LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 18e

John W. Santrock

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 Chapter 3

Prenatal Development and Birth

© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
 Chapter Outline
• Prenatal Development.
• Birth.
• The Postpartum Period.

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 Prenatal Development: Topics
• The course of prenatal development.

• Teratology and hazards to prenatal development.

• Prenatal care.

• Normal prenatal development.

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 The Course of Prenatal Development 1

The germinal period:

The germinal period of prenatal development occurs in the first 2

weeks after conception.

It includes:
• Creation of the zygote.
• Continued cell division.
• Attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.

Blastocyst: the inner layer of cells that develops into the embryo.

Trophoblast: the outer layer of cells that provides nutrition and

support for the embryo.

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 The Course of Prenatal Development 2

FIGURE 1: SIGNIFICANT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE GERMINAL PERIOD

Just one week after conception, cells of the blastocyst have already begun specializing. The germinal
period ends when the blastocyst attaches to the uterine wall.

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 The Course of Prenatal Development 3

The embryonic period:

The embryonic period of prenatal development occurs 2 to 8

weeks after conception.

The rate of cell differentiation intensifies, and the mass of cells is

now called embryo.
• Three layers of cells: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm
(inner, middle, and outer layers).

Life-support systems for the embryo form, and organs appear.

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 The Course of Prenatal Development 4

• Amnion: a sac that contains a clear fluid in which the

developing embryo floats.

• Umbilical cord: contains two arteries and one vein and

connects the baby to the placenta.

• Placenta: a disk-shaped group of tissues in which small blood

vessels from the mother and the fetus intertwine but do not join.

• Organogenesis: organ formation that takes place during the

first 2 months of prenatal development.

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 The Course of Prenatal Development 5

FIGURE 2: THE PLACENTA AND THE UMBILICAL CORD

The area bound by the square is enlarged in the right half of the illustration. Arrows indicate the direction
of blood flow. Maternal blood flows through the uterine arteries to the spaces housing the placenta, and it
returns through the uterine veins to the maternal circulation. Fetal blood flows through the umbilical
arteries into the capillaries of the placenta and returns through the umbilical vein to the fetal circulation.
The exchange of materials takes place across the layer separating the maternal and fetal blood supplies,
so the bloods never come into contact.

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 The Course of Prenatal Development 6

The fetal period:

• The fetal period lasts about seven months, from between 2

months after conception and birth.

• At birth, the average American baby weighs 8 pounds and is

about 20 inches long.

• Prenatal development is also commonly divided into three equal

periods of three months, called trimesters. These are not the
same as the germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods.

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 The Course of Prenatal Development 7

FIGURE 3: THE THREE TRIMESTERS OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Both the germinal and embryonic periods occur during the first trimester. The end of the first trimester as
well as the second and third trimesters are part of the fetal period.

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 The First Trimester of Prenatal Development 1

Conception to 4 weeks:
• Is less than 1/10 inch long.
• Beginning development of spinal cord, nervous system,
gastrointestinal system, heart, and lungs.
• Amniotic sac envelops the preliminary tissues of entire body.
• Is called a "zygote.”

At 8 weeks:
• Is just over 1 inch long.
• Face is forming with rudimentary eyes, ears, mouth, and tooth buds.
• Arms and legs are moving.
• Brain is forming.
• Fetal heartbeat is detectable with ultrasound.
• Is called an "embryo.”
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 The First Trimester of Prenatal Development 2

At 12 weeks:
• Is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce.
• Can move arms, legs, fingers, and toes.
• Fingerprints are present.
• Can smile, frown, suck, and swallow.
• Sex is distinguishable.
• Can urinate.
• Is called a “fetus.”

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 The Second Trimester of Prenatal
Development 1

At 16 weeks:
• Is about 6 inches long and weighs about 4 to 7 ounces.
• Heartbeat is strong.
• Skin is thin, transparent.
• Downy hair (lanugo) covers body.
• Fingernails and toenails are forming.
• Has coordinated movements; is able to roll over in amniotic fluid.

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 The Second Trimester of Prenatal
Development 2

At 20 weeks:
• Is about 12 inches long and weighs close to 1 pound.
• Heartbeat is audible with ordinary stethoscope.
• Sucks thumb.
• Hiccups.
• Hair, eyelashes, eyebrows are present.

At 24 weeks:
• Is about 14 inches long an weighs 1 to 1 1 2 pounds.
• Skin is wrinkled and covered with protective coating (vernix caseosa).
• Eyes are open.
• Waste matter is collected in bowel.
• Has strong grip.
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 The Third Trimester of Prenatal Development 1

At 28 weeks:
• Is about 16 inches long and weighs about 3 pounds.
• Is adding body fat.
• Is very active.
• Rudimentary breathing movements are present.

At 32 weeks:
• Is 16 1 2 to 18 inches long and weighs 4 to 5 pounds.
• Has periods of sleep and wakefulness.
• Responds to sounds.
• May assume the birth position.
• Bones of head are soft and flexible.
• Iron is being stored in liver.
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 The Third Trimester of Prenatal Development 2

At 36 to 38 weeks:
• Is 19 to 20 inches long and weighs 6 to 7 1 2 pounds.

• Skin is less wrinkled.

• Vernix caseosa is thick.
• Lanugo is mostly gone.
• Is less active.
• Is gaining immunities from mother.

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 The Course of Prenatal Development 8

Brain development:

Babies are born with 20 to 100 billion neurons—the nerve cells in

the brain that handle information processing at the cellular level.

Four important phases of the brain’s development in the prenatal

period involve:
• The neural tube;
• Neurogenesis;
• Neuronal migration; and
• Neural connectivity.

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 The Course of Prenatal Development 9

The pear-shaped neural tube develops out of the ectoderm at

about 18 to 24 days after conception.
• Two birth defects related to a failure of the neural tube to close
are anencephaly and spina bifida.
Neurogenesis is the massive proliferation of new immature
neurons, beginning at about week 5 and continuing through the
remainder of the prenatal period.

Neuronal migration, the process of cells moving outward from their

point of origin to their appropriate locations takes place between 6
and 24 weeks.

Neural connectivity, at about the 23rd week, is when connections

between neurons begin to occur.

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 Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal
Development 1

Teratogen: any agent that can cause a birth defect or negatively alter
cognitive and behavioral developmental outcomes.

• Teratology: the study of the cause of birth defects.

Severity of damage and type of defect depend on:

• Dose;
• Genetic susceptibility; and
• Time of exposure.

Negative effects of exposure during the fetal period include:

• Stunted growth.
• Fetal brain development problems.
• Organ functioning problems.

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 Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal
Development 2

FIGURE 5: TERATOGENS AND THE TIMING OF THEIR EFFECTS ON PRENATAL

DEVELOPMENT

The danger of structural defects caused by teratogens is greatest early in embryonic development.

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 Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal
Development 3

Both prescription and nonprescription drugs can have effects on

the embryo or fetus.

Prescription drugs that can function as teratogens include:

• Antibiotics, such as streptomycin and tetracycline.
• Some antidepressants.
• Certain hormones, such as progestin and synthetic estrogen.
• Accutane, an acne medication.

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 Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal
Development 4

Psychoactive drugs act on the nervous system, altering states of

consciousness, modifying perceptions, and changing moods.
• Examples include caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, cocaine,
marijuana, and heroin.

Caffeine has been linked to lower birth weight and babies being
born small for gestational age.

Alcohol can be devastating.

• Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a cluster of

abnormalities that appear in the offspring of some mothers who
drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy.
• Effects include facial deformities, limb and heart defects,
learning problems, and many other issues.
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 Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal
Development 5

• Nicotine (cigarette smoking by pregnant women) is linked to low

birth weight, ADHD, impaired newborn brain development, and
other effects.

• Cocaine quickly crosses the placenta to reach the fetus and is

associated with neurological, medical, and cognitive deficits.

• Marijuana use is related to lower intelligence, low birth weight,

and a greater likelihood of being in neonatal intensive care unit.

• Infants of mothers addicted to heroin show several behavioral

difficulties at birth.

• Synthetic opioids and opiate-related pain killers present a risk

for infants experiencing opioid withdrawal.

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 Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal
Development 6

• Environmental hazards to the embryo or fetus include radiation,

toxic wastes, and other chemical pollutants.

• X-ray radiation can affect the developing embryo or fetus.

• Environmental pollutants and toxic wastes can cross the

placenta from mother to offspring.

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 Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal
Development 7

Maternal diseases:
• Rubella
• Syphilis.
• Genital herpes.
• HIV/AIDS.
• Diabetes.

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 Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal
Development 8

Other parental factors:

Maternal diet and nutrition—especially, lack of folic acid, and

consuming mercury-laden fish.

Maternal obesity.

Maternal age.

Emotional states and stress.

Paternal factors:
• Sperm abnormalities from lead or radiation exposure, which
may lead to miscarriage or diseases.
• Smoking during the mother’s pregnancy.

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 Prenatal Care 1

Prenatal care varies enormously but typically includes screening

for manageable conditions and treatable diseases.

Programs include educational, social, and nutritional services.

Exercise during pregnancy regulates blood pressure, reduces risk

of hypertension, conditions the body, controls weight gain, and
regulates the bowels.
• It is also associated with a more positive mental state, including
reduced levels of stress and depression.
• Yoga reduces stress and enhances immune system functioning.

Exercise also has positive benefits for offspring, including more

advanced development of the neonatal brain.

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 Prenatal Care 2

CenteringPregnancy is a relationship-centered program providing

complete prenatal care in a group setting or group prenatal care.
• Sessions emphasize empowering women to play an active role
in experiencing a positive pregnancy.
• Research shows positive outcomes for the fetus and child as
well as the mother.

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 Normal Prenatal Development
• Prospective parents should take steps to avoid vulnerabilities to
fetal development.

• Most of the time, however, development occurs along a positive

path.

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 Birth: Topics
• The birth process.
• Assessing the newborn.
• Preterm and low birth weight infants.

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 The Birth Process 1

Stages of birth:
First stage: uterine contractions are 15 to 20 minutes apart and
last up to 1 minute.

• This is the longest stage, 6 to 12 hours.

Second stage: the baby’s head starts to move through the cervix
and birth canal.

• This takes 45 minutes to an hour and ends when the baby

completely emerges from the mother’s body.

Third stage: afterbirth.

• Afterbirth: when the placenta, umbilical cord, and other

membranes are detached and expelled, lasting only minutes.
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 The Birth Process 2

Childbirth setting and attendants:

In the United States, 98.5% of births take place in hospitals.

• Of the 1.5% outside of hospitals, 63% are at home; 31% at

birthing centers.

Midwives provide health care to women during pregnancy, birth,

and the postpartum period.

• Only about 9% of births in the U.S. are attended by a midwife.

Doula: a caregiver who provides continuous physical, emotional,

and educational support for the mother before, during, and after
childbirth.

• Typically function as part of a “birthing team.”

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 The Birth Process 3

Methods of childbirth:

Three basic kinds of drugs used for labor are analgesia,

anesthesia, and oxytocin/Pitocin.

Natural childbirth: attempts to reduce the mother’s pain by

decreasing her fear through information and instruction in
relaxation techniques.

Prepared childbirth: the Lamaze method.

• Includes a special breathing technique to control pushing in the
final stages of labor, along with a more detailed anatomy and
physiology course.

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 The Birth Process 4

Cesarean delivery: surgically removing the baby from the

mother’s uterus through an abdominal incision.
• Indicated in cases of breech position, fetal distress, maternal
vaginal bleeding, and a natural birth hindered by an epidural.
• Breech position: the baby’s position in the uterus causes the
buttocks to be the first part to emerge.

Benefits and risks of cesarean delivery continue to be debated.

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 Assessing the Newborn 1

Apgar scale: a method for assessing the health of newborns at

one and five minutes after birth.
• Infant’s heart rate.
• Respiratory effort.
• Muscle tone.
• Body color.
• Reflex irritability.

Low Apgar scores are associated with long-term educational

support, ADHD, and developmental risks.

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 Assessing the Newborn 2

Score 0 1 2
Heart rate Absent Slow—less than 100 Fast—100 to 140 beats
beats per minute per minute
Respiratory effort No breathing for Irregular and slow Good breathing with
more than one normal crying
minute
Muscle tone Limp and flaccid Weak, inactive, but Strong, active motion
some flexion of
extremities
Body color Blue and pale Body pink, but Entire body pink
extremities blue
Reflex irritability No response Grimace Coughing, sneezing,
and crying

TABLE 6: THE AGPAR SCALE

A newborn’s score on the Apgar Scale indicates whether the baby has urgent medical problems.

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 Assessing the Newborn 3

• Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS):

used in the first month of life to assess the newborn’s
neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people and
objects.

• Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS):

assessment of the newborn’s behavior, neurological and stress
responses, and regulatory capacities.

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 Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants 1

Preterm and small for date infants:

Low birth weight infants weigh less than 5 pounds 8 ounces.

• Very low birth weight: less than 3 pounds 4 ounces.
• Extremely low birth weight: less than 2 pounds 3 ounces.

Preterm infants are born before the full term is completed—35 or

fewer weeks after conception.

Small for date infants (or small for gestational age infants) are
infants with birth weights below normal considering the length of
pregnancy.

• May be full term or preterm.

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 Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants 2

In 2017, 9.9% of U.S. infants were born preterm.

Women who engage in physical activity have a decreased risk of

preterm delivery.

Adolescents who give birth when their bodies have not fully
matured are at increased risk of having low birth weight babies.

Consequences of preterm birth and low birth weight:

Although most such infants are healthy, as a group they have

more health problems and developmental delays.
• The number and severity increase when they are born very
early and very small.

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 Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants 3

FIGURE 7: PERCENTAGE OF INFANTS BORN WITH LOW BIRTH WEIGHT IN

SELECTED COUNTRIES
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 Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants 4

FIGURE 8: PERCENTAGE OF PRETERM AND FULL-TERM INFANTS WHO DROPPED

OUT OF SCHOOL
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 Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants 5

Nurturing low birth weight and preterm infants:

Kangaroo care: skin-to-skin contact with the baby upright against

the parent’s bare chest.
• Has long-term benefits, including better respiratory and
cardiovascular functioning, sleep patterns, and cognitive
functioning from ages 6 months to 10 years.
• Positive emotional and cognitive effects are still present after 20
years.

Massage therapy has been linked to increased infant weight,

reduced stress, and a reduced hospital stay.

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 The Postpartum Period: Topics
• Physical adjustments.

• Emotional and psychological adjustments.

• Bonding.

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 The Postpartum Period
Postpartum period: the period after childbirth that lasts until the
mother’s body has completed its adjustment and has returned to a
nearly prepregnant state.

Adjustments needed are:

• Physical;
• Emotional, and
• Psychological.

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 Physical Adjustments
• Fatigue undermines a new mother’s sense of well-being and
confidence in her ability to cope with a new baby and family life.

• Loss of sleep contributes to stress, marital conflict, and

impaired decision making.

• Hormonal changes include estrogen and progesterone levels

dropping steeply when the placenta is delivered and remaining
low until the ovaries start producing hormones again.

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 Emotional and Psychological Adjustments 1

Postpartum depression: a condition experienced by women that

have trouble coping with daily tasks during the postpartum period.
• Feelings peak 3 to 5 days after giving birth and may come and
go for several months; but the feelings usually subside within 1
to 2 weeks, even without treatment.
• Risk factors include depression and anxiety during pregnancy,
low self-esteem, postpartum blues, poor marital relationship,
lack of social support, and history of depression.
• Can have a long-term impact on the child’s emotions and
behaviors.
• A spouse or partner experiencing depression also affects the
infant; and both parents experiencing depression negatively
impacts infant bonding.

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 Emotional and Psychological Adjustments 2

FIGURE 10: SLEEP DEPRIVATION IN PREGNANT AND POSTPARTUM

WOMEN
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 Emotional and Psychological Adjustments 3

FIGURE 11: POSTPARTUM BLUES AND POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION AMONG U.S.

WOMEN
Some health professionals refer to the postpartum period as the “fourth trimester.” Though the time span of the postpartum
period does not necessarily cover three months, the term “fourth trimester” suggests the continuity and the importance of
the first several months after birth for the mother and baby.

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 Bonding
• Bonding: the formation of a connection, especially a
physical bond between parents and their newborn shortly
after birth.

• Rooming-in arrangement:
the baby remains in the
mother’s room most of the time
during its hospital stay.

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