Met 1

MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF MSE
ME - 413 | MATERIALS ENGINEERING AND TESTING

BSME| Engr. Rocel Gualberto | 08.25.2022
MATERIALS SCIENCE 4 COMPONENTS OF MATERIALS

SCIENCE
- It involves investigating the
relationships that exist between the
structures and properties of
materials.
Arrangement → Structure → Properties
MATERIALS ENGINEERING
- On the basis of these

1. Structure - arrangement of atoms in
structure–property correlations,
a material
designing or engineering the
2. Properties - result of the structure
structure of a material to produce
3. Processing - process of changing
a predetermined set of properties.
the structure of the material
- (modification/ alteration of the
4. Performance
structure to come up with a different/
desired property)
CHARACTERIZATION
- Heart of the tetrahedron
MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT
- Performing lab tests to see if there
are changes
1. Stone Age (beginning of life - 3000
BC)
MATERIAL SELECTION PROCESS
2. Bronze Age (3000BC - 1200BC)
➢ Bronze is an alloy of copper
and tin
3. Iron Age (1200 BC - Present)
➢ All alloys of iron including
steel
➢ iron - metal : steel - alloy
4. Plastic Age ( 1940 - Present)
5. Silicon Age (1950 - Present)
6. Future
➢ Nanotechnology (x10-9)
MJBT
MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF MSE
MATERIALS CHOOSING FACTORS AFFECTING THE

ALTERATION OF FLAVORS OF SODA
1. IN SERVICE REQUIREMENT (COCA-COLA)
● Strength, hardness, thermal
resistance, ductility 1. Type of material used - effect
(PURPOSE) depends on the amount of polymer
- most important on the material
2. Environmental factors such as heat
2. ECONOMIC REQUIREMENT 3. Time that the product has been
● Materials cost, machine cost, stocked
process time (COSTING)
3. INDUSTRIAL REQUIREMENT
● Easy assembly, machine
ability of running, cast
properties(USER FRIENDLY)
4. DETERIORATE OF MATERIALS
● Wear, oxidation, corrosion
TYPES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
1. METALLIC
- Materials that exhibit
electrical and thermal
conductivity
2. NON-METALLIC
- Ex: wood, stone, brick,
cement, resins (plastics),
rubber, leather, ceramics
COMPOSITE - combination of any

of the 2 or all 3
MJBT
MODULE 2: CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES
crystalline SiO2 noncrystalline SiO2
ENERGY AND PACKING CRYSTALLINE NON CRYSTALLINE

MATERIALS MATERIALS
NON DENSE, DENSE, ORDERED Packed in No periodic
RANDOM PACKING PACKING periodic, 3D packing
arrays
Ex: metals, many Occurs for:

ceramics, some complex structures,
polymers rapid cooling
“AMORPHOUS”
Atoms ARE NOT Atoms ARE

EQUIDISTANT EQUIDISTANT METALLIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
● Tend to be densely packed.
● Reasons for dense packing:
- Typically, only one element is
present, so all atomic radii are
the same.
- Metallic bonding is not
directional.
Higher energy Lower energy
- Nearest neighbor distances tend
to be small in order to lower bond
energy.
TYPICAL NEIGHBOR BOND ENERGY - Electron cloud shield cores from
each other.
- Point tangent to the curve with
respect to the typical neighbor ● Have the simplest crystal
bond length structures
MATERIALS AND PACKING

4 PARAMETERS FOR CRYSTAL
STRUCTURES
CRYSTALLINE NON CRYSTALLINE
MATERIALS MATERIALS 1. Coordination Number (neighboring
atoms)
2. Number of atoms per unit cell
3. Atomic radius (R) in terms of ‘a’
4. APF (Atomic Packing Factor)
MJBT
SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE (SC) FACE-CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE

(FCC)
1. Coordination Number: 6
2. Number of atoms per unit cell (N):
1
𝑁 = 8( 8 ) = 1
1 1
3. Radius (R) in terms of ‘a’: 𝑁 = 6( 2 ) + 8( 8 ) = 4
3. Radius (R) in terms of ‘a’:
4. APF
MJBT
4. APF
MJBT
4. APF
BODY-CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE
(BCC)

FCC BCC
1 Atoms are tangent Atoms are tangent

𝑁 = 1 + 8( 8 ) = 2
on the face on the body
diagonal diagonal
HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED
STRUCTURE (HCP)
3 upper layer atoms

6 corner atoms
3 lower layer atoms
2. Number of atoms per unit cell (N): 6
1 1
𝑁 = 12( 6 ) + 3 + 2( 2 )
𝑁 = 2+3+1
𝑁=6
MJBT
SUMMARY OF THE PROPERTIES

OF THE DIFFERENT CRYSTAL
STRUCTURES
4. APF
Volume of unit cell = area of base x

height (note: height = c)
MJBT
■ 1nm = 1x10-7 cm
● NA (Avogadro’s number) = constant
THEORETICAL DENSITY (ρ)
THEORETICAL
ACTUAL DENSITY
DENSITY
Computed density Can be obtained from
given the crystal the table
● n = consider the crystal structure structure of the
[SC(1), BCC(2), FCC(4), HCP(6)] material
● A = can be obtained from the table
Approximation True value
○ amu = atomic mass unit
(g/mol)
● Vc = (SC, BCC, FCC - cube;

HCP - hexagonal prism)
○ For a cube:
○ For HCP:
○ Must know the relation

between a and R(atomic
radius- given din sa table)
○ Convert nm → cm
MJBT
MODULE 3: PROPERTIES OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
WHAT IS MATERIALS SCIENCE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

ENGINEERING? - response to mechanical forces,
strength, etc.
● Mechanical Forces:
○ axial (normal) force→ it can
be tensile or compressive→
forces acting
PERPENDICULAR on a
body
○ Shear force
○ Torsion (torque/ rotational)
○ Bending moment (deflection)
ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC

MATERIALS SCIENCE PROPERTIES
- Response electrical and magnetic
- It involves investigating the fields, conductivity, etc.
relationships that exist between the ● Conductor
structures and properties of ○ Attracts
materials. ○ Allows electricity to pass on.
○ Materials that allow electrons
Material Tetrahedron to travel through, like copper
- shows the 4 components. wires
● Insulator
PROPERTIES ○ Retracts
○ SIt does not allow the
Properties are the way the material electricity to pass on a
responds to the environment and external material.
forces ○ Materials that inhibit electron
flow, like rubber.
-Different materials,
● different responses THERMAL PROPERTIES

● they respond differently on different - related to transmission of heat and
environment heat capacity.
- can also be a heat conductor or
Ex: external: tensile force → it tends to pull insulator.
materials.
Environmental: Some materials corrode

faster than others.
LAC
OPTICAL PROPERTIES RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

- properties include absorption,
transmission and corrosion Resistivity and Resistivity and the
resistance. Temperature Amount of Alloying
Element Added
Transparent, translucent, and opaque all DIRECTLY DIRECTLY
describe how certain objects allow visible PROPORTIONAL PROPORTIONAL
light to travel through them. - As you increase - At the same
● Opaque, transparent, or translucent the temperature, temperature, the
○ don't allow any light to pass the resistivity also higher the amount
increases.
through. of nickel added to
● Translucent copper, the higher
○ allow some light to pass the resistivity.
through.
● Transparent
1.12% Ni:
○ allow all light to pass
The other one undergoes a
through.
deforming process but the composition is
just the same. The resistivity of a deformed
CHEMICAL STABILITY copper is higher than that of the other
- In contact with the environment - copper with the same amount of nickel.
corrosion resistance.
- How it reacts with the air around. ● A deforming process increases the
resistivity.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF COPPER THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF COPPER
In the graph above,

In the example above, nickel - impurity atom X-axis: zinc added to copper
or alloying element. Y-axis: thermal conductivity
LAC
Copper with Zinc DETERIORATIVE

At 0, pure copper
Inversely proportional
- Amount of zinc added in copper and
thermal conductivity.
- As the amount of zinc added to
copper increases, the thermal
conductivity decreases.
MAGNETIC
❖ “As is” condition
➢ original material
❖ “held at 160C at 1 hr before testing”
➢ Undergoes a heat treatment
(soaked in NaCl Solution)
❖ Apply load, cracks become more
visible
❖ Crack Speed
➢ Increasing the load means
increasing the crack.
Iron added with silicon

- Higher magnetization level
- makes a better recording medium
OPTICAL
ALLOY
At “As Is” That Undergoes

Condition Heat Treatment
● The alloy has ● The alloy is

higher crack better/ more
speed. durable.
● Failure is most ● Makes
likely to occur in crack speed
this material. lower.
❖ Single crystal - Transparent
❖ Polycrystal (low) - Translucent
❖ Polycrystal (high) - Opaque ● We should know how to interpret the
graphs of properties.
LAC
SUMMARY
● In order to increase the performance

of the materials:
1. Have/Add impurity atoms.
2. Undergoes specific processes
(alloying, heat treatment, deformation).
LAC
MODULE 4: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
● Torsional force - torsional stress

● Bending moment - bending stress or
REVIEW
flexural stress
● Stress depends on what is the
PROPERTIES
mechanical force
-way materials respond to external forces
and mechanical forces such as
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
environmental factors.
FORCES ISSUES TO ADDRESS:

❖ Shear ➔ Stress and Strain
➢ parallel to the area ➔ Elastic Behavior
➢ sliding motion ➔ Plastic Behavior
❖ Axial ➔ Toughness, Hardness, and Ductility
➢ normal force
■ Tensile ELASTIC DEFORMATION
● tension
● pulls the material
● causes elongation
■ Compressive
● Compression
● Contracts
● pushes the material
❖ Torsional
➢ Torque
➢ for rotating members
❖ Bending moment
MECHANICAL FORCES Elastic Deformation

- causes deformation (any change in the - Sum of spaces
dimension) on the members - If load is applied, there will be void
spaces but if the load is removed, it
➔ Every force has additional stress. returns back to its original condition
or dimension
STRESS
● Amount of force applied in a certain area 1. Initial Condition
● Can be known base on the force that a ❖ Lo
material can handle ➢ original length
○ The higher the force, the higher ➢ arrangement of the atoms
stress is received ➢ no spaces between layers
● Axial force - axial or normal stress ➢ no load
● Shear force - shear stress
LAC
2. Small Load At point (0,0) 0 force = 0 deformation

❖ Applied Tensile Load
➢ when material is pulled
LINEAR NON LINEAR
there’s elongation or the
material is being stretch ● Straight line ● Curve / Deform
❖ Elongation ● force is directly path
➢ kind of deformation proportional to ● force is not
■ Deformation (δ) deformation directly
● small or any change ● double force, proportional to
on its orientation double deformation at a
● material does not deformation specific
need to be totally ● Higher/bigger constant k
wrecked force, ● As the force is
➢ change in material higher/bigger applied,
❖ void spaces equal to deformation deformation and deformation
because of applied load but the vice versa increases
orientation is still the same ● Slope is ● Deformation is
❖ there is an axial deformation constant k predicted using
➢ change in length ● When unloaded quadratic or 2nd
➢ Lf = Lo + δ it returns to zero degree equation
❖ the void space accounts for because it’s given the
deformation reversible amount of load
● Covers the ● Covers the
3. Unloading
same path in same path in
❖ remove tensile force
loading and loading and
❖ return to its initial condition or
unloading totally unloading totally
state
going back to 0 going back to 0
❖ void spaces gone
that’s why that’s why
❖ final length = original length
there’s returning there’s returning
arrow arrow
LINEAR ELASTIC VS. NON-LINEAR Ex: F = 20 N then δ
ELASTIC = 20 mm
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
LAC
- there is a permanent deformation ● some plastic deformation remains,

caused by the shearing. elastic deformation is gone/removed
- it will never go back to its original ● won’t go back to its initial condition
dimension. since there is permanent
deformation already
FORCE VS. DEFORMATION
Orientation Of Atoms
1. Initial condition
● no spaces
At point (0,0) 0 force = 0 deformation
● when load or tensile load is applied,
- No force applied means no deformation
the body will elongate
- Linear elastic is gone but plastic
● the total amount of elongation is and
deformation is retained
its cross-section
- Deformation is permanent that’s why it
2. Load
will not return to its original state (0,0)
● orientation or arrangement of atoms
changed.
○ there is a sliding motion of STRESS
atoms which come up in
different directions that is - Amount of force applied in a certain area
called shear plane. - To determine the amount of stress,
○ Shear - if there’s slide determine the amount of load/force
● two deformation - elastic and plastic applied per unit area
deformation.
● sum of spaces = elastic deformation ENGINEERING STRESS
● cause of deformation - applied load
or when force or load is applied. The type of mechanical force that can
3. Unload produce the same type of stress.
● void spaces/spaces in between
disappear
● sheared plane remains since there’s
still sliding motion
LAC
MECHANICAL FORCES FORCE → DEFECT → DEFORMATION
DEFORMATION
1. Shear force (𝜎)
❖ acting parallel on area - Any change that will happen in the
❖ sliding motion dimension
➢ it tends to slide on a member - Changes on original orientation even if
with respect to the other it’s just little or minimal
❖ produces shear stress
2. Axial Force/Normal Force (𝛴) STRESS

❖ symbol: sigma (𝛴)
- Amount of force on the certain area
❖ forces acting perpendicular on the
- When the area decreases, the value of
body
stress increases.
❖ produce axial and normal stress.
Note: Use the original Area (Ao) in the
𝐹
formula because the area 𝜎= 𝐴
changes/varies as you apply
load/force. Area to be considered is
where the force is acting ❖ Axial/Normal force
perpendicular to. ➢ represented by sigma (𝛴)
➔ Tension force ➢ will result same stress
◆ Tends to pull the material ➢ divided into tensile or compressive
◆ Causes elongation on the stress
material (produces tensional ➢ Tensile Stress (Ft)
stress) ■ force applied perpendicular
➔ Compression force to the area
◆ Compressed or contract the ■ tends to pull
material ■ tensile force over the original
◆ Pushing motion area
3. Torsional moment/Torque
❖ rotating members 𝐹𝑡
❖ twist about an axis 𝐴𝑜
❖ results to torsional shear stress
4. Bending Moment formula which has no force applied yet.
❖ force applied perpendicular to the
axis ➢ Compressive Stress
❖ producing bending stress or flexural ■ tends to push
stress ■ compressive force over the
original area
LAC
𝐹𝑐 For A: TENSILE LOAD

● tensile load because it elongates
𝐴𝑜
● final length > original length
● final area became small
● length - increase
formula which has no force applied yet.
● cross sectional area - decrease.
❖ Torsional/Torques force For B: COMPRESSIVE LOAD
➢ torsional stress ● length - decrease length
● cross sectional area - increase
❖ Shear Stress (𝜏) For C: SHEAR
➢ symbol: tau (𝜏) ● no change in length and area,
➢ shear force ● there is deformation based on
■ tends to slide a member over orientation which is an angle
another ● there’s an inclination
➢ force acting parallel to area For D: TORSIONAL
➢ shear force over original area ● there’s only changes in orientation
● fiber/original - vertical
𝜎 ● final - twist/twisted
𝜏= 𝐴𝑜 ● Angular deformation - deformation in
terms of angle (angle of twist or
Note: Use the original Area (Ao) in the torsional deflection)
formula because the area
changes/varies as you apply load/force. ENGINEERING STRAIN
DIFFERENT WAYS TO APPLY LOAD - Change in the dimension over the

original dimension
- The unit in numerator and denominator
is the same that’s why the unit will be
cancelled
- Strain is dimensionless
Blue dash line- initial condition

Red dash line - final condition
Note: black ay original, final ay green
LAC
❖ TENSILE STRAIN
STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
➢ Change in length
Stress-strain diagram
δ ● output of tensile test
ε= 𝐿𝑜
Tensile-test
● Done in UTM (Universal Testing
❖ LATERAL STRAIN
Machine)
➢ Change in width
○ Many test can be done such as
➢ Numerator: δ𝑓 − δ𝑜=− δ𝐿
performing bending test, shear
■ negative because the test, tensile test, compression
width decreases test
−δ𝐿 Conduct testing

ε𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜
● aims to look for the mechanical
properties of the specimen
❖ SHEAR STRAIN Destructive testing

➢ No change in length at width ● meet failure of material to get the
➢ Orientation change property of the material
➢ Deformation is measured in
terms of the angle Sample Process:
➢ Use tan x ro get the angle (Θ) ● Load the specimen on the machine
● Type of test - destructive testing
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 ● Apply force on the load cell
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 depending on the amount of force
needed (tensile or compression)
○ Note the amount that will be
∆𝑥 used. Ex: 20 N
Θ= 𝑦 ○ Increase the amount of load
until it is destroyed.
● Check the diameter after being cut
for observation/conclusion purposes
LAC
TYPICAL TENSILE TEST MACHINE TYPICAL TENSILE SPECIMEN
Gauge length
- the one that is under study
PARTS OF THE TENSILE TEST
-take note because this will be the
MACHINE
baseline data that will be used.
Total length
❖ Specimen
- not included since not all length are
➢ material to be tested
included
❖ Load cell
➢ where you apply force (whether
WHY REDUCE THE CROSS SECTIONAL
tensile or compressive force)
AREA (FILLET)
➢ the specimen will be pulled
● to easily break the material
➢ take note of the amount
Fillet because:
❖ Moving crosshead
● stress raiser
➢ downward movement
● stress is concentrated in this area
➢ increase load
making the material or area weak
❖ Extensometer
then failure will occur
➢ change in length of the specimen
● It weakens the area to ensure failure
of the material
WHEN TO STOP- if the material is already
● categorize under destructive testing
cut because the purpose is to know the
material’s property Note: if it didn’t break, the purpose is
defeated.
LAC
Point E
LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES
- rupture strength (RS)
- strength at failure
DUCTILE BRITTLE - Theoretical value
Point E’
- applied load -didn’t undergo - rupture strength
elongation deformation so - Actual value
- has much because it
- higher than theoretical value (e)
fractured already
deformation
before fracture Note: The actual rupture strain (Point E’) is
higher than the ultimate strain (Point D) to
meet the failure of the materials by
DUCTILE MATERIAL increasing the load. In increasing the load,
the stress value will also increase (directly
Stress-strain diagram proportional).
Linear Elastic Area/Region

- From Point (0,0) to Point A
- Stress is directly proportional to
strain which is also known as
HOOKE’S LAW
𝜎 = 𝐸ε
Where:
where: Y axis - stress ; X axis - strain E = Young’s modulus
= Modulus of Elasticity
Point A = tensile force (Ft)
- proportional elastic limit (PEL) = proportionality constant
- straight line = proportionality strain
Point B = elongation
- elastic limit (EL) = compressive force
- curve = contraction
Point C Elastic Zone
- yield point (YP) - elastic deformation takes place
Note: (necking occurs at B and C on ductile - Deformation is gone
materials) Plastic Zone
Point D - Permanent deformation
- ultimate strength/stress (US) - From Point B to Point E
- Highest point
LAC
)( )
(9000 𝑁)(500 𝑚𝑚) 4
Axial Deformation 𝐷 = 2 π
(
(1.50 𝑚𝑚) 70000 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
❖ can either be contraction or
elongation depending on the 𝐷 = 7. 386975637 𝑚𝑚
strength
➢ tensile- elongation 𝐷 = 7. 3870 𝑚𝑚
➢ compressive - contraction
Formula:
𝐹 δ
𝐴
=𝐸 𝐿𝑜
𝐹𝐿𝑜
δ= 𝐴𝐸
Note: E is constant depending on the

material used.
PROBLEM 1
A cylindrical rod of Aluminum (E = 70

GPa) is to be subjected to a load of 9000 N.
If the deformation is entirely elastic, what
must the diameter be to allow an elongation
of 1.50mm in a length of 500mm? (in mm)
Given:
1000 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐸 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎 * 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝐸 = 70000𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 70000 𝑁
F = 9000 N
δ = 1.50 mm
Lo = 500 mm
Solution:
𝐹𝐿𝑜 𝐹𝐿𝑜
δ= 𝐴𝐸
⇒𝐴 = δ𝐸
( )𝐷
π
4
2
=
𝐹𝐿𝑜
δ𝐸
2
𝐷 =
𝐹𝐿𝑜
δ𝐸 ( )
4
π
𝐷 =
𝐹𝐿𝑜
δ𝐸 ( ) 4
π
LAC

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MODULE 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF MSE

ME - 413 | MATERIALS ENGINEERING AND TESTING

MATERIALS SCIENCE 4 COMPONENTS OF MATERIALS

Arrangement → Structure → Properties

- On the basis of these

MATERIALS CHOOSING FACTORS AFFECTING THE

TYPES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

COMPOSITE - combination of any

crystalline SiO2 noncrystalline SiO2

ENERGY AND PACKING CRYSTALLINE NON CRYSTALLINE

Ex: metals, many Occurs for:

Atoms ARE NOT Atoms ARE

MATERIALS AND PACKING

SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE (SC) FACE-CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE

2. Number of atoms per unit cell (N):

2. Number of atoms per unit cell (N):

3. Radius (R) in terms of ‘a’:

2. Number of atoms per unit cell (N):

1 Atoms are tangent Atoms are tangent

3 upper layer atoms

2. Number of atoms per unit cell (N): 6

3. Radius (R) in terms of ‘a’:

SUMMARY OF THE PROPERTIES

Volume of unit cell = area of base x

● Vc = (SC, BCC, FCC - cube;

○ Must know the relation

WHAT IS MATERIALS SCIENCE AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC

● different responses THERMAL PROPERTIES

Environmental: Some materials corrode

OPTICAL PROPERTIES RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF COPPER THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF COPPER

In the graph above,

Copper with Zinc DETERIORATIVE

Iron added with silicon

At “As Is” That Undergoes

● The alloy has ● The alloy is

● In order to increase the performance

● Torsional force - torsional stress

FORCES ISSUES TO ADDRESS:

MECHANICAL FORCES Elastic Deformation

2. Small Load At point (0,0) 0 force = 0 deformation

- there is a permanent deformation ● some plastic deformation remains,

FORCE VS. DEFORMATION

MECHANICAL FORCES FORCE → DEFECT → DEFORMATION

2. Axial Force/Normal Force (𝛴) STRESS

𝐹𝑐 For A: TENSILE LOAD

DIFFERENT WAYS TO APPLY LOAD - Change in the dimension over the

Blue dash line- initial condition

−δ𝐿 Conduct testing

❖ SHEAR STRAIN Destructive testing

TYPICAL TENSILE TEST MACHINE TYPICAL TENSILE SPECIMEN

Linear Elastic Area/Region

Note: E is constant depending on the

A cylindrical rod of Aluminum (E = 70

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