Qs. Barrier of immunity.

The barriers of immunity are physical and chemical defenses that protect the body from pathogens.
They include:

1. **Physical Barriers:** Skin, mucous membranes, and cilia lining the respiratory tract physically block
pathogens from entering the body.

2. **Chemical Barriers:** Stomach acid, enzymes, and antimicrobial proteins in body fluids (like saliva
and tears) destroy or inhibit the growth of pathogens.

These barriers form the body's first line of defense against infections.

Qs. Primary immunity vs secondary immunity.

| Aspect | Primary Immunity | Secondary Immunity |

|-----------------------|----------------------------------------|---------------------------------------|

| **Development** | First exposure to a pathogen or antigen | Occurs after the second exposure to
the same pathogen or antigen |

| **Response Time** | Slower response; it takes time to develop specific antibodies | Rapid
response; antibodies are produced more quickly |

| **Antibody Levels** | Lower antibody levels initially | Higher antibody levels |

| **Memory Response** | No immunological memory; no rapid response upon re-exposure |

Immunological memory is established; rapid and specific response upon re-exposure |

| **Protection Duration**| Provides some protection but not as effective as secondary immunity |
Provides strong and long-lasting protection |

| **Examples** | First encounter with a new pathogen | Subsequent encounters with the same
pathogen |

Primary immunity is the body's initial response to a pathogen, while secondary immunity is the immune
response that occurs upon re-exposure to the same pathogen, resulting in a faster and more effective
defense.

Qs. What are the lymphoid organ?

Lymphoid organs are part of the lymphatic system and play a crucial role in the body's immune
response. They include:

1. **Thymus:** Located in the chest, the thymus is where T cells (a type of white blood cell) mature and
differentiate.

2. **Spleen:** The spleen filters blood and removes damaged blood cells. It also contains immune cells
that help fight infections.

3. **Lymph Nodes:** Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped structures found throughout the body. They
filter lymph (a clear fluid containing white blood cells) and help trap and destroy pathogens.
4. **Tonsils:** Tonsils are clusters of lymphoid tissue in the throat. They help protect against respiratory
and gastrointestinal infections.

5. **Adenoids:** Adenoids are similar to tonsils but located in the back of the throat, near the nasal
passages. They play a role in immune defense, especially in children.

6. **Bone Marrow:** Although not typically considered a lymphoid organ, bone marrow is essential for
the production of white blood cells, including lymphocytes (T cells and B cells).

These lymphoid organs work together to detect and combat infections and maintain overall immune
system function.

Qs. Soluble component of innate and adaptive.

**Soluble Components of Innate Immunity:**

1. **Complement Proteins:** These proteins circulate in the blood and, when activated, play a role in
the destruction of pathogens by promoting inflammation and enhancing phagocytosis.

2. **Cytokines:** These signaling molecules regulate immune responses. In innate immunity, they can
trigger inflammation and recruit immune cells to the site of infection.

3. **Interferons:** Interferons are proteins that interfere with viral replication and help neighboring
cells resist infection.

4. **Lysozyme:** Found in bodily secretions like tears and saliva, lysozyme can break down the cell
walls of certain bacteria.

**Soluble Components of Adaptive Immunity:**

1. **Antibodies (Immunoglobulins):** Antibodies are proteins produced by B cells in response to

specific pathogens. They can bind to and neutralize pathogens, marking them for destruction.

2. **Cytokines:** Cytokines also play a role in adaptive immunity, regulating the activities of immune
cells and coordinating the immune response.

3. **Interleukins:** These are a type of cytokine that facilitates communication between immune cells,
helping to activate and regulate the adaptive immune response.

While both innate and adaptive immunity involve soluble components, antibodies are a key feature of
adaptive immunity, providing specific and long-lasting protection against pathogens. Innate immunity,
on the other hand, relies on general mechanisms and soluble factors to provide immediate, but non-
specific, defense.

Qs. Describe the criteria of good antigen.

Good antigens, which are molecules capable of triggering an immune response, typically possess certain
criteria:

1. **Foreignness:** Good antigens are often foreign to the host organism, meaning they are not part of
the host's own tissues or cells. The immune system is designed to recognize and respond to foreign
invaders.
2. **Complexity:** Antigens are usually complex molecules, such as proteins or large polysaccharides.
Complex structures are more likely to be recognized by the immune system.

3. **Molecular Size:** Antigens are typically larger than 10,000 Daltons in size. Smaller molecules may
not be as immunogenic.

4. **Chemical Composition:** Antigens often have a variety of chemical groups, such as epitopes or
antigenic determinants, that can be recognized by immune cells or antibodies.

5. **Stability:** Antigens need to be stable enough to persist and remain intact during the immune
response. Fragile antigens may be degraded before an effective response occurs.

6. **Accessibility:** Antigens should be accessible to immune cells. They should be present on the
surface of pathogens or presented by antigen-presenting cells.

7. **Variability:** Pathogens can often change or mutate their antigens to evade the immune system.
Good antigens may have some degree of variability to ensure that the immune system can recognize
different strains or variants of a pathogen.

8. **Quantity:** Antigens should be present in sufficient quantities to trigger an immune response. Low
antigen concentrations may not activate the immune system effectively.

9. **Adjuvants:** Some antigens may require the presence of adjuvants, which are substances that
enhance the immune response. Adjuvants are often added to vaccines to improve their immunogenicity.

These criteria help determine whether a molecule is likely to elicit a strong and specific immune
response when introduced into an organism.

Qs. Name the different Covid vaccine.

As of my last knowledge update in September 2021, several COVID-19 vaccines were authorized for
emergency use or approved in various countries. Some of the widely recognized COVID-19 vaccines
included:

1. **Pfizer-BioNTech (Comirnaty):** Developed by Pfizer and BioNTech, this mRNA vaccine was among
the first to receive widespread approval.

2. **Moderna:** Developed by Moderna, this mRNA vaccine is similar in technology to the Pfizer-
BioNTech vaccine.

3. **Johnson & Johnson's Janssen:** Developed by Janssen Pharmaceuticals, a subsidiary of Johnson &
Johnson, this is a viral vector-based vaccine.

4. **AstraZeneca-Oxford:** Developed by AstraZeneca and the University of Oxford, this viral vector
vaccine was authorized for use in many countries.

5. **Sinopharm:** Developed by China National Pharmaceutical Group (Sinopharm), this inactivated

virus vaccine was used in several countries.

6. **Sinovac (CoronaVac):** Developed by Sinovac Biotech, this is another inactivated virus vaccine
from China.
7. **Sputnik V:** Developed by the Gamaleya Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology in
Russia, this viral vector vaccine was widely used in Russia and other countries.