Hydraulics Engineering

Lec #2 : Surface Profiles and Backwater

Curves in Channels of Uniform
sections
Steady Flow in Open Channels

◼ Specific Energy and Critical Depth

◼ Surface Profiles and Backwater Curves in

Channels of Uniform sections

◼ Hydraulics jump and its practical applications.

◼ Flow over Humps and through Constrictions

◼ Broad Crested Weirs and Venturi Flumes

 13–4 CONSERVATION OF MASS AND ENERGY
EQUATIONS

The slope of the

bottom of the channel
If the channel bottom
is straight (the bottom
slope is constant):
The total energy of a liquid
flowing in an open 19
channel.
In the design of open-channel systems, the bottom slope is selected such that it
provides adequate elevation drop to overcome the frictional head loss and thus
to maintain flow at the desired rate.
Therefore, there is a close connection between the head loss and the bottom
slope, and it makes sense to express the head loss as a slope (or the tangent of
an angle). This is done by defining a friction slope as
Note that the friction slope is
equal to the bottom slope when
the head loss is equal to the
elevation drop. That is, Sf = S0
when hL = z1 - z2.

The energy line z + y + V2/2g (total mechanical

energy of the liquid expressed as a head) above
the horizontal reference datum.
The energy line is typically sloped down like the
channel itself as a result of frictional losses, the
vertical drop being equal to the head loss hL and
thus the slope being the same as the friction
slope.

The total energy of a liquid at 20

two sections of an open channel.
13–7 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
Gradually varied flow (GVF): A form of steady nonuniform flow characterized by
gradual variations in flow depth and velocity (small slopes and no abrupt changes)
and a free surface that always remains smooth (no discontinuities or zigzags).
A change in the bottom slope or cross section of a channel or an obstruction in the
path of flow may cause the uniform flow in a channel to become gradually or rapidly
varied flow.

Variation of properties over a differential flow section in an 34

open channel under conditions of gradually varied flow (GVF).
 For specified values of S0 and Sf , the
term dy/dx may be positive or negative,
depending on whether the Froude
number is less than or greater than 1.
Therefore, the flow behavior is opposite
in subcritical and supercritical flows.
For S0 – Sf > 0, the flow depth increases
in the flow direction in subcritical flow,
but it decreases in supercritical flow.

A slow-moving river of approximately

constant depth and cross section, such as
the Chicago River shown here, is an example
of uniform flow with S0  Sf and dy/dx  0.
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Types of Bed Slopes

◼ Mild Slope (M)

yo>yc
So<Sc yo1
yc
◼ Critical Slope (C) So1<Sc
yo=yc yo2
So=Sc Break

So2>Sc
◼ Steep Slope (S)
yo<yc
So>Sc
Classification of Surface Profiles
◼ Mild Slope (M) ◼ Type 1: if the stream
yo>yc surface lies above both
So<Sc
the normal and critical
◼ Critical Slope (C) depth of flow. (M1, S1)
yo=yc
So=Sc ◼ Type 2: if the stream
◼ Steep Slope (S) surface lies between
yo<yc normal and critical depth
So>Sc of flow. (M2, S2)
◼ Horizontal (H)
So=0 ◼ Type 3: if the stream
surface lies below both
the normal and critical
◼ Adverse (A) depth of flow. (M3, S3)
So=-ve
 Liquid Surface Profiles in Open Channels, y(x)
It is important to be able to predict the flow depth for a specified flow rate and
specified channel geometry.
A plot of flow depth versus downstream distance is the surface profile y(x)
of the flow.
The general characteristics of surface profiles for gradually varied flow
depend on the bottom slope and flow depth relative to the critical and normal
depths.

Designation of the letters S, C, M,

Designation of the numbers 1, 2, and 3 for liquid36
H, and A for liquid surface profiles
surface profiles based on the value of the flow
for different types of slopes.
depth relative to the normal and critical depths.
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 Some Representative Surface Profiles
A typical open-channel system involves several sections of different slopes, with
connections called transitions, and thus the overall surface profile of the flow is
a continuous profile made up of the individual profiles described earlier.

Some common
surface profiles
encountered in open-
channel flow. All
flows are from left to
right.
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Some common
surface profiles
encountered in
open-channel
flow. All flows are
from left to right.

40
 Numerical Solution of Surface Profile
The prediction of the surface profile y(x) is an important part of the design of
open-channel systems.
A good starting point for the determination of the surface profile is the
identification of the points along the channel, called the control points, at
which the flow depth can be calculated from a knowledge of flow rate.

Once flow depths at control points are available, the surface profile upstream or
downstream is determined usually by numerical integration of the nonlinear
differential equation

The friction slope Sf is determined from the uniform-flow conditions, and

the Froude number from a relation appropriate for the channel cross
section.

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Assignment

◼ Problems:
13.79 to 13.82

◼ Date of Submission: