NERVOUS SYSTEM – is a highly complex part of The nervous system has approximately 10 million

an animal that coordinates its action and sensory sensory neuron that send information about the
information by transmitting signals to and from internal and external environment to the brain and
different part of its body. 500,000 motor neurons that control the muscles
and glands.

Functions:
Sensory Function
-sensory receptors gather information
-information is carried to the CNS
Integrative Function
-Sensory information used to create:

 Sensations
 Memory GANGLIA - are ovoid structures containing cell
 Thought bodies of neurons and glial cells supported by
 Decisions connective tissue. Ganglia function like relay
stations one nerve enters and another exits.

Motor Function
-describes are acted upon
-impulses are carried to effectors
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
S chizophrenia HIGH DOPAMINE
A lzheimers LOW ACETYLCHOLINE (ACH)
D epression LOW SEROTONININE
P arkinsons LOW DOPAMINE
H untingtons LOW ACETYLCHOLINE (ACH)
A nxiety LOW GABA
M ania HIGH SEROTONININE
The brain accounts for approximately 2% of the
total body weight; it weights approximately 1,400g
in an average young adults. In the elderly, the
average brain weights approximately 1,200g
CORPUS CALLOSUM
The corps callosum is a bridge of nerve tissue
that connects left and right cerebral hemispheres
-it serves as the main communication pathway or
cross over station for neural messages between
the two cerebral hemispheres
-It comprises over 200 million nerve fibres
 Information transferred includes
sensation, memory, and learned
discrimination
 Right-handed people and some left-
handed people have cerebral dominance
on the left side of the brain for vertebral,
linguistic, arithmetical, calculating, and
analytic functions.
 The non-dominant hemisphere is
responsible for geometric, spatial, visual
pattern, and musical functions.
  Maintains temperature regulation by
promoting vasoconstriction or
vasodilatation
 Site of the hunger center and is involved
in appetite control
 Centers for regulating the sleep-wake
cycle, blood pressure, aggressive and
sexual behavior, and emotional
responses (i.e., blushing rage,
depression, panic, and fear)
 Controls and regulates the autonomic
BASAL GANGLIA – are masses of nuclei
nervous system
located deep in the cerebral hemispheres
Functions of basal ganglia:
1. Control of voluntary motor activity
2. Control of reflex muscular activity
3. Control of muscle tone
4. Role in arousal mechanism

THALAMUS – lies on either side of the third

ventricle and acts primarily as a relay station for
all sensation except smell. All memory, sensation,
and the pain impulses also pass through this
section of the brain.
HYPOTHALAMUS – located anterior and inferior
to the thalamus. The hypothalamus lies
immediately beneath and lateral to the lower
portion of the wall of the third ventricle.

 It includes the optic chiasm (point at

which the two optic tracts cross) and the
mammillary bodies (involved in olfactory
reflexes and emotional response to
odors.) the infundibulum of the
hypothalamus connects it to the posterior
pituitary gland
 Plays an important role in the endocrine
system because it regulates the pituitary  Nerve fibers from all portions of the cortex
secretion of hormones that influence converge in each hemisphere and exit in
metabolism, reproduction, stress the form of a tight bundle of nerve fibers
response, and urine production. known as INTERNAL CAPSULE
 Maintain fluid balance  Having entered to the pons and the
medulla, each bundle crosses to the
 corresponding bundle from the opposite sense (awareness of where each part of the
side body is), and integration of sensory input

MIDBRAIN – connects the pons and the

cerebellum with the cerebral hemispheres; it
contains sensory and motor pathways and
serves as the center for auditory and visual
reflexes. Cranial nerves III and IV originate in
the midbrain
PONS – situated in front of the cerebellum
between the midbrain and the medulla and is
a bridge between the two halves of the
cerebellum, and between the medulla and the
cerebellum. Cranial nerves V to VIII connect
to the brain in the pons. The pons contains
motor and sensory pathways. Portions of the
pons also control the heart, respiration, and
blood pressure
-The medulla oblongata contains motor fibers
from the brain to the spinal cord and sensory
fibers from the spinal cord to the brain. Most
of these fibers cross, or decussate, at this DURA MATER
level. Cranial nerves IX through XII connect to
the brain in the medulla -It is the outer most outermost layer and
covers the brain and the spinal cord. It is
tough, thick, inelastic, fibrous, and gray
CEREBELUM – separated from the cerebral There are four extensions of the dura:
hemispheres by a fold of dura mater, the
tentorium cerebelli. The cerebellum has both Falx cerebri – which separates the two
excitatory and inhibitory actions and is largely hemispheres in a longitudinal plane.
responsible for coordination of movement. It Tentorium – which is an infolding of the dura
also controls fine movement, balance, position that forms a tough membranous shelf.
 Falx cerebelli – which is between the two
lateral lobes of the cerebellum
Diaphragm sellae – which provides a “roof”
for the sella turcica.
ARACHNOID – it is the middle membrane; an
extremely thin, delicate membrane that
closely resembles a spider web (hence the
name arachnoid). It appears white because it
has no blood supply
-The arachnoid layer contains the choroid
plexus, which is responsible for the
production of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
-This membrane also has unique fingerlike
projections, arachnoid villi, that absorbs CSF
-In the normal adult, approximately 500 mL of
CSF is produced each day but 125 to 150 mL
-When blood enters the system (from trauma or
haemorrhagic stroke), the villi become obstructed
and hydrocephaluc (increased size of ventricles)
may result.
PIA MATER – it is the innermost membrane; a
thin, transparent layer that lies closely to brain
and extends into every fold of the brain’s surface
-The ventricular and subarachnoid system
contains approximately 125 to 150 mL of fluid,
while 15 to 25 mL of CSF is located in each
lateral ventricle
-The composition of CSF is similar to other
extracellular fluid (such as blood plasma), but the
concentrations of the various constituents are
different
-The analysis and laboratory report of CSF
usually contains information on color, specific
gravity, protein count, white blood cell count,
glucose, and other electrolyte levels; it may
also be tested for immunoglobulins or lactate
-Normal CSF contains a minimal number of white
blood cells and no red blood cells
CEREBRAL CIRCULATION
-The cerebral circulation receives approximately
15% of the cardiac output. The brain does not
store nutrients and has a high metabolic demand
that requires the high blood flow.
-In contrast to other organs that may tolerate
decreases in blood flow because of their
adequate collateral circulation, the brain lacks
additional collateral blow flow, which may result in
irreversible tissue damage when blood flow is
occluded for even short periods of time
BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER
-The CNS is inaccessible to many substances
that circulate in the blood plasma (e.g., dyes
medications, and antibiotics). After being
injected into the blood, many substances cannot
reach the neurons of the CNS because of the
blood-brain barrier. This barrier is formed by the
endothelial cells of the brain’s capillaries,
which form continuous tight junctions, creating a
barrier to macromolecules and many compounds.
-All substances entering the CSF must filter
through the capillary endothelial cells and
astrocytes. Often altered by trauma, cerebral
oedema, and cerebral hypoxemia, the blood-brain
barrier has implications in the treatment and
selection of medication for CNS disorders as well
as serving a protective function

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
-the peripheral nervous system includes the
cranial nerves, the spinal nerves, and the
autonomic nervous system
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
-The autonomic nervous system regulates the
activities of internal organs such as the heart,
lungs, blood vessels, digestive organs, and
glands. Maintenance and restoration of internal
homeostasis is largely the responsibility of the
autonomic nervous system
-Sympathetic stimuli are mediated by nor-
epinephrine and parasymphatetic impulses are
mediated by acetylcholine
-Sympathetic neurons are located in the
thoracic and the lumbar segments of the spinal
cord; their axons, or the pre-ganglionic fibers,
emerge by way of anterior nerve roots from the
eighth cervical or first thoracic segment to the
second or third lumbar segment
SYMPATHETIC SYNDROME
-Dilation of the pupil of the eye on the same side
as a penetrating wound of the neck (evidence of
disturbance of the cervical sympathetic cord)
-Temporary paralysis of the bowel (indicated by
the absence of peristaltic waves and the
distention of the intestine by gas) after fracture of
any one of the lower dorsal or upper lumbar
vertebrae with hemorrhage into the base of the
mesentery
-Marked variations in pulse rate and rhythm that
often follow compression fractures of the upper
six thoracic vertebrae
Coordination of Movement. The smoothness,
accuracy, and strength that characterize the
muscular movements of a normal person are
attributable to the influence of the cerebellum and
the basal ganglia
SENSORY SYSTEM FUNCTION
Integrating Sensory Impulses
-thalamus integrates all sensory impulses
except olfaction. It plays a role in the conscious
awareness of pain and the recognition of variation
in temperature and touch. The thalamus is
responsible for the sense of movement and
position and the ability to recognize the size,
shape, and quality of objects,
RECEIVING SENSORY IMPULSES
-Afferent impulses travel from their points of origin
to their destinations in the cerebral cortex via the
ascending pathways directly, or they may cross at
the level of the spinal cord or in the medulla,
depending on the type of sensation that
registered. Sensory information may be
integrated at the level of the spinal cord or may
be relayed to the brain
SENSORY LOSES
-Destruction of a sensory nerve results in total
loss of sensation in its area of distribution.
Transection of the spinal cord yields complete
anesthesia below the level of injury. Selective
destruction or degeneration of the posterior
columns of the spinal cord is responsible for a
loss of position and vibratory sense in segments
distal to the lesion, without loss of touch, pain, or
temperature perception.