve and stress component.

••
uplift reactloru) and the other terms are defined previously ln thls aectlon. e. The bearing area of the anchor head is approxlmately evenly distnl>uted
uound the perimeter of lhe tensUe stress component.
9.6.2 Bue Platn Supportecl by Allchor Bolta
Toe mlnlmum embedment depth ahall be 12d,ffJsã (but not lesa than

•• Anchor bolts used ln thls applicatlon musl be checked for a combinatlon

of lenslon, bending, and shear, or compresslon, bending, and shear. U lhe
anchor boll projectlon from lhe concrelt la exceulve, lhe compresslve load
the bolt spacing) where d - nominal dlameter (ln.); and f, - specified
mlnimurn tensile strength (ksl).

•• can delermille lhe controlling slttsa.

9.6.3 Stub Allgln ln Conaete

9.1.2 Dtfonned Bar Anchor Boltt
Toe embedmenl for deformed ban th■t are threaded and uaed a■ anchor

•••
bolta ■hall be ln accordance with AC 318 (Buildi"g Code Rtquirfftlfflls 1983).
Toe length of embedment establlahes the design method requlred. U the
Toe stub angle area shall be checked for a combinatlon of tenslon and bond values fully develop the anchor boll ln tenalon, the side cover dis-
shear, or compression and shear, as foUows: tance and the separation of anchor bolts should be ln accordance wilh AC
requlrements. U short anchor bolts are used wilh an end attachment, lhe
p V anchorage shall be treated similar to a smoolh bar. Toe edge distance for

•• f
A. • + ÍJ.75F. (9.6-4)
~ . , shear shall be as speqfied ln Sectlon 9 .8.2.

•• 1
 ••
•• 106 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS FOUNOATIONS 107

•• lf high tensile strength anchor bolts are used they are normally obtained
with a minimum Charpy-V notch requirement of 15 ft-lbs ai - 20°F, when
tested in lhe longitudinal direction .

•• 9.7.3 Stub Angle Anchorages

lf a bottom plate Is used, as shown in Fig. 9.2(a), lhe procedure outllned

·-ANCHOII IOLTS

•••
ln Sections, 9.6.3 and 9.7.1 should be foUowed. lf ahear connectors shown
in Figs. 9.2(b) and 9.2(c) are used and spaced along lhe length of lhe stub IF
angle, lhe recommendations of Section 9.9 shall be foUowed. NECESSAWY

•• 9.8 DETERMINATION OF CONCRETE DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS

•••
9.8.1 Design of Slde Cover Dlatancet For Tenslon

The ACI Codt Rtquimnmt, for Nudtar Safrty (1985) recommend the foUow-
ing side cover dlstance for tenslon to preveni fallure due to lateral bursting
for smooth anchor bolts:

•• ·m, - 0.66d ✓ ¼ (9.8-1)

- - - VERTICAL

•• where m, • minimum slde cover distance from lhe center of lhe anchor bolt to
the edge of lhe concrete (ln.); F, - sped!ied minimum tensile strength of anchor
bolt (ksi); d - dlarneter of anchor bolt (ln.); and / ;- specified minimum com•
REINFORCING

•••
FIG. 9.4. - Pitr Rt inforcing
pressive strength of concrete (ksi).
Eq. 9.S-1 can be used for stub angles if an equivalent diameter i5 determined
baseei on lhe net aection of the stub angle; m, shall be measured from any forming a concrele wedge. Translation of lhe wedge under the shear force

••
portion of lhe stub angle to lhe nearest edge of the conaete. cannot occur withoul an upward lhrust of lhe wedge on lhe base plale.
Reinforcement as shown ln Fig. 9.4 assists in containing tenslon blowout.
This lhrust induces a clamping force, and lhis mechanism Is called shear
9.8.2 Design of Slde Cover Dl1tance for Shear
frictlon. Therefore, lhe concrele or grout serve■ ln developing the clamplng

•• Toe AO c.odt Rtqulmnmls for Nucltiir Safrty (1985) recommend lhe foUow-
ing side cover dlstance for anchorage shears:
actlon. Shear lugs can also be uaed to transfer lhe shear load to the conaete
and ahould be located ln a concrete compresalon zone unle■s adequate
relnfordng Is provided. A comblnation of shear lugs and shear frictlon Is
nol permltted .

•••
m, • 1.8d ✓ Jt (9.8-2)
ln delermlning lhe slde cover dlslance for shear, lhe anchor boll dlameter
required for shear only can be used in Eq. 9.S-2. However, thls dlslance
should nol be less lhan mj3 delermlned for lhe actual d of lhe anchor bolt
where m, • mlnlmum slde cover dlstance for shear from lhe center of the used or 4 ln .
anchorage to the edge of the concrete (in.). See Eq. 9.S-1 for definJtion of other Eq. 9.S-2 can be used for stub angles lf an equivalenl dlameler Is deter-

•• tenns.

For anchor bolts with base plates resting on concrete, shear is transmitted
mined based on lhe nel section of lhe stub angle; m. shall be measured
hom any portion of lhe stub angle to the nearesl edge of lhe concrete .
Reinforcemenl, as shown in Fig. 9.4, assisls in conlaining shear blowoul.

•• from the bolt to the concrete through bearing of the bolt at the surface An additional reference is Shipp and Haninger (1983) .

•• 1
••
•• 108 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS FOUNDATIONS 109

•• 9.8.3 Slde Cover Dl■tance for Tenalon and Shear Comblned

Since the resultant strength of anchors subject to rombined tension and

{',• compresslve strength of roncme (lcsl); b • length oi angle (in.) (musl be
located symmetrkally wllh lhe center of gravlty at lhe leg); w • widlh of angle
leg (in.); and 1 + r + x ::s; w

••
shear is always less than lhe tensile or shear capacity alone delermined in
Sections 9.8.1 and 9.8.2, the edge distances determined by these sections
are adequate for rombined loads .
Toe minimum cenler-lo-<:enler spacing of the shear connectors shall be
2w.
Toe values obtained using this method are based on initial yielding of lhe

•• 9.8.4 Other Conalderationa

On fiai surfaces m, and m. are to lhe edge of lhe roncrete. On round

angle ln bendlng at a stress of 1.19 f', ln the roncrete. To develop its
c:apadty, the shear coMector must be fastened to the stub angle wilh
sufficient bolls or welds to take both shear and moment.

•••
surfaces m, and m, can be taken to lhe intersecting chord surface of the 45º
projecling lines and the round surface. li there is more than one bolt in a 9.9.3 Other Conalderatlona
Une, the effective area is limiled by overlapping stress cones; see Qxh
Requimnmls for Nucltar Safety (1985). Reinforcemenls, as shown in Fig. 9.4, assisl in distributing the load to the
roncrete pier.

•• 9.9 SHEAR CONNECI'ORS

9.9.1 Stud Shear Connec:ton, Fig. 9.2(c)
9.10 TEST VERJFJCATION

•• Toe capacity of a shear roMector ehall be determined by Eq. 9.9-1. AD

AISC requlrements (Mmnui/ of St«l Omatruction 1986) for stud material and
Design values and shapes olher lhan those descnbed ln this chapter may
be used li 1ubstantlated by experimental or analytlcal investlgations .

•••
ronfiguration, spacing, ratio of stud diameter to minimum thlcknese of
material lo which it is welded, and concrete properties and roverage must REFERENCES ANO BIBLIOGRAPHY
be mel:
RefeftnCH
(9.9-1)
Bu11dmg ec.k R,,quimnmts for Rrinforad Concmt (with Commentary). (1983). AO

•• (Q, shall not be greater than lhe stud ahear capadty detennlned by Section 5.3)
where 4, • 0.85; A,. • cros9-9ectlonal arei oi a stud shear connector (ln. 2); f',•
specüied compresslve strength of concme (ksl); and E, • modulus of elastldty
Commlttee 318, Publlcation Number 31s-83, Amer. Conaete lnst .. Detroit, Mich.
ec.k Rtq11imnmts for Nuc/mr Safety Rtlattd Concrtlt Stn<efurrs. (1985). "Appendix B
wlth Commentary," AO Comrnittee 349, Publlcation Number 349-85, Amer. Con•

•• of conaete (lcsl). (E,, ln kal, may be computed from E, • wu (J';'/JJ when w, the
unil welsht of concme, la expreued ln lbe/ft3 and f', la exprnaed ln kal. Values
are appllcable only to conaete made wtth ASTM C33 1ggregates). Salmon ,md
Johnson (191Kl) provides supplementaiy background data.
crete lnst., Detroit, Mich .
Gulddinn for n.nsmission Une Stn<efurol l.ollding. (1984). Commlt. on Elect. Transm.
Struct. oi Comrnlt. on Anal. and Design of Struct. ol Struct. Dtv., ASCE.

•• 9.9.2 Angle Shear CoMecton, Fig. 9.2(b)

-"ttEEE Trl,i/.LJK Guidt for n.nsmissiOII Strudurr FouruiAtion Desig,,. (1985). IEEE Stan•
dard 691, lnat. of Elect. and Electr. Engra., lnc,, New York, N .Y,
MIINIUII of St«I Construct""1-l.olld imd Rft/JIJm« F«tor Dtfig,,. (1986). Fim Ed. Amer.

•••
A rational design is as follows:
lnst. of Steel Const. lnc., Chicago, m.
X•11.iJ,J
12
(9.9-2) Notlorw El«triall Safety ec.k. (1987). Amer. Nat. Standard O . lnst. ol Elec. 1nd
Electr. Engrs., lnc·., New York, N.Y.
Salmon, C. G., and John,on, J. E. (1980). "Composlte sleel-conaete constructlon.•
X

•• 2I
P • 1. 19 f; b [ t + r + (9.9-3) Stttl structurrs, d,sig,, ond bthavior, Second Ed. Harper & Row, Publishers, New
York, N .Y.
where F1 - spedfied minimum yield strength of ateei (lcsi); P • capadty of Shipp, J. G ., and Haninger, E. R. (1983). "Design of headed anchor bolts." Eng,g. J.

•• angle shear coMector (kips); 1 • thlckness of angle (ln.); r • radiua of fillet (in.); Amer. lnst. of Steel Const., 58.

•• 1
 ••
•• 110 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS FOUNOATIONS 111

•• Sowers, G. F. (19'79). lntrodudo,y soil m«hanics and foundations: Gtotechnical mginttr-

ing, Fourth Ed. MacMillan Publishing Co., lnc., New York, N .Y.
"Transmisslon Line Structure Foundatíons for Upllft-Compression Loading." (1983).
''Drilled Piers and Caissons D." (1985). Proc. Stssio,r Sponsortd by tlr, Gtotechniail
Enginttring Division, ASCE.
Flucker, R. L., and Teng, W. C. (1965). "A study of transmission tower founda-

•• Rq,orl El,.2870, Electric Power Res. lnst., Palo Alto, Calif.

Bibllography
tions." Paptr 31 CP 65-714, IEEE Power Group, Summer Meeting, Detroit, Mich.
"Footíng Tests for Transmission Towers-A Collection of Data." (1976). Rq,orl No.
SA-9, Burmu of Reclamation, Denr.o,r, Colo.

•• Adams, J. 1., and Radhakrishna, H. 5. (1976), 'The upllft capaclty of foot!ng1 ln

transmlsslon tower design." Pa,v A 76 124-8, IEEE l'ower Engrg. Soe., Winter
Meeting, New York, N.Y.
Fritz, E. (1958). "A pattem for calculatlng transmlaelon-llne lower found1tlon1.•
Trans. Pa~ 58-540, AIEE Transm. and Dbt. Commlt., Middle Easlem Dbtrlct
Meetíng, Washington, D.C.

•••
Adams, J. 1., Radhakrishna, H. 5., and Klym, T. W. (1976). 'Toe uplift capacity of
anchors in transmlssion tower design." Paptr A 76 125-5, IEEE Power Engrg. Soe.,
Winter Meetíng, New York, N .Y.
"Bibliography on Transmission Tower Foundatíons." (1965). Task Force on Tower
Foundations, Paptr 31 CP 65-710, IEEE Power Group, Summer Meetíng, Detroit,
1/ Ismael, N. F., and Klym, T. W. (1978). ''Uplift and lateral behavior of earth grillage
foundations." Paptr A 78 508-4, !EEE Power Engrg. Soe., Summer Meetíng, l..o5
Angeles, Calif.
Ismael, N. F., and Klym, T. W. (1981). "Lateral capacity of augered tower founda-
tions in sand." Paptr 81 WM 209-6, IEEE Power Engrg. Soe., Winter Meeting,

•• Mich.
Brandt, E., and Werse, E. (1984). "Load transfer of main leg tensile forces to founda-
tíons." Proc. Jnt. Qmf on l..a,ge High Voltag, Electric SysttmS, OGRE Paper 22-09,
Atlanta, Ga .
Ismael, N. F. , Radhakrishna, H. 5., and Klym, T. W. (19'79). ''Uplift capacity of rock
anchor groups." Pa~ F 79 2n.f,, IEEE Power Engrg. Soe., Winter Meeting, New

•• Aug.
Broms, B. B. (1964). "Lateral mlstance of piles ln coheslonless 10ll1," /. o/ tht Soil
Mechanics and Foundatlom Dtvision, ASCÉ, 90 (SM3), 123-156.
York, N .Y.
"load Transfer Mechanlsms ln Rock Socket, and Anchor,." (1984). Rq,ort El,.Jm,
Electric: Power Res. lnst., Palo Alto, Calil.

•• Brorns, B. B. (1964). "Lateral mistance of piles ln cohesive soils." /. of th, Soil Mechan-
ics and Foundations Division, ASCE, 90 (SM2), 27-63.
Broms, B. B. (1965). ''Design of laterally loaded piles." /. of tht Soil Mechanics and
Manh, M. L., and Burdette, E, G . (1985). "Mulriple bolt anchorages: Method for
determlning lhe effective projected area of ovnlapping stress cones." Engr. f.,
Amer. lnst. of Steel Const., 29-32.

•• Foundations Division, ASCE, 91 (SM3), 79-99.

Cannon, R. W., Godfrey, D. A., and Moreadith, F. L. (1981). "Guide to the design
of anchor bolts and other steel embedments." Concrtte /nt., 3 (7).
Marsh, M. L., and Burdette, E. G . (1985). "Anchorage o( steel building components
lo concrete." Eng,g. /., Amer. lnst. of Steel Const., 33-39.
Marsico, R., RetaUacl<, R. L., and Tedesco, P. A. (1976). "Report on pile testíng for

•• Cauzillo, B. A., and Rendina, R. (1980). "Dynamlc behavior of overhead line foun-
datíons." Proc. lnt. Qmf on l..a,ge High Voltag, Electric SysttmS, CIGRE Paper '12..ffl,
Aug.
AEP transmlssion lines-Part I and Part D." Paptr5 F 76 192-5 arrd F 76 193-3, !EEE
Power Engrg. Soe., Winter Meeting, New York, N.Y.
Peixoto, C. A. O., Fernandes, D., Smith, J. G., and Monteiro, A. N. (1976) "Foun-
l,
•• "Criticai Evaluatíon of Design Methods for Foundatíons Under Axial Uplift and
Compression Loading." (1984). Rq,orl El,.3771, Electric Power Res. lnst., Palo
Alto, Calif.
datíon testlng for transmission lines." Pa~ F 76 121-4, IEEE Power Engrg. Soe.,
Winter Meeting, New York, N .Y.
Rawls, J. A., Rice, D. N ., and Woodson, L. V. (1965). • An approach to transmission

•• "Design of Steel Piles to Reslst Uplift and Lateral Loadlng." (1968), Unlted States
Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa,
DIGloia, A. M., Donovan, T. D., and Davidson, H. L. (1977). "Site investigation
structure foundatíons." Paptr 31 CP 65-716, IEEE Power Group, Summer Meeting,
Dvtrolt, Mlch,
Seeman, T., and Gowans, R. (19'J'l). "Guy anchor test project for Lyons 1100 kV test

•• and selection of geotechnlcal design parameters for transmlsslon structure founda-

tion design." Paptr A 77 252--0, !EEE Power Engrg. Soe., Winter Meeting, New
York, N.Y.
line.• Paptr A 77 250-4, IEEE Power Engrg. Soe., Winter Meeting, New York, N .Y.
Snow, A. A., LaGatta, D. P., and Luda, P. C. (1980). • Anchored footlngs for trano-
mlssion towers." Pap,r A 80 031-5, IEEE Power Engrg. Soe., Winter Meeting, New

•• Downs, D. 1., and Chieurzzi, R. (1966). "Transmlssion tower foundations." /. Power York, N .Y.
Eng,g. , ASCE, 92 (l'02), 91-114. Stern, L. 1., Bose, 5. K., and King, R. D. (1976). 'Toe uplift capacity of poured-in-
"Drilled Piers and Caissons." (1981). Proc. Stssion Sponsoml by th, Gtotechnioll Engi- place cylindrical foundations." Paptr A 76 053-9, IEEE Power Engrg. Soe., Winter
Meeting, New York, N .Y.

•• nttring Division, ASCE.

i •• 1
•••••
•• 7 Tedesco, P. A. (1985). ''IEEE/ASCE tranmtlsslon elnlctutt foundatlon design
guide.• Proc. Conf. °"
lnnomtion.s in tht Dtlign a{ Eúdrlaz/ Trimsmission StructurtJ,

••
Struct. Div., ASCE, !<ansas Oty, Mo., Aug., 96-105.
Teng, W. C., and Manuel, F. S. (19'76). "Caisaon foundatlons subjected lo lateral
forces." Paptr F 76 082-$, IEEE Power Engrg. Soe., Winter Memng, New York,

••
N.Y.
Chapter 10
Transmission Dtsign ManUAI. (1970). Section 53.8, "Footings and guy anchon," Bon-
neville Powtt Admlnbtratlon, Portland, Ortg.
CONSTRUCTION ANO MAINTENANCE

•..,••
Transmission Strvcturr,. (1965). Dt-91gn Standards No. 10, Oiapter 2, "Concrete loot•
ing d esign and details," Bureau oi Reclamation, Denver, Colo.
"Transmission Structure Foundation Test Results for Varlous Types and Locations."
( 1976). Task Group on Line Loading and Strength of Transmisslon llM Struc-
tures, Papcr A 76 185-9, IEEE Powtt Engrg. Soe., Winter Meetlng, New York,
N.Y.
10.1 INTRODUCTION

•• Turner, E. A. (1962). "Upllft rnlslanc-e of transmlsslon tower lootings."

E11grg. , ASCE, 88 (!'02), 17-33.
Udwari, J. J., Rodgen, T. E., and Slngh, H . (1979). "A ratlonal approach to lhe
f. Powrr
The lnilial construction and subsequent malntenance of a transmission
structure are important conslderalions for the designer. Good construc-

•• design of high capadty multl-hellx screw anchon." Proc. 7th IEEÊlPES ~

sion and Distnl,ution Conf and Exposition, Apr., 6<J6..ó10.
''Uplifl Behavlor of Anchor Foundatlons ln Sod." (1985). Proc. Stssion Spo,15Dl'td by tht
tion practice, along with appropriate field control, will help to ensure
that structures perform as expected. Structural features which may aid
in the performance of certain constructlon methods and utility mainte-

•• Crotteh. Engrg. Div. ASCE, Detroit, Mich., Oct. nance practices can be accommodated in the original tower de,ign if
these needs are conveyed with lhe design requirements. Toe following
Wigglns, R. L. (1969). "Analyals and design oi tower foundatlons.• /. Powrr Division, discussion of constructlon and malntenance actlvities highlights some
ASCE, 95 (!'OI), 77-100. considerations which should be conveyed to the tower engineer and

•• reflected in the design. The discussion is limited to those aspects affect-

- ing,lesign and perfolffllfnce .

•• 10.2 CONSTRUCTION

•• 10.2.1 Geneul

10.2. 1.1 Construction Manag~m~nt

•• A transmission line construction project is fundamentally a series of

independent projects ai many widely spaced sites. Many of lhe activities
at each site are repetitive in nature, requiring coordination and schedul-

•• ing of materiais and specialty work crews. Thus a well planned comnlu-
nication network with an emergency backup is essential. Project control
should include scheduling of activities, receivlng, storing, inspection,

••
acceptance criteria for construction unlts, and records. Toe contractor's
methods and procedures to assure compliance with lhe plans and speci-
fications should be reviewed by the utUity or their appointed representa-
tive. Job records should be periodically reviewed to ensure acceptance of

•• work complcted .

113

••
•
•• '

•• 114 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS CONSTRUCTION ANO MAINTENANCE 115

•••
10.2.1.2 Scope of Work shoulc' have an understanding of the more typical foundation types and
Proper procedures and controls are essential if structures a_re to effec- ho"' they are constructed. Foundation construction effects are outlined
tively serve their inlended use. Careful attention must be g1ven to lhe in Tables 10.1 and 10.2. "fransmission Line Structure Foundations"
following activilies: (1983) outlines additional considerations. An extensive treatment of
foundation design and certain construction considerations can be found

•• a.
b.
e.
Material receiving, storing, and transporting.
Foundation installatton .
Tower erectlon.
in the IEEE Triai-Use Guide (1985) . Safety requirements for excavations
can be found in "Excavations, Trenching and Shoring" (1987),

•• d.
e.
Wire stringing,
lnspection.

10.2.2 Materiais and Material Handling

10.2.3.2 Subsurface lnvestlgatlons
Subsurface investigations are useful to the contractor in evaluating the
degree of construction difficulty and determining the equipment neces-

•• 10.2.2.1 Marshalllng Yard JI.. Qvyc.,vv

sary to perform the work. The fieid engineer should verify that the
actual subsurface conditions are representative of the test hole borings
or other subsurface investigations. Where differences occur, the founda-

•••
Activities ai the marshalling yard include unloading, inspecting, tion engineer should be promptly notified .
inventoryinJ' and storing ali materiais. Any special unloading ins1n:1c-
lions shoul be followed. Material should be inspected to conform w1th 10.2.3.3 Foundations and Anchors
the shipping manifest. Damaged material should be rejected and
arrangements made to expedite replacements. A determination of m~te- Typlcal foundations are outlined in Chapter 9.0. The contractor must

••
ria! requiring special protection should be made so that appropnate be informed of special requirements so that adequate lnstructions can be
storage is provided. ln order to reduce delays and cost overruns, ali provlded to field personnel. Table 10.1 provides a quick reference of
material should be on hand and ln iood
condition before installation is
begun. Material stored ln the open s ould be protected from the ground
some of the items that may need special instruclions. Other items which
should be covered in the construction specifications are:

•• with wood blocking .

10.2.2.2 Towtr Sites

e ....foundatlmtt1hottld rest on undlst111bed material or e11gl11ee1ed batkflll.
b. Shorlng should be provlded ln deeptt foundations to adequately protect

•••
Laydown areas at each site are normally rcrearranged. A sketch show-
ing material placement is helpful for the un oading crew. Tower material
should be arranged to minimize rehandling and checked for shortages
or damaged members. The members or tower components should be
located within reach of the erection equlpment. Lifting of tower mem-
workers ln the excavatlon "Excavations, Trenchlng and Shoring" (1987),
e. li Is lmportant to obtaln a backfUI denslty equal to the in-silu material
"Transmission Une Structure Foundatlons" (1983). Some utillties specify
that backfill material must be clean sound soil, free oi organk material
and cohesive material which cannot be readily compacted and be com-
pacted in layers oi approximately 6 ln.

•• bers during unloadlng or movlng must be con?ucted ln a .manner which

will not damage the members. If special handhn~or erechond.rocedures
are to be followed, they should be outlined on t e erectlon rawlng, or
d. Open excavatlon can lead to strength reductlon ln some soUs whkh may
result ln cave-ins. More detailed informatlon can be obtained from IEEE
Triai-Use Guidt (1985), Standard Sptdficaticm for End Btaring (1979), Sug-
gtsltd Dtsign and Constructicm Proctdum (1972), and Woodward et ai.

•• appropriate sketches provided the crews. Tower members should not be

dragged across the ground. ln particular, ali joints should be. clean of
mud or other foreign material before assembly; see IEEE Gurde lo lhe
(1972),
e. Where piling Is requlttd, an accurate drtvlng record Is e,isentlal; see
'"Transmlsslon Une Structure Foundatlons" (1983) and Peck et ai. (1974) .
1. Anchor devices vary greatly. Most utilities have a program to load test

••
Assembly (1985).
anchors to verify the design capacity and installation procedures. More
10.2.3 Foundatlons specific lnformatlon Is outllned ln Llttlejohn and Bruce (1975).

•••
10.2.3.1 General 10.2.3.4 Structure Grounding
i
1
1 Foundation performance and the resulting effects on the tower struc- Grounding of the towers and foundations should be installed in
ture are dependent on the type of foundation, method of construction, accordance with the utility standards. Procedures vary greatly depend-
'
l ·.• and the type and magnitude of the load. Hence the tower engineer ing on the soil condltions and the utility's standards. Normally individual

••• ,i
··································~ \
,.,..,
._)
,,\
-,1

;; ·')
)
Table 10.1: Sumrnary of Construction Effects on Foundation Performance
Foundation Construction Construction )
Types
(1)
Equipment
(2)
Effects
(3)
--,
Drillt:d Sluzfts o -)
m
cn
Straight Auger, 1. Soil disturbance adjacent to shaft. i5
Single bell Drilling bucket 2. Shaft deterioration with time between excavation and concrete z )
Multiple beD Hammer grab, pour.
3. Overexcavation.
cl ,)
:D
Grooved Core barrei,
Drilling bit,
Underreamer,
4. Gl'OUJ)d loss adjacent to shaft.
5. Debris at bottom of shaft.
...cnm )
m
Grooving too!,
Sluny equipment,
6. Voids and defects from water inflow, soil collapse, soil squeeze,
and improper extraction of casing.
...r- ~')
Casing, 7. Concrete segregation, cold joints and w arping of reinforcing cage. z~ i)
Llner "'3::
ili )
Driven Piles
õ
Timber Steam hammer, 1. Densification of loose cohesionless soil. z .')
Precast conaete Diesel hammer, 2. Remolding of cohesive soil.
Prestressed conaete
Steel (pipe, box, and H-
Pile vibrator,
Jetting device,
3.
4.
Vibrations.
Reduction of side resistance from jetting or withdrawal of driving
i
m
:D
)
-\
sections) Various augers, tube. cn )

Huted, tapned steel and drills for 5. Heave, lateral displacement, or settlement of adjacent ground.
tube partia! advance 6. Subsurface deflection of pile.
;
Pressure injected footing of pile 7. Breakage from hard driving. )
Mandrel-<lriven shell
(constant and tapered )
aoss-section)
)
J
)
"_;i
'.)
-~_J
)
)
.J
)
o ")
Backfilltd Faundations
oz
cn ")
Grillage (single base and Various types of exca- Compactive effort and height of backfill lifts. ...
:D
pyramid configuration) vation machinery, Changes in water content caused by excavation and exposure to ~ .)
Grillage wilh concrete Compaction equip- weather. :::j
slab ment Dimensions of excavation. oz . )
Spread fooóng Disturbance and debris at base and sides of excavation. ,.
z ..-J
Plate anclxw o
Concrete pirr
,.3:: -\)
Ancho,s z ::)
;;l
Grouted soíl mchor Rotary drill, . Ground disturbance adjacent to anchor. ,.z
ilim D
Grouted rock anchor Percussive drill, . Deviation from alignment.
Helix anchor (single and Rotary-percussive . Contrai on cement mix and pressure injection. . .-r•\
multiple hdices) drill, . Cartridge insertion, mixing, and temperature control for resin ~ LI
Auger, grouts.
Hydraulic Iorque . Downward pressure, rate of advance, and torque on helix anchor. ·[)
head . Defective bonding and continuity loss iram inadequate flushing
of cuttm~ from hole. @
Voids and defects from water inflow, soil collapse, and grout
rejection. ®
@
;.
<e
@
e
••
•• 118 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS CONSTRUCTION ANO MAINTENANCE 119

••
Table 10.2: Comparative Summary of the Effects on Foundation . For guyed structures lhe out-of-plumb criteria for self-supporting lat-
Construction hced towers has been used. It is good practice to visually inspect guyed
Effects of Foundation Drilled Driven Backfilled structures after lhe conductors have been installed to ensure that move-
Construction Shafts Piles Foundations Anchors

••
menls have not occurred in lhe slructure and the guys dueto the weight
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) of the conduclors.
Compelte alteration of
soil alfecling uplift
o o • o
10.2.5 Wlre Stringing

•• reslstance
Changes ln soU den-
sity, in-situ stress, • • • • The IEEE Guidt to tht lnsta/lation (1980) and Kurtz and Shoemaker
(1981) provide extensive information on wire slringing procedures .

•• and slrenght adja-

cent lo foundation
Strong construction o • o ()
Chapter 1.0 of this Manual outlines some special loading conditions that
can be placed on lhe slructure by the slringlng procedures. Construction
procedures are normally outllned ln detail ln the construction
specificatlon.

••
vibrations
Large ground move•
ments adjacent to
foundation
()
• () o 10.2.6 Field lnspedlon and Recorda

•• Foundation defects
from soU deforma-
tion, sloughing, and
() o o ()
10.2.6.1 General
The purpose of field inspection is lo ensure that ali phases of construc-
t!on comply with the plans and specilicatlons. The utility should con-

•• water lnflow
Time-dependenl
strenglh Joss from
() o () o
f1rm that procedures are effective in meeting these goals. Field lnspec-
tion includes timely visits to lhe construction site, observations of the
construction procedures and methods, and confirmation that the

•• exposure during
construction
Deviation from O () O ()
inspeclion reports are being properly maintained so that completed
work item will be accepted.._

10.2.6.2 Inspector Rtsponsibilitits

•••
inlended alignmenl
Nole: • • Slrong likelihood; () • moderate likelihood; and O • lillle or no -ryie ~tility'.s field inspector should conduct ali field inspections and
likelihood . mamtam ali JOb records. The record should include ali pay ltems, their

••
tower resistance readlngs are obtalned prior lo lnstallallon of lhe over-
head ground wlres (if lhe overhead ground wire is nol lnsulated from
lhe tower). Detailed informalion can be found ln "Transmission Une
respective construction progress and percent completlon. The contrac-
tor, lhe field englneer, and lhe inspector should conducl periodic field
meelings to review and resolve material and installation problems and
to ~onitor the job progress. The inspector should /romptly resolve

•• Grounding" (1982) .

10.2.4 Tower Eredion

dev1atlons between the plans and specifications an the field condi-
tions. Upon completion of lhe project, approved field changes should be
recorded and the "as-built" prints should be forwarded to the utility.

•• The IEEE Guidt to tht Aswnbly (1985) provldes exlenslve material on

erection of seif-supportlng and guyed towers. li is unrealistic lo sei
10.2.6.3 Insptctlons
The contract documents should clearly define what lnspections wUI be
performed, who will perform them, and, U possible, lhe acceptable plan

••
arbitrary standards for tolerances on foundation selling and structure
alignmenls. These tolerances are greatly dependenl on lhe type of foun-
dation and slructure used .
For self-supporting ialliced towers, a standard lha! is used by m~ny
deviation limils. The specifications should identlfy whal records are
required and who should receive them. Many of these items should be
reviewed at lhe preconstruction meeting attended by lhe contractor,

•• utilities is a ratio for the completed structure of 1 m. oul of vertical

alignment for every 40 ft of structure height.
field englneer, and inspeclor. Resolution of potential problems ai an
early stage will result in the mosl cost-effective projed. Some of lhe

•••
.,•
Jt--- ( '
.- ,.- ,,.,..., r ,-... .........
'·

•••
120 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS CONSTRUCTION ANO MAINTENANCE 121

lnspections which may be conducted and/or records which may be member or bolt finish, vandalism lncluding insulator, hardware, or con-
maintained include: ductor damage, and collision damage .
At-ground line inspection may reveal foundation delerioration, loose

•••
a. Foundation records should cover backflll material, compaction effort, or damaged guys, deterioration due to lack of vegetalion maintenance,
rock elevallons, setting and allgnment accuracies, drilled pler depths, ground surface erosion, landslides or soil creep, settlement or subsld-
excavated wall condltlons, pile type and slze, pile blowa per fool and final ence, and flooding.
blows per lnch, pile cutoff elevations, anchor types and lnstallation,
anchor pretenslon load and teata, anchor groul material, concrete tests,

•• and placement of forma and relnforcement . 10.3.3 Scheduled M1lnten1nce 1nd Repaln
b. Tower records should document fabrication defects, material finish,
tower fit up, plumbness and alignment of structures, bolt Iorque as Maintenance or repairs should not be attempted before a determina-
required, erection procedures, guylng procedures, and construction

•• difficullies. tion is made conceming lhe need for a line outage. lf an outage is
e. Cable records should reflect strtnglng set-ups, handllng of lnsulators and required, arrangements should be made with lhe appropriate operating
hardware, sagging and final clipping, installation of spacers, dampers or personnel. Ali utility work rules and safety procedures must be strictly
followed. If necessary, an engineering evaluation should be krformed;

•••
spacer-dampers, and installation of splices.
then the proper procedure can be established for lhe wor planned .
Structural repair plans and procedures should be reviewed with the
maintenance crew before the work begins. lf required, temporary sup-
10.3 MAINTENANCE ports or guys must also be in place at that time .
Galvanized or painted steel towers wlll eventually requlre malnle-

•• 10.3. 1 General

Although lhe lnltlal tower 'design la focuaed on new conatructlon, lhe

nance palntlng. The palntlng lnterval should be established by the utill-
ty's past experlence and an evaluatlon of the effectiveness of the coating
sy,tem. The palntlng ayatem ahould be compatlble wlth lhe prevlous

•••
utlllty Is also concemed aboul preservlng lhe atructural tntegrlty durlng 1urface flnl1h. Prolectlon of lhe tower base from deterioration, corro-
:11
.\, the llfe of the line. ln addlllon, lhe need may arlse for wlre rearrange• ston. nr damage..sho.•ud1<d1,..beoe..a11<1d1<1diiiree1s11s..e..d- - - - - - - - - -- -
1 ments and possibly upgrading of the electrical capacity of the line. Con- In many situations, damage to lnsulators or hardware may be repalred
l sequently the condition of the structure is of continuing concem to the wllh lhe line energlzed. Utility procedures for this work are normally
utility. well established and should be followed . Provisions on lhe tower for

•• Maintenance lnvolves lnspectlons, repalrs, and records of these actlvi-

ties during the life of the structure. The maintenance crew should have
an underslanding of the tower design limltations before contemplatlng
any structural changes or wire modificallons. The replacement of dam-
altaching various "hot-line mainlenance" tools are normally provided in
the original tower design.

••
10.:U Upgradlng and Recondudorlng
aged members or wire restrlnglng and adjustments which dUfer from
lhe original constructlon can produce overstress ln tower members.
Proper malntenance and a careful revlew of any proposed changes ln Upgradlng or reconducloring may lmpose a new set of load condilions
on lhe lower (IEEE Triai-Use Cuide 1985). The englneer wlll lhen be

•• the structure or the wlre Is necessary for the safety of the work forces
and lhe public. requlred to reevaluate the structure. Material properties and the condl-
tlon of lhe tower and foundation wUI require reassessment. Dlfferent
wlre stringing procedures may be employed. Old wire Is often used to

••
10.3.2 Periodlc ln1pedlon1
Many utillties have an eslablished malntenance lnspectlon program
conducted ai deflned frequencles, Aerial lnspectlons sliould be supple-
pull ln new wlre, Occaslonally wlres are lemporarily dead-ended. Low-
ering wlres to the ground causes lncreased welghl spans on adjacent
towers, These conditlons should be evaluated and lhe stringlng crew

••
made aware of the lower limltatlona under the proposed conditions. The
mented with ground lnspectlons. A climblng lnspectlon program should sag angle of the conduclor to the lnsulator string can affect the crossarm
1 be established ai less frequent intervals. · loads. Inclined guys may also increase loads on certain tower members.
1
Above-ground lnspections may reveal loose or mlssing bolts, fatigue Although similar to new constructlon, these condltlons may create

•• :1
or weathering problems, damage from structural overload, damage to unlque loads that must be carefully addressed.

••
•• ,l2 vt:SluN FvA S,EEL fAANSMoSSlüN TUWEAS

•• REFERENCES ANO BIBLIOGRAPHY

•• "Excavallons, Trenchlng and Shorin~." (1987). Sub-Pari P, Pari 1926-Safety and

••
Health Reg. for Const., OSHA S4frtY and HtJJ/th Standards, Occup. Safety and
Healih Admin., Washington, D.C.
Appendix I
/[[E Guidt lo lht Aumrbly and Ern:llon o{ Mtlal Trrin,m/11/on Structurtt, (1985) .

•••
IEEE Proposed Standard P951, lnst. oi Elect. and Electr. Engn., lnc., New NOTATION
York, N.Y.
IEEE Guidt to lht In,tal/ation of~rhtad Tran,miuion Unt Conductors. (1980). IEEE
Standard 524. lnst. of Elect. and ElectT. Engn., lnc., New York, N.Y.
IEEE Trial-Ust Guidt for Tran,mlulon Strvclurt Foundation Design. (1985). IEEE The following symbols are used in this Manual:

•• Standard 691, lnst. of Elect. and ElectT. Engn., lnc., New York, N.Y.
Kurtz, E. B., and Shoemaktt, T. M. (1981). Tht lfntmaní and cabltman~ handboolc,
Sixth Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., lnc., New York, N.Y.
A
A,
-
•
cross-sectional area (in.l);
gross cross-sectional area (in. 2);

•••
A, • net cross-sectional area (in, 1);
littlejohn, G. S., and Bruce, D. A. (1975). "Rock anchors-State of the art, Part A, • tensile stress area of bolt (in.');
2, Constructlon." Ground Engr. 8. A. • cross-sectional area oi stud shear connector (in .1) ;
Peck, R. B., Hanson, W. E., and Thornbum, T. H. (1974). Foundalion mginttring, A, - minimum net area in tension (in,2);
Second Ed., John WUey and Sons, New York, N.Y, A. • minimum net area ln shear (in.');

•• Standard Spttlfication for End BtJJrl~g Drll/td Plm. (1979). ACI Commlt. 336, Publi-
cation Number 336. 1- 79, Amer. Conettte ln1t., Detroit, Mich,
Suggrsltd D,sign and úm,trvction Proadurn for Pln Foundation,. (19n), ACI Com•
li
. b, b,, b1

e
•
•
distance lrom shear center to load plane (in.);
effective design widths o( elements (in.), or width of leg
- 1/2 (in,);

••
• constant based on ratio of / 1 and {1;
mlt. 336, Publicatlon Number 336.3R-n, Amtt, Concrete lnst., Detroit, Mich . e, • column slendemess ratio se aratin elastic and ioelastic
"Transmission Une Grounding," (1982), Two Vol., Rtp0rl EL-2699, Elec. Power uc mg;
Res. lnsl., Palo Alto, Calif. • coefíicient applied to bending term in interaction for-

•• r ,
"Transmlsslon Une Structure Foundatlons for Uplift-Compression Loading."
(1983). Rq,ort EL-2870, Electric Powtt Res. lnst., Palo Alto, Callf.
mula for prismatic members;
• warping constant of cross sectlon (in. ');
• downthrust load: net difference in compression and

•• 1
r
•i
Woodward, R. J., Gardner, W. S., and Grttr, D. M. (1972). Drilltd pitr founda-
tion,. McGraw-HUI Book Co., lnc., New York, N.Y.

Dlbllography
uplift reactions on anchor bolts (kips);
- nominal diameter of bolt (in.), or minimum depth o(
stiffener (in.); ·
- diameter oi attachment hole (in.);

•• G11idtlint1 for Tran,mlu/on Unt Strvctural l.oodlng, (1984). Commlt. on Elect.

Transm. Struct. oi Commlt, on Anal. and Design of Struct. of Struct. Dlv,,
ASCE.
• modulus of elastlclty of steel (29,000 ksl);
• modulus of elastlcity of concrete (ksl);
• distance from center of hole to end of member (ln.);

•••
• required distance lrom center of hole to end of member
(in.);
I'. . F, • axial compresslve stress pennltted ln prlmatlc member ln
absence of bendlng moment (ksi);
F, - bending stress permitted in primatic member in absence

•• j,
F,.
of axial force (ksi);
- criticai stress for local buckling of plain angle members
(k si);

•••
1 123

•
. • 1 - '
' ~~ <?: ô 0. 0 0 0 li 0 0 ("') 0 0 0 0 O 0 :") 0 ·() 0 O(.".) ~ 0 ·:'I ('.') 0 ~ Q. 0 (') f"\ ~ 0 O © @ f&:J ® ©@ ~ ~ O 8
, • 124 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS APPENDIX 1 125

•• • allow,!ble axial tenslle stress (ksi);

• allowabie axial tensile stress ln conjunclion with shear m,
column (kip-in.);
• required distance to preveni failure due to lateral burst•

•• stress (ksi);
• specified minimum tenslle strength (ksi);
• aliowable shear streH (ksi), or allowable average shear
m,
"
ing (in.);
• required side cover distance for shear (in.);
• number of threads per inch;

••
stress for beam webs (ksi) p • capacity of angle shear connector (kips), or axial tension
F, • specified minimum yield stress (ksl);
or compression load on member (klps), or force transmit•
f • stress in compression element computed on basis of
ted by a bolt (kips);
effeclive design width (ksi), or distance from center of

•• /,, /,
f',
hole to edge of member (in.);
• stress, in tension or compression, on an element (ksi);
• specified compressive strength of concrele ai 28 days
• allowable axial compression load on member (kips);
• Euler buckling load in X-X axis (kips);
• Euler buckling load in Y-Y axis (kips);

•• (ksi); • capacity of a shear connector (kips);

• ~uired distance from center of hole to edge of member • goveming radius of gyration (in.);
(m.); r,. • polar radius of gyralion about shear center (ln.);
r, • equivaient radius of gyration for torsional buckling (in.);

•••
• computed shear stress (ksi);
• transverse spacing locating fastener gage Unes (ln.); r,, • equivalent radius of gyration for torsional-flexural buck-
• clear distance between flanges of beam (ln.); ling (ln.);
1 • moment of inertia ln truss plane (ln.•); r, • radius of gyration for U-U axis (ln.);
• polar moment of inertia about shear center (ln.•); r, • radius of gyration for X-X axis (ln .);
}.· • radius of gyralion for Y· Y axis (ln.);

•• • moment of inertia about U-U axis (ln.'); r,

i: • moment of inertia about X-X axis (in. '); r, • radius of gyration for z.z axis (ln .);
1, • moment of inerlia aboul y.y axis (in.'); 5., S., s,, 5, • eiastic section moduius in designated axis (in. 3);
1, • momenl of inertia about Z-Z axis (ln.'); S" • elaslic aection modulus about X-X a>1ls of compression

•• J
j
•
•
torsional constant of cross section (in.');
torsional constant to determine torsional-flexural buck•
ling values (in.');
ílange (ln.');
- ---•'-"l011gitudinal-center-t0<.ente~ns-(.pitch) of an~ 1
consecutive holes (in.);

•• K
K,
K., K,, K,
L
•
•
•
•
effective Jength faclor for prlsmatic member;
effective lenglh factor for warping and rotation;
effective length factor for buckling ln designated axis;
for columns, actual unbraced Jength of member (in.), or u
• required spacing between centers of adjacenl holes (in .);
• axial lensiie load on anchor bolls (kips);
• thickness of element (in.);
• U-U axis designation, or coefficienl of friclion;

•• L,, L, •
~istance from cenler of attachmenl hole to member edge
(m.);
unbraced length in designated axis;
u,
V
V, V,, V,
• distance belween shear cenler and centroid (ln.);
• shear load perpendicular to anchor material (kips);
• shear in a single-angle beams (kips);

•• M,.
M.,
M,
•
•
•
allowable bending momenl about X-X axis (kip-in.);
allowable bending moment about Y-Y axis (kip-in.);
lateral buckling moment for angles (kip-in.);
w

w,
• fiai widlh of element (ln .), or unit weight of concrele
(ibs. per cu. ft);
• flat-width of edge sliffener (ln.);

•• 'r
1
M,
M,
M,
M,.
•
•
•
•
elastic criticai moment (klp-in. );
bending moment about X-X axir (ki;~in.);
bending moment about y.y axis \kip-in.);
moment causing yield at extreme fiber in compression
X
y
y,
z
• X-X axis designation;
• Y-Y axis designation;
• dislance between shear center and centroid (ln.);
• Z-Z axis deslgnation;

•• (kip-in.);
• moment causlng yield at extreme fiber ln tension (klp-ln.);
• smaller momenl at end of unbraced length of beam•
e • angie belween ílange and stiffener lip (degrees), or angle
between load and z-axis (degrees);
• resistance factor; and

•• M,
column (kip-in.);
• larger moment at end of unbraced length of beam-
a • angle between bracing member and supported member
(degrees) .

•••
 •• L. uu
,
0 éi !d.S
..........
!J.4

••
••
••
•••
INDEX

•• Allowable bearing stress, bolts, 70,

74
Allowable bending moments, 36,
Bracing members, 17
Buckling load, 16

•••
Built-up components, 84
38-40 Cable records, 120
Allowablc bending stress, 36- 37, 38 Channels, 36-37, 53
Allowable compresslon, 44 Closed cross sections, 33
Allowable compresslon stress, 25-26, Oosed sections, 84
;! 28, 30 Cold bending, 85

••
Allowable shear, 41, 54
Allowable stress, 50
I· Allowable tensile load, 35
1, Allowable tensile stress, 33, 70, 73
Cold-formed shapes, 44
Compression memben, 35; angles,
26-28, 45-49; symmetrical lipped
angles, 28-29, 50

•• ' I Allowable tension, 36

Allowable toleraoces 96-
Anchor bohs, 34, 101- 102, 104,
106-107
.Computer analysls, 20
- Concpdc, Jllil 185,
Concrete foundations, 100-106,

••
design considerations, 106-108
Anchorage shears, 106 Connections, 83
i Anchors, 115
Angle members, 33-34, 45, 46-49
Constructionloads, 4
'/,l Construction management, 113

•••
Angle shear connectors, 108-109 Contract documents, 119-120
Angles, 41 Corrosion, 99-100
!I Attachment holes, n , 78-80 Coupon tests, 88
Axial compression, 35, 45, 52 Cross sectlons, 25, 43-44
Axial forces, 14 Cruciform sections, 36-37, 53
11 Axial tenslon, 35-36, 52 Deadend towers, 2

•• Backfill density, 115

Base plates, 102, 104, 106-107
Beam webs, 41, 54
Beams 36-40, 53-54
Dcflections, 54, 91
Deformed bar anchor bohs, 101,
105-106

•• Bendlng, 35-36, 52
Bills of material, 82
Bolt diameter, n
Dcfomied structurc, 17
Detailing, 82-84, failures during
testing, 83
Deterioration, 99-100

•• :!'
! Bolt hole spacing, 70-71. 74-75, 78,
83
Bolt shear capacity, 69-70, 73
Bolt tension capacity, 70, 73-74
Detemilnate static analysls, 16
Dlfferential movement. 99
Dimensional accuracy, 84
Displacements, 17

~ • 1 i
.1

!1 .•
127
1
1

'!-e-
•• ...

•• r 128 DESIGN FOR STEEL TRANSMISSION TOWERS

INDEX 129

•• Double circuit tower, 9

Drainage, 100
Dynamic analysis, 19
Eccentric co nnections, 33, 34
Job records, 113
Joint restraint, 28
Laterally supported beams, 36
Redundant members, 27-26, 48
Repalrs, 121
Rlgid foundations, 87
Tension system, 16-17
Tension-only members, 83
Test facllity englneer, 87

•••
Latticed masts, 21-22
Effective lengths, 26- 28, 45, 47- 48 Rotation, 50 Test loads, 89
Lattlced structures, 19, 43, 118- 119
Effective widths, 30- 32, 50-51 Scope of work, 114 Test report, 92
Laydown areas, 114
Elements in compression, 30- 32, SI Leg members, 20- 21 , 26 Second-order elastic analysls, 17 Test tower assembly, 86- 89
Sectlon properties, 24, 36, 43-44 Test verlficatlon, 28
.,I; Elements wilh stress gradients,
31- 32
Une outage, 121
Self-supporting towers, 8-10, 16 Threaded rods, 34
llps, 29, 33, 50
Shear, 106-106

•• 1 Engineer of record, 69, 82- 83, 87, 89 l.oad application, 90 Torsional buckling, 32, 45
1 Equal leg angles, 38- 40, 53- 54 l.oad conditions, 121 Shipping, 65 Torsional-ílexural buckling, 32, 44,
Equivalent radius of gyration, 29, 50 1.oad factors, 99 Shop assembly, 84 45
'J1. Erection drawings, 82 l.oad measurement, 90- 91 Shop detail drawings, 69, 82 Tower conflguratlon, develo pment

•• I'
Excavation, 115
Existing towers, analysis of, 20
Fabrication, 84-85
l.oad transfer, 102
l.oading combinations, 1-4
l.oading procedure, 90
Shop operations, 84-85
Shoring, 115
Side cover distances, 106-108
of, 9- 10
Tower deílections, 91
Towe r erection, 118

•••
1 Failures, 91
''i!lf' Fasteners, 69-70, 73- 74
Field inspection, 119-120
First-order linear elastic analysls,
16- 17
1 Ultlrnate strength, 44-45
Flexible towers, 17
Local bucklint 45, 50
Longitudinal oads, 2, 4
Maintenance inspection program,
120-121
Maintenance loads, 4
Mar1hallinf yard, 114
Single clrcuit towers, 3, 9 Tower model, 14--16
Six basic loadlngs, 1 To wer records, 120
Slenderness ratio, 25, 35, 43, 50
Small fine angle structures, 3
Tower sites, 114
Transverse loads, 2
Smooth bar anchor bolts, 101, 105 Transverse w ind, 3
Speclfications, 69, 84

•• 1'

:1
Fltxural buckll11g, 32
Foundatlon co111tructlon, 115
Foundatlon design, 98- 100
Foundation movements, 99
M1t1rl1I, 2 , 42-◄3, 69, 83, 84, 96
Material handllng, 114
Material lnspection, 114
Member fallure, 91
Standard 1p.clflc1tion1, 24
Stt el JrUlage, 101
Steel members, 43
Steel1, 24, '2-43, 83, 84
Unbaianced loading, 2
Un~unl hetght leg extenslon,, 99
Untformly compressed elements,
30-31

•• Foundation performance, 114- 115

Foundation records, 120
Foundation types, 100
Member intersections, 12
Member sizes, influence of, 19
Members, minimum sizes, 25,
Stltch bolts, 35

Strain measurements, 86
Up~adlng, 121
Vanable tower hei hts
e oa s, 2
Vibratio n, 43

••
Galvanizing, 65 99- 100 S tress gradient, 31-32
Geometric nonlinearity, 17 Stretch of cables, 35, 51 Warplng, 50
1; Mill test reports, 84, 86
Grillages, structural members, 102 Structural fail ure, 91 Weathering steel, 83
Multlclrcult towers, 1- 2
Ground water, 100 Web brad ng, 10
Node locations, 19 Stub angle anchorages, 106

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Welded connections, 84
:~ Grounding, 115, 118 Nonlinear analysis, 17, 16 Stub angles, 102, 104--105
Welding, 85
Grout, 102 Stud 1he1r connector1, 108
l! Gurd tower1, 10- 12, 17, 21, 118,
19
Nonaymmetric cros1 1ectlon1, 33, 51
Obllqut wlnd load1, 3 Subcontr1ct1, 96
115
Wldth to thicknff• rt tfo, 26, ~8. 30,
" · 45, 50

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Open cross sections, 32, 37, 38, 53 Subsurl,ce investigatlon, 100, Wind loadlng, S
[ Guys, 35, 51; tensionlng of, 3- 4
H-frames, 21
Hole d iameter, 72
Overhead ground wlres, 2, 3, 118
Overload capacity factors, 99
Piece marks, 65
T sectiona, 37, 53
Tension, 106, 108
Tenslon members, 33- 35, 51
Wind speeds, 43
Wlre stringing, 119
Yleld poln ts, 88

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Holes, 65. Stt also Attachment holes;
Bolt hole spacing
Horizontal bracing, 12
Hot bending, 84
Piling, 115
Plan bracing, 12
Postbuckling strength, 50
Preliminary review, 96

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Hot-line maintenance, 121
Hot-rolled sections, 44
1 sectio ns, 36-37, 53
Pressed plate, 101
Project control, 113
Prototype tower, 86

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lnspection, 96, 119- 120 Quality assurance, 94, 95
lnspection reports, 119 Q uality control, 84, 65, 94, 95
lnspector responsibilities, 119 Reconductoring, 121

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