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TURBULENCE IN FLUIDS
MSc in Mechanical/Aerospace/… Engineering

Novembro 2021

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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THE ENERGY CASCADE MECHANISM (2)

March 2023
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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SUMMARY

• The energy cascade of Richardson

• The turbulence theory of Kolmogorov (K41)
• The scales in a turbulent flow
• Problems

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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The explanation: Richardson’s energy
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cascade mechanism
• The energy cascade mechanism

L. Richardson
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva Da Vinci (1500)
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ENERGY CASCADE MECHANISM:

- Turbulence is a collection of eddies

- Energy is ‘stored’ in large scale

eddies

- Energy is ‘transferred’ into smaller

and smaller eddies

- Dissipation of energy (friction) into

heat at small eddies 𝜂
Energy cascade (sketch)

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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ENERGY CASCADE MECHANISM:

An eddy of size ‘l’ has velocity 𝑢(𝑙)

Time scale of the eddy is 𝜏 ∼ 𝑙/𝑢(𝑙)
# "
𝑢 𝑙 𝑢 𝑙
Energy flux is 𝑇 𝑙 ∼ ∼
𝜏 𝑙
Final dissipation rate is equal to the
Energy transfer rate:
𝑢!"
𝑇 𝑟 ∼𝜀∼ 𝜂
𝑟!
Multiscale process: energy transfer between scales
Velocity scale at size l is 𝑢 𝑙 ∼ 𝜀𝑙 $/" and 𝑢# 𝑙 ∼ 𝜀𝑙 #/"
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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0 Fractal20facets 40of turbulence:

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Cauliflower

Koch curve: D=1.2619...

Velocity: D=1,6-1.8

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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0 Fractal20facets 40of turbulence:

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Cauliflower
𝜂
Koch curve: D=1.2619...

Velocity: D=1,6-1.8

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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0 Fractal20facets 40of turbulence:

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• Fractal facets of the velocity within the energy cascade

• self-similarity

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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0 RICHARDSON-KOLMOGOROV
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ENERGY
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CASCADE

• Joule experiment: Conversion of work into internal

(temperature fluid energy (heat)
increase) (isolated walls – adiabatic system)
Δ𝐸&'& = 𝑄 + 𝑊

Work -> Wake separation -> large

scale vortices -> energy cascate ->
viscous dissipation -> conversion into
heat -> temperature increase

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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0 The turbulence
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Large-scale, energy containing

eddies are anisotropic,
flow dependant, non-universal

Small scale, dissipative eddies are

isotropic, flow independent,
Universal

A. Kolmogorov

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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0 The turbulence
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Large-scale, energy containing

eddies are anisotropic,
flow dependant, non-universal

Small scale, dissipative eddies are

isotropic, flow independent,
Universal

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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The turbulence theory of Kolmogorov (K41)
2nd order velocity structure function
!
< Δ𝑢 ! > (𝑟) =< ) 𝑢" 𝑥+𝑟 − 𝑢" 𝑥 ) >
ux

small eddy B

A
r
ux ux x

Figure 6.14 Small eddies of size

!e (!e ! r) make a contribution to large eddy
"["υ]2 # of the order of their kinetic
energy, whereas large eddies (!e $ r)
make a contribution of the order of r2
Figure 6.10 Qij is non-zero if eddies span the gap
times their enstrophy.

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

!∞
The second property above gives us one
2 interpretation of Qij ; for the special case of
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The turbulence theory of Kolmogorov (K41)

Anisotropic/non-universal
(flow dependant)

(Inertial
subrange)

(no viscous
effects)
Isotropic/universal
(flow independent)
(viscous
Effects)
- Inertial region
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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The turbulence theory of Kolmogorov (K41)
2nd order velocity structure function
!
< Δ𝑢 ! > (𝑟) =< ) 𝑢" 𝑥+𝑟 − 𝑢" 𝑥 ) >

In general,
< Δ𝑢 !> (𝑟) = 𝐹#(𝑢", 𝑟, 𝜈, 𝑙$, ′𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒′)

For small eddies (small r) we have,

< Δ𝑢 !> (𝑟) = 𝐹!(𝜀, 𝜈, 𝑟) 𝒓 ≪ 𝒍𝟎
(Inertial range) 𝜂
For small r we have, for very high Reynolds
< Δ𝑢 !> (𝑟) = 𝐹&(𝜀, 𝑟) 𝜼 ≪ 𝒓 ≪ 𝒍𝟎 (Inertial subrange)
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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The turbulence theory of Kolmogorov (K41)
2nd order velocity structure function
!
< Δ𝑢 !> (𝑟) =< ) 𝑢" 𝑥+𝑟 − 𝑢" 𝑥 ) >

For small r we have, for very high Reynolds

< Δ𝑢 !> (𝑟) = 𝐹&(𝜀, 𝑟) 𝜼 ≪ 𝒓 ≪ 𝒍𝟎

Dimensional analysis, Δ𝑢 = 𝐿𝑇 *# r =𝐿
< Δ𝑢 '>∼ 𝜀 ( 𝑟 ) 𝑑𝑘 𝐿𝑇 *# !
𝜀 = = = 𝐿!𝑇 *&
(𝐿𝑇 *#)'∼ (𝐿!𝑇 *&)( 𝐿) 𝑑𝑡 𝑇

𝐿' ∼ 𝐿!(+) 𝑛 = 2𝛼 + 𝛽 𝛼 = 𝑛/3

D *' D D < Δ𝑢 '>∼ (𝜀𝑟)'/&
𝑇 ∼ 𝑇 *&) −𝑛 = −3𝛽 𝛽 = 𝑛/3
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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The turbulence theory of Kolmogorov (K41)
2nd order velocity structure function
!
< Δ𝑢 !> (𝑟) =< ) 𝑢" 𝑥+𝑟 − 𝑢" 𝑥 ) >

For small r we have, for very high Reynolds

< Δ𝑢 !> (𝑟) = 𝐹&(𝜀, 𝑟) 𝜼 ≪ 𝒓 ≪ 𝒍𝟎 (Inertial subrange)

Dimensional analysis leads to,

< Δ𝑢 '>∼ (𝜀𝑟)'/&

For 𝒏 = 𝟐
< Δ𝑢 !> 𝑟 ∼ 𝜀𝑟 !/& Kolmogorov 2/3rds law
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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The turbulence theory of Kolmogorov (K41)
2nd order velocity structure function
!
< Δ𝑢 !> (𝑟) =< ) 𝑢" 𝑥+𝑟 − 𝑢" 𝑥 ) >

For small r we have, for very high Reynolds 𝜼 ≪ 𝒓 ≪ 𝒍𝟎

< Δ𝑢 !> 𝑟 ∼ 𝜀𝑟 !/&

(Kolmogorov 2/3rds law)

< Δ𝑢 !>
!
𝜀𝑟 &

< 𝜟𝒖 𝟐>
𝟐 = 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕.
𝜺𝒓 𝟑

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva 𝒓

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The turbulence theory of Kolmogorov (K41)
For small r we have,
< Δ𝑢 !> (𝑟) = 𝐹&(𝜀, 𝑟, 𝜈) 𝜼 ≪ 𝒍𝟎
If velocity U, length L, and time T, scales imposed
only by (𝜀, 𝜈) i.e.,
𝐿 = 𝐿(𝜈, 𝜀) 𝑈 = 𝑈(𝜈, 𝜀) 𝑇 = 𝑇(𝜈, 𝜀)

Dimensional analysis leads to,

$/( $/#
𝜂 = 𝜈 /𝜀 " $/( 𝑢) = 𝜈𝜀 𝜏) = 𝜈/𝜀

Kolmogorov micro-scales
Notice that the ‘scale’ of the 𝑢# $
𝜀 ̅ = 2𝜈𝑆!" 𝑆!" ∼ 𝜈
dissipation is, 𝜂
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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ENERGY CASCADE MECHANISM:

$/"
𝜀 ∼ 𝑢 𝑙 " /𝑙 → 𝑢 𝑙 ∼ 𝜀𝑙
What happens at the small scales?
𝑙 → 0 => 𝑢 𝑙 → 0
𝑢 𝑙 𝑙
when 𝑅𝑒(𝑙) = =1
𝜈
" $/(
We have: 𝑙 = 𝜈 =𝜂
𝜀 𝜂
Kolmogorov micro-scale
(characteristics size of smallest existing eddies)
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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Meaning of the Reynolds number
x/d in
a turbulent flow:

𝑢!"
Because, 𝜀 ∼
𝐿
$
𝜈" (
𝑢! 𝐿 𝜂 𝜀
𝑅𝑒! = => = =
𝜈 𝐿 𝐿
$
𝜈" (

(𝑢!" /𝐿) *"/(

= ∼ 𝑅𝑒! 𝜂
𝐿
Reynolds number = measure of the
ratio of length scales within the flow
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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High Reynolds vs Low Reynolds

𝜂 *"/(
∼ 𝑅𝑒!
𝐿
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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Example:
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• Comparing two turbulent ducts:

𝑹𝒆𝑫 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑹𝒆𝑫 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑈" 𝐷
𝑅𝑒! =
𝜈
𝜈 = 1,0×10*, m/s^2 (water)
𝐷 = 0,1 m 𝑙" ∼ 𝐷/2=0,05 m
𝑹𝒆𝑫 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 → 𝒖𝟎 ∼ 𝟎, 𝟎𝟐𝟓m/s
𝑢" ∼ 0,1𝑈" = 𝜈𝑅𝑒! /10𝐷 𝑹𝒆 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 → 𝒖 ∼ 𝟎, 𝟎𝟓𝟎m/s
𝑫 𝟎
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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Example:
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• Comparing two turbulent ducts:

𝑹𝒆𝑫 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑹𝒆𝑫 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑢"#
𝜀∼
𝑙"
𝟎,𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟑
𝑹𝒆𝑫 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 → 𝜺 ∼ 𝟎,𝟎𝟓
= 𝟎, 𝟑𝟏×𝟏𝟎*𝟑m2/s3
𝟎,𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟑
𝑹𝒆𝑫 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 → 𝜺 ∼ 𝟎,𝟎𝟓
= 𝟐, 𝟓×𝟏𝟎*𝟑m2/s3
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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Example:
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• Comparing two turbulent ducts:

𝑹𝒆𝑫 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑹𝒆𝑫 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

# $/&
𝜈
𝜂=
𝜀
𝟏/𝟒
*𝟔 𝟑
𝑹𝒆𝑫 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 → 𝜼 = 𝟏×𝟏𝟎 /𝟎, 𝟑𝟏×𝟏𝟎*𝟑 = 𝟎, 𝟐𝟑 𝐦𝐦
𝟏/𝟒
*𝟔 𝟑
𝑹𝒆𝑫 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 → 𝜼 = 𝟏×𝟏𝟎 /𝟐, 𝟓×𝟏𝟎*𝟑 = 𝟎, 𝟏𝟒mm
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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IN TODAY’s LECTURE
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• The energy cascade

• Kolmogorov 1941
• Scales of turbulence

BIBLIOGRAPHY :
- F. Nieuwstadt, Turbulence: Chapter 3
- P. Davidson, Turbulence: 1.6;3.2

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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0 ANNEXE
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• What is the lenght of the cost of England? L = Nε

L! = N !ε !
L!! = N !!ε !!

ε !! < ε ! ⇒ L!! > L!

• Length depends on the size of the ruller used.
• Certain objects have, infinite lenght, area, volume
(increase as the size of the ruller decreases)
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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0 FRACTALS:
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• Normal objects do not display this

charactersistic. Topological or Euclidian
dimension is:
D=0 (points); D=1 (lines);
D=2 (surfaces); D=3 (volumes).

L = Nε ⇒ N ~ ε −1
ε = 1 ⇒ L = 1×1
1 1
ε = ⇒ L = 2×
2 2
1 1
ε = ⇒ L = 3×
3 3 Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva 28
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0 FRACTALS:
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• Normal objects do not display this

charactersistic. Topological or Euclidian
dimension is:
D=0 (points); D=1 (lines);
D=2 (surfaces); D=3 (volumes).
A = Nε 2 ⇒ N ~ ε −2
ε = 1 ⇒ A = 1×12
2
1 $1'
ε = ⇒ A = 4 ×& )
2 %2(
2
1 $1'
ε = ⇒ A = 9 ×& )
3 % 3 (Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva 29
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0 FRACTALS:
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• Normal objects do not display this

charactersistic. Topological or Euclidian
dimension is:
D=0 (points); D=1 (lines);
D=2 (surfaces); D=3 (volumes).
V = Nε 3 ⇒ N ~ ε −3
ε = 1 ⇒ V = 1×13
3
1 $1'
ε = ⇒ V = 8×& )
2 %2(
3
1 $1'
ε = ⇒ V = 27 × & )
3 % 3Prof.
( Carlos Bettencourt da Silva 30
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0 FRACTALS:
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• Dimension D, relates to the number of objects

ε
N, of lenght by,

N ~ ε −D
log(N ) log(N )
D=− =
log(ε ) log(1 / ε )
Lines: Surfaces:

e.g. ε = 1 / 3 ⇒ N = 3 e.g. ε = 1 / 3 ⇒ N = 9
log(3) log(9)
D=− =1 D=− =2
log(1 / 3) log(1 / 3)
Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva
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0 FRACTALS:
20 EXAMPLES
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• Koch curve:
1ª iteration:
N = 4; ε = 1 / 3
log(4)
D=− = 1, 2619...
log(3)
Infinite iterations: no local derivative
exists (at all points) (!)

Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva

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Prof. Carlos Bettencourt da Silva