Learning Squid

Learning SQUID
Kyogo Nagashima
Oberlin College, Chemistry
November 15th, 2023
Kyogo Nagashima, Nov 15th, 2023. Do not distribute without permission of the author.
Table of Contents
1. Basics of Magnetism ................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Review of Magnetic Moments ......................................................................................3
1.2 Magnetic Moments in Materials ...................................................................................4
1.3 Magnetization .................................................................................................................5
References ..................................................................................................................................5
2. Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability .............................................................. 6
2.1 Magnetic Susceptibility .................................................................................................6
2.2 Magnetic Permeability ...................................................................................................8
References ..................................................................................................................................9
3. Electron Configuration of Materials ........................................................................ 9
3.1 Diamagnetism ................................................................................................................9
3.2 Ferromagnetism ........................................................................................................... 10
3.3 Anti-ferromagnetism ...................................................................................................10
3.4 Ferrimagnetism ............................................................................................................ 10
3.5 Paramagnetism ............................................................................................................ 10
References ................................................................................................................................ 11
4. Interpreting a Hysteresis Curve ................................................................................ 12
Remnance .................................................................................................................................14
Coercivity ..................................................................................................................................14
References ................................................................................................................................ 14
5. Fundamentals of SQUID .......................................................................................... 15
5.1 Superconductivity........................................................................................................ 15
5.2 Cooper Pairs ................................................................................................................. 16
5.3 Josephson Effect ......................................................................................................... 19
References ................................................................................................................................ 20
6. How SQUID Works ................................................................................................... 21
References ................................................................................................................................ 22
1. Basics of Magnetism
In this chapter, we will review the basics of magnetism and orient ourselves into
thinking about magnetism in the context of chemistry and materials .
1.1 Review of Magnetic Moments
Magnetic moments tell us the direction and strength of a magnet.
Here, when I refer to magnets, this can be of various strengths from very weak magnets
to strong magnets. In other words, whatever produces a magnetic field would be a
magnet.
Let’s briefly review what magnetic moments are.
The magnitude of magnetic moments can be formally defined as the maximum

torque that a magnet will experience when it is placed under a magnetic
field.
In other words, when a magnet/object is placed under the influence of a magnetic field,
it tends to align itself with the direction of the external magnetic field.
In other words, there is a torque that the object experiences due to its tendency to
align itself.
The magnetic moment, 𝑝, is defined by the following equation.
𝝉=𝒑×𝑩
In the equation above, 𝝉 is the torque with units of 𝑵𝒎, and 𝑩 is the
external magnetic field with units of 𝑻.
Elementary particles also have a magnetic field.
For example, electrons have a magnetic moment. The magnetic moment of an
electron arises from its negative charge as well as its intrinsic spin.
The electron moving around the nucleus, therefore has a magnetic moment.
However, this is the case of a single atom.
How can we transfer this idea to bulk materials?
In other words,
“how do chemists think about this?”.

1.2 Magnetic Moments in Materials
Materials are composed of a collection of atoms and therefore electrons.
In most materials, this magnetic moment of individual atoms and electrons are
oriented randomly so that they basically cancel out.
However, this is not always the case…

Depending on the characteristics of the material and the conditions it is placed in,
materials can have a net magnetic moment.
This means that the individual magnetic moments are oriented so that they don’t
cancel out.
1.3 Magnetization
The magnetization of a material tells us about the
extent to which a material is “magnetic”.
However, the key is that this property will vary depending, not just on the material, but
also with the conditions in which it is placed in.
For example, a material placed under the influence of a magnetic field will
become magnetized.
However, depending on the material, different materials will retain that

magnetization for varying lengths of time.
The retention and type of the magnetic field will depend on the electron structure of the
material and it’s responsive to changes in conditions like temperature.
The magnetization of an object, referred to as the magnetic moment is a vector value,

meaning it has magnitude and direction.
The intensity of magnetization which is of interest is the magnetization of a material per

unit volume.
𝑴 = 𝒎/𝑽
Where 𝑴 is the intensity of magnetization, 𝒎 is the magnetization of the material, and 𝑽
is the volume of the material.
References
- Magnetism, LibreText Chemistry.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Physical_Methods_
in_Chemistry_and_Nano_Science_(Barron)/04%3A_Chemical_Speciation/4.01%
3A_Magnetism (accessed 2023-07-25).
- The SI Definition of Magnetic Moment, LibreTexts Physics.
https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Electricity_and_Magnetism/Electricity_an
d_Magnetism_(Tatum)/17%3A_Magnetic_Dipole_Moment/17.02%3A_The_SI_D
efinition_of_Magnetic_Moment#:~:text=%CF%84%3Dp%C3%97B.,clearly%20N
%20m%20T%E2%88%921.&text=%CF%84%3DIA%C3%97B (accessed 2023-
07-25).
2. Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability

2.1 Magnetic Susceptibility
Simply put, magnetic susceptibility is the likeliness for a material to

align itself to an exterior magnetic field.
As we have discussed in the previous chapter, when a magnet is put in the
influence of an exterior magnetic field, it will tend to align itself with the
magnetic field.
In the case of a strong magnet, this torque will be larger in magnitude.
But how about for other types of materials?
For other materials, by placing them in the influence of an exterior

magnetic field, the individual atomic magnetic moments may align itself
with the field, magnetizing the object.
Simply put, by aligning with the exterior magnetic field, the material can achieve a
lower energy state than when it’s not.
But this is not always the case.
Some materials will not become magnetized.
The energy it takes for the material to align itself with the magnetic field may be too
large.
This happens when the given external magnetic field is not strong enough to go past the
binding energy of the material being in the same state.
This binding energy that keeps the material from getting magnetized depends on the
properties of the material as well as other conditions like temperature.
𝑴
𝝌=
𝑯
The magnetic susceptibility 𝝌 is the quotient of the variation of magnetization, 𝑀

and the applied magnetic field 𝑯.
This makes sense because the variation of magnetization would naturally

increase with increasing magnetic field.
Therefore, the magnetic susceptibility is calculated by dividing the variation of

magnetization by the external magnetic field.
2.2 Magnetic Permeability
The magnetic permeability of a material can be defined as the ability for a material to
conduct magnetic flux.
In other words, it is the ability for a material to conduct a magnetic field.
Magnetic flux can be defined as the total magnetic field that goes through a given
area.
The magnetic permeability is defined by the following equation.
𝐵
𝝁=
𝑯
𝝁 is the total magnetic permeability, 𝐵 is the magnetic flux density, and 𝑯 is the
applied magnetic field.
Higher the magnetic permeability, the better the material is at holding magnetic flux.
The total magnetic permeability can be defined as
𝝁 = 𝝁𝟎 × 𝜇𝑟
𝝁
𝜇𝑟 =
𝝁𝟎
Where 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑯/𝒎
𝝁𝒓 is the relative magnetic permeability and 𝝁𝟎 is the permeability of vacuum.
As you may have expected, vacuum has a very poor magnetic permeability.
Pretty straight forward if you think about the vacuum’s ability to conduct magnetic flux:
hence the extremely low value.
For example, substances such as wood and plastic have similar levels of magnetic
permeability.
Therefore, there relative permeabilities are close to 1.
References
- Magnetism, LibreTexts Chemistry.

- Permeability, The Engineering ToolBox.
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/permeability-d_1923.html (accessed 2023-
07-26).
- What is Magnetic Flux. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/magnetic-
forces-and-magnetic-fields/magnetic-flux-faradays-law/a/what-is-magnetic-flux
(accessed 2023-07-26).
3. Electron Configuration of Materials

The magnetic properties of materials are determined by the electron spin configurations.
In this chapter, we will briefly cover various electron configurations that are observed.
This chapter is only a refresher, and we will go into further details in the following
chapter.
3.1 Diamagnetism
This is the most basic type.

Diamagnetism is when there are no unpaired electrons. In other words, all the electrons
are in pairs and therefore cancel out.
When diamagnetic materials are placed under a magnetic field, it will experience a
negative moment. Notice that when there is no external magnetic field applied, the
magnetization is zero because the electron spins always cancel out!
3.2 Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetism is when the electron spins are oriented parallel to each other.
3.3 Anti-ferromagnetism
Anti-ferromagnetism is when the electron spins are aligned anti-parallel for every
parallel electron spin.
3.4 Ferrimagnetism
Ferrimagnetism is just like anti-ferromagnetism, but they do not cancel.
3.5 Paramagnetism
Paramagnetism is when the electron spins are oriented randomly.
When an external magnetic field is applied to a paramagnetic substance, it experiences
a positive moment.
This is because the moments will tend to align with the magnetic field. As the strength of
the magnetic field increases, more moments become aligned.
Therefore, the magnetization also increases.
However, this does not hold above a certain temperature because the thermal energy
would be too high disallowing the moments to align as it normally would.
Also, even though there may be a net moment locally, because in a paramagnetic
material the moments are oriented randomly, at zero applied field, the magnetizations
all cancel out.
References

07-25).
4. Interpreting a Hysteresis Curve
In this chapter, we will be looking into some key properties like hysteresis, remnance,
coercivity, and temperature dependence of magnetism in materials.
Hysteresis is the ability for a material to retain its magnetization.
For example, some materials when put under the influence of an external magnetic
field, it will become magnetized. Then, once you remove the external magnetic field,
what happens to the material? Does it retain its magnetism? If so, how long does it
retain and how does its magnetism decay?
That is what hysteresis of a material answers.
Hysteresis curves can help you answer if the material is diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or
ferromagnetic.
Let’s look at a hysteresis curve for a typical ferromagnetic material.
As you can see from first glance, they are much more complex compared to
diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials as you saw in the previous chapter.
Diamagnetic and paramagnetic hysteresis curves looked like the following.
At point 1, at the origin of the graph is our starting point. Here, at zero applied field, the
material is not magnetized. What is meant by this is that this material has not yet been
applied a magnetic field and therefore has no magnetic properties yet...
At point 2, as the magnetic field increase, the magnetization reaches a saturation point.
In other words, the magnetization no longer increases above that point.
Remnance
Then, when the applied external magnetic field goes back to zero, the magnetization
doesn’t necessarily go back to zero.
The magnetization when the applied field goes back to zero is called the remnance
magnetization.
Coercivity
The coercive field is reached when the magnetization of the material goes back to zero
again. Notice how an external magnetic field must be applied in the opposite direction
for it to be de- magnetized.
References
- Magnetism, LibreTexts Chemistry.
07-25).
5. Fundamentals of SQUID
In this chapter, we will go into the basic principles and physical concepts that
are necessary to understand the theory behind SQUID magnetometry.
SQUID stands for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device.

SQUID Magnetometers use super conductance and the Josephson effect.
We will now go through what those two things are.
5.1 Superconductivity
A SQUID magnetometer makes use of superconducting devices. Here I will try to

explain what superconductors are.
When certain materials are cooled down below a certain temperature, current can
flow through that material with zero-resistance.
While most conductive materials will see a decrease in resistance as the

temperature decreases, superconducting materials will make a drop to zero-
resistance at a certain temperature.
This temperature is called the critical temperature.
Another key feature of superconducting material is that it completely repels the flow
of magnetic fields around the material.
This effect is called the Meisner effect.
That is why a magnet will float over cooled down superconducting material.
The magnetic field coming out from the magnet will be expelled when it hits the
superconductive material, resisting gravity.
5.2 Cooper Pairs
Next, we will go over the concept of cooper pairs which is a way to model/explain
superconductivity.
In metals, as you learned in general chemistry, there are atomic cores that make up
the lattice and valence electrons that flow around it in metallic bonding theory.
In a crystalline material at standard temperature, the crystal lattice/atomic cores will be
vibrating.
This vibration in the crystal lattice will interact with the electrons flowing around.
However, some materials, have a much firmer crystal lattice in which the atomic
cores are less likely to be vibrating.
If the temperature is cooled even further, the crystal lattice will become even more
firmer. Then the valence electrons will be less likely to be scattered by the atomic
cores.
Now, going back to resistance and electric current.
Electric current is “electrons flowing through a material” because current is the

movement of electrons.
What creates resistance to this flow of electrons is the interaction between the
valence electrons and the atomic cores.
Now in superconductive materials, as explained before, the interaction between valence

electrons and atomic cores are nearly negligible, allowing these materials to achieve
zero resistance.
Cooper pairs is a way to explain the way in which electrons flow in a

superconductive material.
It is the theory that electrons move as pairs called Cooper pairs.
The simple explanation that Cooper pairs gives us is that one electron passing in one
direction will pull the atomic cores due to coulombic attraction, eliciting a rippling effect
on the lattice.
However, another electron will be pulled by the atomic cores that were rippled by the
first electron.
What special about this electron pairs are that at very low temperatures, these two
pairs will have the same phase: phase coherence.
SQUID uses this property of phase coherence to make measurements of

magnetism in a material.
In a SQUID instrument, this wave of current is split into two, makes a circle, and comes
back together.
If the two routes have the same length and resistance, the phase coherence should be
maintained when they come back.
However, if there is an interference on either end, the phase coherence will be lost.
SQUID uses this property of phase coherence or loss of phase coherence to measure
the magnetic activity of a material; the presence of a magnetic field will also impact the
phase coherence.
5.3 Josephson Effect
The Josephson tunneling/Josephson effect is observed when two

superconducting devices are separated by a thin insulator.
In a superconducting device, a phenomenon called Josephson tunneling is observed
where Cooper pairs can tunnel through across the insulator to the other
superconducting device.
This insulating device and the superconductors on both ends are called Josephson
junctions.
SQUID devices use multiple Josephson junctions to measure the magnetization of a

material.
References

- Metallic Bonding, LibreTexts Chemistry.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Te
xtbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Ch
emical_Bonding/Fundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding/Metallic_Bonding
(accessed 2023-06-27).
07-25).
- Supercondocutors, LibreTexts Chemistry.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Howard_University/General_Chemistry%3A_
An_Atoms_First_Approach/Unit_5%3A_States_of_Matter/Chapter_12%3A_Solid
s/Chapter_12.07%3A_Superconductors#:~:text=Superconductors%20are%20sol
ids%20that%20at,transition%20temperature%20(T%20c) (accessed 2023-07-
26).
6. How SQUID Works

A SQUID measures the magnetic flux of a sample by converting its
magnetic flux to electrical voltage.
If the sample has a finite amount of magnetic moment, it will be putting out a magnetic
field from which the magnetic flux can be calculated that goes through the device.
By moving the sample up and down, the magnetic flux creates an induced current.
Therefore, the magnetic field is converted to electrical voltage and that is what is being
measured.
The SQUID Device is set into a cryogenic container.
This is so that we can cool down the device with liquid helium to observe
superconducting effects.
The device itself is composed of a circular device with Joseph junctions like shown
below.
A certain amount of current is passed through one end, gets split into two at the splitting
point, then each current goes through a Joseph junction which have a much smaller
critical current than what has been passed through.
If there is not interference, the two currents will then interphase at the connecting parts.
However, if there is interference due to the presence of an induced current

due to moving magnetic flux, then the system will react to that magnetic
field.
Therefore, the sample is moved up and down to induced current.
That is how the SQUID measures magnetic moments of sample.
In practice, the voltage difference between the two

superconducting devices is measured.
Therefore, some people explain SQUID as the magnetic flux to voltage converter!
References

07-25).

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Learning SQUID

1.1 Review of Magnetic Moments

Magnetic moments tell us the direction and strength of a magnet.

Let’s briefly review what magnetic moments are.

The magnitude of magnetic moments can be formally defined as the maximum

The magnetic moment, 𝑝, is defined by the following equation.

How can we transfer this idea to bulk materials?

“how do chemists think about this?”.

Materials are composed of a collection of atoms and therefore electrons.

However, this is not always the case…

The magnetization of a material tells us about the

extent to which a material is “magnetic”.

However, depending on the material, different materials will retain that

The magnetization of an object, referred to as the magnetic moment is a vector value,

The intensity of magnetization which is of interest is the magnetization of a material per

- Magnetism, LibreText Chemistry.

2. Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability

Simply put, magnetic susceptibility is the likeliness for a material to

In the case of a strong magnet, this torque will be larger in magnitude.

But how about for other types of materials?

For other materials, by placing them in the influence of an exterior

But this is not always the case.

Some materials will not become magnetized.

The magnetic susceptibility 𝝌 is the quotient of the variation of magnetization, 𝑀

This makes sense because the variation of magnetization would naturally

Therefore, the magnetic susceptibility is calculated by dividing the variation of

2.2 Magnetic Permeability

In other words, it is the ability for a material to conduct a magnetic field.

The magnetic permeability is defined by the following equation.

The total magnetic permeability can be defined as

𝝁𝒓 is the relative magnetic permeability and 𝝁𝟎 is the permeability of vacuum.

Therefore, there relative permeabilities are close to 1.

- Magnetism, LibreTexts Chemistry.

3. Electron Configuration of Materials

This is the most basic type.

Ferrimagnetism is just like anti-ferromagnetism, but they do not cancel.

Paramagnetism is when the electron spins are oriented randomly.

Therefore, the magnetization also increases.

- Magnetism, LibreText Chemistry.

Hysteresis is the ability for a material to retain its magnetization.

That is what hysteresis of a material answers.

Let’s look at a hysteresis curve for a typical ferromagnetic material.

Diamagnetic and paramagnetic hysteresis curves looked like the following.

SQUID stands for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device.

We will now go through what those two things are.

A SQUID magnetometer makes use of superconducting devices. Here I will try to

While most conductive materials will see a decrease in resistance as the

This effect is called the Meisner effect.

5.2 Cooper Pairs

Electric current is “electrons flowing through a material” because current is the

Now in superconductive materials, as explained before, the interaction between valence

Cooper pairs is a way to explain the way in which electrons flow in a

It is the theory that electrons move as pairs called Cooper pairs.

SQUID uses this property of phase coherence to make measurements of

5.3 Josephson Effect

The Josephson tunneling/Josephson effect is observed when two

SQUID devices use multiple Josephson junctions to measure the magnetization of a

- Magnetism, LibreText Chemistry.

6. How SQUID Works

The SQUID Device is set into a cryogenic container.

However, if there is interference due to the presence of an induced current

Therefore, the sample is moved up and down to induced current.