Biology The Essentials 2nd Edition

Mariëlle Hoefnagels Solutions

Manual
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CHAPTER 9 - Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis

CHAPTER OUTLINE

9.1 Why Sex?

9.2 Diploid Cells Contain Two Homologous Sets of Chromosomes
9.3 Meiosis Is Essential in Sexual Reproduction
9.4 In Meiosis, DNA Replicates Once, but the Nucleus Divides Twice
9.5 Meiosis Generates Enormous Variability
A. Crossing Over Shuffles Alleles
B. Chromosome Pairs Align Randomly during Metaphase I
C. Random Fertilization Multiplies the Diversity
9.6 Mitosis and Meiosis Have Different Functions: A Summary
9.7 Errors Sometimes Occur in Meiosis
A. Polyploidy Means Extra Chromosome Sets
B. Nondisjunction Results in Extra or Missing Chromosomes

LEARNING OUTCOMES

09.00.01 Explain how genetic information is passed from one generation to the next.
09.01.01 Compare and contrast sexual and asexual reproduction.
09.02.01 Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes.
09.02.02 Describe the role of homologous chromosomes in sexual reproduction.
09.03.01 Explain the roles of meiosis, gamete formation, and fertilization in sexual reproduction.
09.03.02 Differentiate between haploid and diploid cells.
09.03.03 Explain the roles of somatic cells and germ cells in sexual reproduction.
09.04.01 Sketch and identify the steps in meiosis.
09.05.01 List and explain three ways that meiosis generates genetic variability among offspring.
09.05.02 Compare and contrast the effects of crossing over, random alignment, and random
fertilization on variability among offspring.
09.06.01 Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.
09.07.01 Diagram and explain how polyploidy and nondisjunction can lead to missing or extra
chromosomes in a gamete.

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent
of McGraw-Hill Education.
WHERE DOES IT ALL FIT IN?

Chapter 9 expands the coverage of DNA structure and function in Chapter 7 and the cell cycle
covered in Chapter 8 by applying the concepts to sexual reproduction. Students are likely to
confuse the events and details of mitosis and meiosis. It is important to reinforce to students the
differences and similarities of the events that take place during asexual and sexual cellular
reproduction. Chapter 9 should be regularly referenced to help reinforce the principles of heredity
covered later in the book.

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent
of McGraw-Hill Education.
SYNOPSIS

This chapter stresses the importance of meiosis and fertilization in the sexual reproduction cycle.
Meiosis reduces or halves the DNA of diploid cells for the express purpose of producing haploid
cells that will share their DNA complement with another organism. In unicellular eukaryotes, the
individual cell functions directly as a gamete. In plants, specific haploid cells are produced by
meiosis. These cells divide by mitosis to form a multicellular haploid phase which further
produces eggs and sperm. In animals, special gamete-producing cells differentiate from the other
somatic cells early on in development. Only these cells are able to undergo meiosis to create
haploid eggs or sperm. Eggs and sperm come together for fertilization which doubles the
chromosome number of each subsequent generation, except that the gametes possess only a
haploid complement of DNA.

Meiosis is a type of cell division that has two separate rounds of nuclear division. In the first
division, called meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair, exchange material, and separate. No
genetic replication occurs before the second division when the non-identical sister chromatids
separate into individual gametes. Each division is composed of prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase.

Some of the most important events of meiosis occur during prophase I. The ends of the sister
chromatids attach to specific sites on the nuclear envelope. The attachment sites for the two
homologues are near one another ensuring that each chromosome associates closely with its
homologue. Certain genes are exchanged between homologues, an event called crossing over.
The homologues are released from the membrane but remain tightly connected to one another.
The homologues line up along the central plate of the cell during metaphase I. Microtubules
shorten at anaphase I and pull the homologues apart to opposite ends of the cell. Each pole ends
up with a complete set of haploid chromosomes. Telophase I finishes division I, cytokinesis may
or may not occur.

Meiosis II is similar to mitosis because it separates the sister chromatids forming the
chromosomes. During metaphase II, the still connected sister chromatids line up along their new
metaphase plate with spindle fibers from each pole attached to each centromere. During
anaphase II, the centromeres split and the sister chromatids are drawn to opposite poles. The
result is four cells containing a haploid complement of genetic material.

The chapter stresses that sexual reproduction has advantageous benefits because it produces
genetic variability. With this comes the consequences of offspring abnormalities caused by a
variety of meiosis errors such as nondisjunction. However, since evolution occurs because of
changes in an individual’s DNA, crossing over and chromosome segregation is likely to result in
progeny that are less well-adapted than their parents.

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent
of McGraw-Hill Education.
COMMON STUDENT MISCONCEPTIONS

There is ample evidence in the educational literature that student misconceptions of information
will inhibit the learning of concepts related to the misinformation. The following concepts
covered in Chapter 9 are commonly the subject of student misconceptions. This information on
“bioliteracy” was collected from faculty and the science education literature.

• Students believe that sexual reproduction is merely for increasing populations.

• Students have trouble with the concept of somatic cells and germ cells.
• Students do not distinguish between the function of somatic and sex cells.
• Students commonly confuse the terms mitosis and meiosis.
• Students believe chromatin and chromosomes are identical in nature.
• Students believe the DNA is doubled only in mitosis and not in meiosis.
• Students believe that meiosis has an interphase II.
• Students are not able to accurately calculate chromosome number differences between
meiosis I and meiosis II.
• Students are confused by the terms “n” and “2n.”
• Students are confused when homologous chromosome separation occurs.
• Students are confused when chromatin separation occurs in meiosis.
• Students cannot contrast between the terms fertilized egg and zygote.
• Students believe that only germ cells carry X and Y chromosomes.
• Students believe that only animals, and not plants, carry out meiosis.
• Students believe that only higher plants carry out sexual reproduction.

The following articles provide strategies for increasing bioliteracy in the college classroom:

Baldwin JD, Ebert-May D, Burns, D. 1999. The development of a college biology self-efficacy
instrument for non-majors. Science Education 83(4): 397-408.

Ebert-May D. 2001. Research-based change: how one college professor approached the
challenge of changing teaching. In: Implementing the Science Standards in Higher Education,
eds. W. J. McIntosh and E. Siebert, pp. 36-39. Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers
Association.

Khodor J, Halme DG, Walker GC. 2004. A Hierarchical Biology Concept Framework: A Tool
for Course Design. Cell Biology Education, 3(2): 111-121.

Klymkowsky MW, Garvin-Doxas K, Zeilik M. 2003. Bioliteracy and teaching efficacy: what
biologists can learn from physicists. Cell Biol Educ, 2(3):155-61.

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent
of McGraw-Hill Education.
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY PRESENTATION ASSISTANCE

Have students think of meiosis as two people splitting up and dividing their common belongings.
The division is more equitable if their possessions are stacked together and then divided up into
two halves of the room. The method ensures a more even distribution of items and is analogous
to homologous pairing of chromosomes during meiosis.

Use photographs of different families of humans or animals to stress the importance of crossing
over and the random assortment of homologues as they relate to producing genetic variation.
Meiosis results in genetic variation and the reduction of the genetic complement in preparation
for fertilization.

Stress to students that an understanding of meiosis is necessary to grasp what occurs in

Mendelian genetics. Also add that Mendel was surprisingly able to formulate his ideas without
knowledge of either mitosis or meiosis.

It is encouraged to use some lecture or recitation time to discuss the “What’s the Point?,” “Why
We Care,” “Burning Questions” boxes, and the end-of-chapter reading titled “Investigating Life:
A New Species Is Born, but Who’s the Daddy?” The information in these resources encourages
students to use the chapter information in critical thinking situations.

When assigning the chapter as a reading, encourage the students to stop and complete the
“Mastering Concepts” features as a way of assessing their knowledge of what they read. In
addition, the “Pull It Together” provides students with a visual summary of the important
concepts in the chapter.

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent
of McGraw-Hill Education.
HIGHER LEVEL ASSESSMENT

Higher level assessment measures a student’s ability to use terms and concepts learned from the
lecture and the textbook. A complete understanding of biology content provides students with the
tools to synthesize new hypotheses and knowledge using the facts they have learned. The
following table provides examples of assessing a student’s ability to apply, analyze, synthesize,
and evaluate information from Chapter 9.

Application • Have students describe the “day in the life of DNA” during a single cycle
of meiosis.
• Have students explain which stage of meiosis would be best to study the
number and identity of chromosomes.
• Ask students to use meiosis to explain a major reason why some children
appear to have a mixture of both parents’ features.

Analysis • Ask students to explain meiosis in an organism with a 4N complement of

DNA.
• Ask students to explain why a crop plant that has a 3N polyploidy
chromosome number does not produce seeds and pollen capable of
fertilization.
• Ask students to compare and contrast mitosis with meiosis II.

Synthesis • Have students explain why the offspring produced from unrelated
organisms having two different chromosome numbers would have
trouble producing germ cells.
• Ask students to predict the effects on an organism’s reproduction if germ
cells underwent meiosis I without being followed by meiosis II.
• Ask students to determine the probable use of a chemical that inhibits the
S phase of interphase during meiosis.

Evaluation • Ask students to explain the benefits of producing crop plants that make
pollen with an abnormal chromosome number.
• Ask students to explain the benefits of citrus plants that contain zygotes
and asexually reproduced offspring in the same seed.
• Have students evaluate the possible effects on humans of a pollutant that
increases the probability of crossing over during meiosis.

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent
of McGraw-Hill Education.
FUN FACTS

Trivial facts about biology are a fun way to spice up a lecture. They can be read in class or
placed at appropriate points into a lecture using the board or a projected presentation. The trivia
can be used as a jumping point for students to further investigate the fact.

• Sperm production in mammals varies greatly. The following table shows the number of
sperm in millions in one ejaculation for various mammals:
Mouse 50
Rat 58
Guinea Pig 80
Human 180
Rabbit 280
Sheep 1000
Cow 3000
Pig 8000
• Sperm survival in the female reproductive track also varies greatly. The following table
shows the longevity of sperm in hours for different mammals:
Mouse 6
Rat 14
Guinea Pig 21-22
Human 24-48
Rabbit 30-32
Sheep 30-48
Cow 28-50
Horse 144
Bat 135
• Some female animals can resorb fully developed eggs in their reproductive tract.
• A single body segment or proglottid of a tapeworm can contain more than 100,000 eggs.
• The total number of eggs released by a female oyster in a reproductive cycle can range
from 10,000 to 66.4 million.
• The largest recorded egg is a 400-year-old specimen that belongs to the extinct
Madagascar great elephant bird. The egg measures more than 3 feet in circumference.
• The oldest germinated seed belongs to a 10,000-year-old arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus)
that germinated and flowered.

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of McGraw-Hill Education.
IN-CLASS CONCEPTUAL DEMONSTRATION

“Meiosis Playhouse”

Role playing is a fun activity to do with students as a means of reinforcing the fate of DNA
during meiosis. This activity helps students visualize the events of meiosis. It particularly
focuses on the segregation and separation of DNA in the different phases of gamete formation.

Materials

• 8 student volunteers
• 4 XL white T-shirts with “maternal” written large on front and back in black ink
o One shirt should also have Chromosome 1 written on the front and back.
o One shirt should also have Chromosome 2 written on the front and back.
• 4 XL white T-shirts with “paternal” written large on front and back in black ink
o One shirt should also have Chromosome 1 written on the front and back.
o One shirt should also have Chromosome 2 written on the front and back.
• 4 sheets 8½ inch by 11 inch pink paper
• 4 sheets 8½ inch by 11 inch blue paper
• 8 foot x 8 foot section of floor marked with chalk or tape

Procedure and Inquiry

1. Introduce the topic of meiosis and discuss the fate of the DNA.
2. Call 8 students to the front of the room and instruct them to wear the T-shirts.
3. Hand the “maternal” students 8½ inch by 11 inch pink paper.
4. Hand the “paternal” students 8½ inch by 11 inch blue paper.
5. Have one full set of “maternal” and “paternal” students stand in the 8’ x 8’ section of
floor. There should be one “maternal chromosome 1,” one “maternal chromosome 2,”
one “paternal chromosome 1,” and one “paternal chromosome 2” in the square.
6. Explain to the class that the students represent maternal and paternal chromatin in a
diploid cell.
7. Ask the class to explain the genetic makeup of the cell.
8. Then represent the end of interphase by inviting another full set into the box. Have the
students hold hands with their twin chromosome. There should be four chromosomes,
two chromosome 1 and two chromosome 2.
9. Ask the class to explain what happened to the genetic makeup of the cell.
10. Have the students line up by homologous chromosome pairs to represent the beginning of
meiosis I.
11. The closer homologues should be asked to swap paper sheets representing crossing over.
12. Ask the class to explain what happened to the genetic makeup of each chromosome.
13. Then represent the end of meiosis I by asking the homologues to separate by moving to
opposite ends of the box.
14. Ask the class to explain what happened to the genetic makeup of offspring cells.
15. Follow this up by asking the paired chromatids to split by moving away to the front and
back sections of their side of the box explaining that gametes were formed.
16. Ask the class to explain what happened to the genetic makeup of final offspring cells.

Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent
of McGraw-Hill Education.