A TECHNICAL REPORT

ON

STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORKING EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

UNDERTAKEN AT

FIRST DOMINION MANDATE HOSPITAL

IGWURUTA, PORT HARCOURT,

RIVER STATE.

BY

ALOZIE CHINWE FAITH

MATRIC NO: FUO/19/BCH/11360

SUBMITTED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF BIOCHEMISTRY, FACULTY OF SCIENCE, FEDERAL

UNIVERSITY OTUOKE

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.sc) DEGREE IN BIOCHEMISTRY

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 DEDICATION

This report is dedicated to God Almighty for His favor upon my life and also to my lovely

parents for their continues support.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I owe my allegiance to him who created something out of nothing. who makes a faint out of a

dwarf, be glorified for considering me worthy to share in His nature and to be part of what He’s

doing in my generation. Many thanks to my humble self for not giving up all through this

journey. I appreciate my parents and siblings for their motivation and support. May God

Almighty bless you all. I acknowledge my supervisor Mr. Ikimi For his guidance towards my IT.

I really want to acknowledge my HOD, Dr. Kpomah Dennis for his fatherly heart towards the

department of Biochemistry at large.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Dedication…………………………………………………………………..

Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………

CHAPTER 1-INTRDUCTION

Meaning and objective of SIWES……………………………………

History of First dominion mandate hospital …………………………………

Organogram chat …………………………………………

Some laboratory equipment and their uses…………………………………….

Safety precautions in the laboratory……………………………………………

Personal protective equipment (PPE)…………………………………………

CHAPTER 2- MEDICAL LABORATORY TESTS

2.1 Phlebotomy…………………………………………………………

2.2 Hematology……………………………………………………………

2.2.1 Full blood count (FBC)………………………………………………

2.2.2 Malaria parasite test………………………………………………

2.2.3 Packed cell volume (PCV)……………………………………………

2.2.4 Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)…………………………………

2.2.5 Blood grouping…………………………………………………………

2.2.6 Genotyping……………………………………………………………

2.3 Serology…………………………………………………………………..

2.3.1 Widal………………………………………………………………….

2.3.2 Retroviral screening test (RVST)……………………………………

2.3.3 Hepatitis B (HbsAg)…………………………………………………

2.3.4 Hepatitis C virus (HCV)…………………………………………..

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2.3.5 Pregnancy test………………………………………………………

2.3.6 Syphilis (VDRL)………………………………………………………

2.4 Clinical chemistry ………………………………………………………

2.4.1 Glucose………………………………………………………………..

2.4.2 Fasting lipid profile (FLP)……………………………………………

2.4.3 Electrolyte…………………………………………………………….

2.4.4 Liver function test (LFT)…………………………………………

2.4.5 Kidney function test (urea and creatinine) ………………………

2.4.6 Calcium……………………………………………………………..

2.4.7 Uric acid…………………………………………………………….

2.4.8 Albumin…………………………………………………………….

2.4.9 Urinalysis…………………………………………………………….

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Difficulties encountered during the program………………………

3.2 Relevance of the SIWES program…………………………………

CHAPTER 4

GENERAL APPRAISAL………………………………………

4.1 Ways of improving the SIWES program…………………

4.2 Advice to future participants……………………………

4.3 Advice to SIWES managers…………………………………

4.4 Recommendation……………………………………………………

4.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………

4.6 Reference………………………………………………………..

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

A major help and a stepping stone for life after school is the Student Industrial Work Experience
Scheme (SIWES). Students are given the chance to apply the majority of what was previously
conveyed to them just in theory by lecturers in the classroom. Since science students have the
opportunity to use a variety of reagents and equipment that may not be available to them in their
schools, pathology labs like first dominion mandate infirmary Laboratory have been a huge help
to this program. As a result, students in the training program are exposed to the standard
technique and equipment handling.

1.1 HISTORY OF SIWES

SIWES was established by ITF (Industrial Training Funds) in the year 1973 to solve the problem
of lack of adequate proper skills for employment of tertiary institution graduates by Nigerian
Industries. The Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was founded to be a skill
training program to help expose and prepare students of universities, polytechnics and colleges
of education for the industrial work situation to be met after graduation. This scheme serves as a
smooth transition from the classroom to the world of work and further helps in the application of
knowledge. The scheme provides students with the opportunity of acquainting and exposing
themselves to the experience required in handling and managing of equipment and machinery
that are usually not made available in their institutions.

Before this scheme was established, there was a growing concern and trend noticed by
industrialists that graduates of higher institutions lacked sufficient practical background for
employment. It used to be that students who got into Nigerian institutions to study science and
technology were not trained in the practical know-how of their various fields of study. As a
result, they could not easily find jobs due to the lack of working experience.

Therefore, the employers thought that theoretical education going on in higher institutions was
not responsive to the needs of the employers of labor. This was a huge problem for thousands of
Nigerians until 1973. It is against this background that the fundamental reason for initiating and
designing the scheme by the fund in 1973/74 was introduced.

The ITF organization (Industrial Training Fund) made a decision to help all interested Nigerian
students and established the SIWES program. It was officially approved and presented by the
Federal Government in 1974. The scheme was solely funded by the ITF during its formative
years but as the financial involvement became unbearable to the fund, it withdrew from the
scheme in 1978. In 1979, the federal government handed over the management of the scheme to
both the National Universities Commission (NUC) and the National Board for Technical
Education (NBTE).

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Later, in November 1984, the federal government reverted the management and implementation
of the scheme to ITF. In July 1985, it was taken over by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) while
the funding was solely borne by the federal government. (Culled from Job Specifications on
Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme)

DURATION OF SIWES

The duration of SIWES varies across Institutions

Universities

Period: 3-6months, at the end of 200, 300, 400 level of a degree program

Polytechnics, Monotechnic, Colleges of technology

Period: 4months, at the end of the 1st year of the 2 year ND program

Colleges of Education

Period: 4months, at the end of the 2nd year of the 3 years NCE program

GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

SIWES is a key factor required to inject and help keep alive industrialization and economic
development in the nation through the introduction and practical teaching of scientific and
technological skills to students. (Culled from Detailed Manual on SIWES Guidelines and
Operations for Tertiary Institutions). Objectives of the Students Industrial Work Experience
Scheme include:

Objectives of SIWES

1. To prepare students for work situations they are likely to meet after graduation.

2. To provide an avenue for students in Nigerian universities to acquire industrial skills and
experience in their course of study.

3. To enlist and strengthens employers’ involvement in the entire educational process of

preparing university graduates for employment in industries.

4. To provide students with an opportunity to apply their theoretical knowledge in real work
situations, thereby closing the gap between university work and actual practice.

5. To expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and machinery
that may not be available in the universities.

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 6. To make the transitions from the university to the world of work easier and thus enhance
students contact for later job placement.

7. Teaches the student on how to interact effectively with other workers and supervisors under
various conditions in the organization.

1.2 History Of first dominion mandate hospital

The first dominion mandate hospital is a private hospital, located Ompadec Igwuruta port
Harcourt River State. It was established on date unknown, and operates on 24hrs basis.

First dominion mandate hospital 1 is unlicensed hospital by the Nigeria Ministry of Health.
There are three-tier system of health care in Nigeria, depending on the facility infrastructure,
personnel and type of care they offer.

 PRIMARY HEALTH CARE CLINIC

Primary health care clinic (PHC) are health center at the community or ward level, and is the first
point of contact for patient. Most of the healthcare providers in the PHC are nurses, community
health workers, and sometimes a doctor who practices general medicines.

 SECONDARY HEALTH CARE HOSPITAL

The secondary health care system is managed by the state government through their ministries
of health. They handle cases that are “too big” for the PHC to handle.

Examples of secondary health care clinic are the general hospitals, comprehensive health centers,
district hospitals, specialist and “big” private hospitals.

 TERTIARY HEALTH CARE

The tertiary health system is managed by the federal government through their federal ministries
of health. Example of tertiary healthcare clinic are the federal medical centers, federal Neuro-
psychiatric hospitals, University Teaching Hospitals, national laboratories, and some “top”
private high-level specialist hospitals.

The federal Ministry of Health (FMOH) operated institutions handled the policy making,
technical support, national health management and health services delivery. The Tertiary health
care system also helps to coordinate the activities of the other lower healthcare tiers such as
secondary and primary healthcare.

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 Organogram chat.

HOSPITAL
MANAGEMENT BOARD
PRESIDENT

MEDICAL DIRECTOR

MEDICAL DOCTORS
HOSPITAL
SUPERVISOR

ADMINISTATOR

MATRON

HOD
PHARMACY LABORATORY DIAGNOSTIC STORES DEPT
ACCOUNTS/MED CENTER
ICAL RECORDS

ECG
NURSING
X-RAY SERVICE
ACCOUNTS MEDICAL
SECRETARY LAUNDRY
RECORD/S USS
SANITATIO
TATISTICS KITCHEN THEATRE
N
/ CSSD

AMBULANCE
SECURITY MORTUARY
1.4 Some Laboratory Equipment and 3SERVICE
their Uses

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Microscope

An optical device with a magnification lens or set of lenses to examine objects too small for the
unaided eye to see clearly and in detail is called a microscope. It is used in the pathology lab to
examine things like urine, stools, and stained blood films.

Triple Beam Balance

This device is used to measure mass with extreme precision. The reading inaccuracy of
the instrument is +/_ 0.05 grams. The term alludes to the three beams: the largest and center
beam, the medium-sized front beam, and the smallest and farthest reaching beam. The variations
in beam sizes signify the variations in weights and reading scales that every beam bears. The
triple beam balance can be used to measure a substance, find mass by difference for a liquid, and
measure mass directly from the items.

Spectrophotometer

One can use a spectrophotometer to measure how much light an object reflects back or how
much light it absorbs. This device compares the wavelength intensity of light in a spectrum to the
intensity of light coming from a reference source. The absorbance of calcium, glucose,
cholesterol, uric acid, and other chemical tests is measured using it in pathology labs.

Centrifuge

A centrifuge is a piece of scientific apparatus that spins liquid samples quickly and rapidly using
a motor. Centrifuges come in several varieties based on their size and sample capacity.
Laboratory centrifuges operate on the sedimentation principle, which uses centripetal
acceleration to separate materials with different densities, just like all other centrifuges.
Typically, it is employed to extract serum or plasma from blood components such as red blood
cells.

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Incubator

An incubator is a tool for maintaining and expanding cell or microbiological cultures. The
incubator keeps the interior atmosphere's carbon dioxide and oxygen concentrations at ideal
levels together with the ideal temperature and humidity. Incubators are used to culture both
bacterial and eukaryotic cells and are crucial for many experimental tasks in cell biology,
microbiology, and molecular biology.

Electrophoresis equipment

One of the most crucial pieces of equipment that molecular biologists employ is this one. It
moves a charged molecule that is dragged by an electrical field through a gel-like matrix.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) electrophoresis has several uses, including mapping the order of
restriction fragments inside chromosomes, analyzing DNA variation within a population using
restriction fragment length polymorphisms, and figuring out a portion of DNA's nucleotide
sequence.

Laboratory Refrigerator

Laboratory refrigerators are used to cool samples or specimens for preservation. They include
refrigerator units for storing blood plasma and other blood products, as well as reagents, vaccines
and Automated biochemistry analyzer

This is used to measure different chemicals another medical and pharmaceutical supplies. They
differ from standard refrigerators used in homes and restaurants because they need to be totally
hygienic and completely reliable. Laboratory refrigerators need to maintain a consistent
temperature in order to minimize the risk of bacterial contamination and explosions of volatile
materials.

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Other characteristics in a number of biological samples quickly, with minimal human assistance.
These measured properties of blood and other fluids are useful in the diagnosis of diseases.
Samples can be processed singly, in batches, or continuously. The type of tests required includes
enzyme levels (such as many of the liver function tests), ion levels (e.g. sodium and potassium)
and other chemicals (such as glucose, serum albumin, or creatinine).

Full Blood Count Analyzer

Full blood count analyzer also known as complete blood count analyzer is laboratory equipment
that gives information about the cells in a patient’s blood such as the cell count for each type and
the concentrations of various proteins and minerals. The type of test required include white blood
cell, red blood cell, hemoglobin, platelet and packed cell volume count etc.

Petri dish

Petri dish is used to make agar plates for microbiology studies. It is also used for eukaryotic cell
culture in a liquid medium or on solid agar. Empty Petri dish may be used other day-to-day
laboratory practices such as drying fluids in oven and carrying or storing samples.

Conical flask

Conical flasks are vessels which fall into the category of laboratory equipment known as glass
wares. They can be used for making solutions or for holding, containing, collecting, or
sometimes volumetrically measuring chemicals, samples, solutions, etc for chemical reactions or
other processes such as mixing, heating, cooling, dissolving, precipitation, boiling (as in
distillation) or analysis.

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 Graduating/measuring cylinder

This standard lab apparatus is used to determine the liquid's volume. Though they are not used
for volumetric analysis, they are typically more exact and accurate than laboratory flasks and
beakers. Gradient cylinders can be used to measure a liquid's displacement in order to indirectly
determine the volume of a solid.

Vacutainer blood collection tubes

This is a sterile glass or plastic tube with an evacuated closure that helps to pull a predefined
volume of liquid by creating a vacuum inside the tube. The most frequent uses for them are as
serum separator tubes and for venipuncture blood sample collection. A vacutainer may contain a
gel with an intermediate density between blood cells and blood plasma, or anticoagulants such as
heparin, sodium citrate, or ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, or EDTA.

Bunsen burner

This is a common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas flame which is
used for heating, sterilization and combustion.

Other pathology laboratory equipment include; syringe and needles, test tubes, microhematocrit
reader, micropipette, microhematocrit centrifuge, kidney dish, ESR stand, and universal bottle
(for collecting urine, stool, sputum and semen samples).

1.5 Safety Precautions in the Laboratory

Laboratories contain significant risks and prevention of laboratory accidents requires great care
and constant vigilance. Examples of risk factors include high voltage, high and low pressures and
temperatures, corrosive and toxic chemical and biohazards including infective samples and
specimens.

Measures to protect against laboratory accidents include;

 Safety training and enforcement of laboratory safety rules;

 Safety review of experimental designs;
 The use of personal protective equipment and
 The use of buddy system for particularly risky operations.

Laboratory safety policies in First Dominion hospital 1 are as follows;

1. Read instructions and labels carefully.

2. Do not operate or use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a user by your
supervisor.

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3. Always wear personal protective equipment e.g. gloves, face mask, laboratory coats, safety boots
and glasses when working with hazardous materials or equipment.
4. Treat all blood samples and bodily fluids as if it were hazardous.
5. Do not store food in the laboratory.
6. Never eat, drink, or smoke while working in the laboratory.
7. Clean up spills immediately.
8. Keep your laboratory space clean and organized.
9. Do not leave un-going equipment unattended.
10. Maintain unobstructed access to all exits, fire extinguishers, electric panels, showers and eye
washes.
11. Check your glass wares for cracks and chips each time you use it.
12. Never taste anything; never pipette by mouth; use a bulb.

1.6 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

This includes goggles, helmets, protective clothes, and other items of gear or apparel intended to
shield the wearer's body from harm or illness. Protective gear guards against airborne particulate
matter, electrical, heat, chemical, and physical threats.

When engineering and administrative controls are neither practical or efficient in bringing these
risks down to acceptable levels, the goal of personal protective equipment (PPE) is to lessen the
exposure of employees to dangers. PPE is required in situations where there are risks. PPE has
significant drawbacks in that it does not eliminate risks at their source and could expose workers
to risks in the event that equipment malfunctions.

Any item of PPE imposes a barrier between the wearer/user and the working environment. This
can create additional stains on the wearer; impair their ability to carry out their work and create
significant level of discomfort. Any of these can discourage wearers from using PPE correctly,
therefore placing them at risk of injury, ill-health or under extreme circumstance, death. Good
ergonomic designs can help to minimize these barriers and can therefore help to ensure safe and
healthy working conditions through the correct use of PPE.

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15
 CHAPTER TWO

MEDICAL LABORATORY TESTS

2.1 PHLEBOTOMY

Phlebotomy is the practice of making a vein incision with a needle. The term is derived from the
Greek terms phlebo-, which means "pertaining to a blood vessel," and -tomy, which means "to
make an incision." It is only the procedure of extracting a patient's blood sample and bringing it
to the lab so that it may be tested. Venipuncture is the name of the actual process. Phlebotomists
are individuals who do phlebotomy; however, in many countries, phlebotomy procedures are
also performed in part by physicians, nurses, medical laboratory scientists, and other medical
professionals.
People with training in phlebotomy can take a patient's blood for transfusions, clinical or medical
tests, donations, and research. Venipunctures are the main method used by phlebotomists to draw
blood (or for the collection of minute volumes of blood, finger sticks). Babies can have their
blood drawn with a heel stick. One of a phlebotomist's responsibilities may be to accurately
identify the patient, interpret the tests ordered on the requisition, draw blood into the appropriate
tubes with the appropriate additive, accurately explain the procedure to the patients, prepare
them accordingly, follow standard and universal precautions, perform the skin/vein puncture,
withdraw blood into containers or tubes, restore the puncture site's homeostasis, educate patients
on puncture care, order tests in accordance with the doctor's order, attach tubes with an
electronically printed label, and transport specimens to the laboratory.

Aim:

Phlebotomy is majorly practiced for the collection of blood samples to needed to carry out
various laboratory tests. Phlebotomy that is part of treatment (therapeutic phlebotomy) is
performed to treat polycythemia vera, a condition that causes an elevated red blood cell volume
(hematocrit). Phlebotomy is also prescribed for patients with disorders that increase the amount
of iron in their blood to dangerous levels such as hemochromatosis, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C.
Patient with pulmonary edema may undergo phlebotomy procedures to decrease their blood
volume.

Phlebotomy is also used to remove blood from the body during blood donation and for analysis
of the substances contained within it.

Preparation:

Before having their blood collected for analysis, a patient may be requested to stop taking their
prescriptions or fast for a specified amount of time. Prior to giving blood, donors will be
questioned for a brief medical history, have their blood pressure tested, and have a finger stick
test performed to determine their hematocrit..

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Materials:

Syringe and needle, tourniquet, cotton-wool, methylated spirit, and the appropriate container
(EDTA, fluradoline or lithium heparin bottles) or blood bag.

Procedures:

Blood is usually taken from a vein on the back of the hand or just below the elbow. Some blood
tests, however, may require blood from the artery.

1. The skin over the area is wiped with an antiseptic.

2. A tourniquet (elastic band) is tied around the arm retaining blood within the arm and making
the vein more visible.

3. The phlebotomist feels the vein in order to select the appropriate one.

4. When the vein is selected, the needle is inserted into the vein and the tourniquet is released.

5. The appropriate amount of blood is drawn and the needle with the syringe is withdrawn from
the vein. The patient’s pulse and blood pressure may be monitored during the procedure.

6. The blood sample is then dispensed into the appropriate bottle.

For some tests requiring very small amount of blood for blood analysis, the technician uses a
finger stick. A lance or small needle is used to make a small cut in the surface of the fingertip
and a small amount of blood is collected in a narrow glass tube. The fingertip may be squeezed
to get additional blood to surface.

The amount of blood drawn depends on the purpose of the phlebotomy.

After Care:

After blood is drawn and the needle is removed, pressure is placed on the puncture site with a
cotton ball to stop bleeding and a bandage is applied. It is not uncommon for a patient to feel
dizzy or nauseated during or after phlebotomy. The patient may be encouraged to rest for a short
period once the procedure is completed. Patients who experience swelling of the puncture site or
continue bleeding after phlebotomy should seek immediate medical treatment.

Normal Results:

Normal results include obtaining the needed amount of blood with the minimum of discomfort to
the patient.

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2.2 HEMATOLOGY

Hematology is the branch of medicine concerned with the study of the morphology and
physiology of blood. It is concerned with the study, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of
diseases related to blood. It includes the study of etiology. It involves treating diseases that affect
the production of blood and its components such as blood cells, hemoglobin, bone marrow,
blood proteins, platelets, blood vessels, spleen, and the mechanism of coagulation. Such diseases
might include hemophilia, blood clot, other bleeding disorders and blood cancer such as
leukemia, myeloma, and lymphoma.

The laboratory work that goes into the study of blood is frequently performed by a medical
technologist or medical laboratory scientist. These laboratory works includes viewing blood
films and bone marrow slides under the microscope, interpreting various hematological tests
results and blood clotting test results. Various tests carried out in the hematology laboratory are
as follows;

2.2.1 Full blood count (FBC)

A full blood count (FBC), sometimes referred to as a complete blood count (CBC), is a blood
panel ordered by a physician or other healthcare provider that provides details about the patient's
blood cells, including the quantity of each type of cell and the concentration of different proteins
and minerals. The desired testing is carried out by a scientist or laboratory worker, who also
gives the requesting medical practitioner the complete blood count findings.

The test is usually done using an automated FBC analyzer and the information’s contained in the
result are mentioned below;

White blood cells (WBC): also known as leukocytes are the cells of the immune system that are
involved in protecting the body against both infectious diseases and foreign invaders. The
number of leukocytes in the blood in often an indicator of the disease and, thus, the WBC count
is an important subset of the complete blood count (CBC). The normal WBC is usually between
4000-11000 white blood cells per microliter of blood. They make up approximately 1% of the
total volume of blood in a healthy adult making them substantially less numerous than the red
blood cells (RBC) at 40-45%. This 1% makes a large difference to health because immunity
depends on it. An increase in the number of leukocytes over the upper limit is called
leukocytosis. It is occasionally abnormal, when it is neoplastic or autoimmune in origin.

One of the subtypes of white blood cells in the immune system of a vertebrate is a lymphocyte.
These comprise T cells (cytotoxic adaptive immunity) and Natural Killer (NK) cells, which are
involved in cell-mediated, cytotoxic innate immunity. These are the primary cell types identified
in the lymph, which is why the term "lymphocyte" was coined. Full blood count (FBC) can be
decreased by HIV infection and can be greater in certain viral infections such as granular fever
and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL).

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Monocyte: is a type of white blood cells. They are the largest type of leukocyte and differentiate
into macrophages or dendritic cells. As a part of the vertebrate innate immune system, monocyte
can also influence the process of adaptive immunity. The monocyte count ranges from………….
It may be raised in bacterial infection, tuberculosis, malaria, rocky mountain, spotted fever,
monocytic leukemia, chronic ulcerative colitis and regional enteritis.

Neutrophil: is the most abundant type of granulocyte and the most abundant (40% to 75%) type
of white blood cells in most mammals. They form an essential part of the innate immune system.
Its functionality varies in different mammals. Its normal range is …………….. It may indicate
bacterial infection and may also be raised in acute viral infection.

Eosinophil: is a variety of WBC and are one of the immune system components responsible for
combating multi-cellular parasites and certain infections in vertebrates. It is increased in parasitic
infection, asthma or allergic reactions.

Basophil: is a type of white blood cell. They are the least common of granulocytes, representing
0.5 to 1% of circulating WBC. They are responsible for inflammatory reactions during immune
response. They can perform phagocytosis, produce histamine and serotonin that induce
inflammation and heparin that prevents blood from clotting. It may be increased in bone marrow
related conditions such as leukemia.

Hemoglobin HGB: is the iron-containing oxygen transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells
of vertebrates (with exception of the fish family channichthyid) as well as the tissues of some
invertebrates. Hemoglobin in the blood carries oxygen from the respiratory organ (lungs) to the
rest of the body, i.e. the tissues, where it releases the oxygen to permit aerobic respiration to
provide energy to power the function of the organism in the process called metabolism. The
amount of hemoglobin in the blood is expressed as gram per deciliter. A low level of hemoglobin
is a sign of anemia.

Red blood cells RBC: also called erythrocyte are the most common type of blood cells and the
vertebrate organism principle means of delivering oxygen, O 2, to the body tissues via blood flow
through the circulatory system. RBC takes up oxygen in the lungs or gills and releases it into
tissues while squeezing through the blood capillaries. The number of RBC is given as an
absolute number per liter. Iron deficiency anemia shows up as a low RBC count.

Hematocrit (HCT) or packed cell volume (PCV): is the volume percentage (vol%) of the red
blood cells in blood. It is normally 45% for men and 40% for women. It is considered as an
integral part of a person’s complete blood count, CBC, result. Anemia results to an abnormally
low hematocrit, as opposed to polycythemia which refers to abnormally high hematocrit.

Mean corpuscular volume (MCV): is a measure of the average volume of a red blood corpuscle
(or RBC). The measure is attained by multiplying a volume of blood by the proportion of blood
that is cellular (the hematocrit) and dividing the product by the number of erythrocytes in the

19
volume. The MCV is a part of the standard complete blood count (CBC). It is the average
volume of RBC, measured in femtolitres. Anemia is classified as microcytic or macrocytic if the
MCV value is below or above respectively the expected normal range. Other conditions that can
affect MCV include thalassemic, reticulocytotic, alcoholism, chemotherapy, vitamin B12
deficiency and/or folic acid deficiency.

Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH): is the average mess of hemoglobin per red blood cell in a
sample of blood. It is reported as part of the standard complete blood count. It is calculated by
dividing the total mass of hemoglobin by the number of RBC in a volume of blood.
MCH=HGB*10/RBC. The normal value in humans is 27 to 89 pictograms per cell. Conversion
to S.I. units: 1pg of HGB=0.06207femtomol. Normal value converted to S.I. unit: 1.68-
1.92fmol/cell. MCH value is diminished in hypochromic anemia.

Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC): is a measure of the concentration of

hemoglobin in a given volume of packed red blood cells. It is reported as a part of standard
complete blood count. It is calculated by dividing the hemoglobin by the hematocrit. Reference
ranges for blood tests are 32-36g/dl, or between 19.9 and 22.3mmol/l. it is, thus, a mass of molar
concentration. MCHC is diminished in microcytic anemia, a normal in macrocytic anemia (due
to larger cell size, though the hemoglobin amount or MCH is high, the conc. remains normal).
MCHC is elevated in hereditary spherocytosis, sickle cell disease and homozygous hemoglobin c
disease.

Relative distribution width (RDW-CV and RDW-SD): is a measure of the fringe of variation of
RBC volume that is reported as part of a standard complete blood count. Certain disorders,
however, causes a significant variation in size. Normal reference range of RDW-CV in human
red blood cells is 11.5-14.5%. if anemia is observed, RDW test results are often used together
with MCV result to determine the possible causes of the anemia. It is mainly used to differentiate
the anemia of mixed causes and anemia of single cause. An elevated RDW (red cells of different
sizes) is known as anisocytosis.

Platelet (PLT): also known as thrombocyte (meaning blood clot cells) is a component of blood
whose function along with the coagulation factor is to stop bleeding by clotting blood vessel
injuries. On a stained blood smear, platelets appear as dark purple spots, about 20% the diameter
of the red blood cells. The ratio of platelets to red blood cells in a healthy adult is 1:10 to 1:20.
Low PLT concentration is thrombocytopenia and is due to either or decreased production or
increased destruction. Elevated platelet concentration is thrombocytosis and is either congenital,
reactive (to cytokine), or due to unregulated production. A disorder of platelet is a
thrombocytopathy.

Mean platelet volume (MPV): is a machine calculated measurement of the average size of
platelet found in blood and is typically included in blood tests as part of FBC. Since the average
platelet size is larger when the body is producing increased number of platelets, the MPV tests

20
results can be used to make inference about platelet production in bone marrow or platelet
destruction problems. MPV is higher when there is destruction of platelets. This may be seen in
inflammatory bowel diseases, immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), myeloproliferative
diseases and Bernard-soulier syndrome. Abnormally MPV values correlate with
thrombocytopenia when it is due to impaired production as in aplastic anemia. A typical range of
MPV is 9.7-12.8fl (femolitre), equivalent to spheres 2.65-2.9micrometre in diameter. Normal
range is given as 7.5-11.5fl.

Platelet distribution width (PDW): is a measure of platelet anisocytosis and plateletcrit. PDW has
been found to be of some use in distinguishing essential thrombocythemia from reactive
thrombocytosis. Increased platelet distribution width suggests that platelet volume size uneven
disparity between individuals, decreased platelet distribution width suggests thrombocytopenia.

Plateletcrit (PCT): is the percent, %, volume of the blood occupied by platelet. It refers to the
number and size of the platelet (packed platelet volume). It is a calculation performed by
automated blood analyzer.

2.2.2 Malaria Parasite Test

Malaria parasite test is a test carried out to check for malaria parasite in the blood. Malaria is a
mosquito-borne infectious disease affecting humans and other mammals caused by parasitic
protozoan (a group of single-celled microorganisms) belonging to the plasmodium type.

Symptoms

Malaria causes symptoms that include fever, fatigue, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it
can cause yellow skin, seizures, coma or death. Symptoms usually beginten to fifteen days after
been bitten. If not properly treated, people may have recurrence of the disease months later. In
those who have recently survived the infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms. This
partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to
malaria parasite.

Causes (Life cycle of malaria parasite)

The disease is most commonly transmitted by an infected female Anopheles mosquito. A

mosquito causes infection from a bite. First, serositis enter the blood stream, and migrate to the
liver. They infect liver cells where they multiply into merozoites, rupture the liver cells and
returns to the blood stream. The merozoites infect red blood cells, where they develop into ring
forms, trophozoites and schizonts that in turn produce further merozoites. Sexual forms are also
produced, which if taken up by a mosquito, will infect the insect and continue the life cycle.

21
 Materials:

slide, spreader slip, pipette, the test sample, Giemsa stain and microscope.

Procedures: Malaria is usually confirmed by the microscopic examination of blood films or by

or by antigen-based rapid diagnostic test (RDT).

For microscopic examination of blood films:

1. A drop of blood is placed on one end of a clean slide, and a spreader slide is used to disperse the
blood over the slide’s length. The aim is to get a region called the monolayer, where the cells are
placed far enough apart to be counted and differentiated.
2. The slide is allowed to air-dry, after which the blood is fixed to the slide by immersing it briefly
in methanol. The fixation is essential for good staining and presentation of cellular detail.
3. The slide is stained using Giemsa stain or any other, to distinguish the cells from each other.
4. The stain is the rinsed off gently in slow running water and allowed to air-dry.
5. After staining, the monolayer is viewed under an electron microscope using 100* oil immersion
objective.

Treatment:

Malaria is treated with anti-malaria medications; the one used depends on the type and severity
of the disease. Simple and uncomplicated malaria may be treated with oral medication. The most
effective treatment for plasmodium falciparum infection is the use of artemisinin in combination
with other anti-malaria drugs which decreases resistance to any other single drug component.
These additional anti-malarias include: amodiaquine, lumefantrine, mefloquine or
sulfoxide/pyrimethamine.

2.2.3 Packed cell volume (PCV) OR Hematocrit (HCT):

The hematocrit also known as PCV, is the volume percentage (vol%) of red blood cells in blood.
It is considered an integral part of a person’s complete blood count result. Because the purpose
of the red blood cell is to transfer oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues, a blood sample’s
hematocrit_ the red blood cell volume percentage_ can become a point of its capability of
delivering oxygen. Additionally, the measure of a subject’s blood sample’s hematocrit level may
expose possible diseases in the subject.

Causes

Causes of low hematocrit are:

 Bleeding (ulcer, trauma, colon cancer, internal bleeding, surgery)

22
 Destruction of red blood cells (sickle cell anemia, enlarged spleen)
 Decreases production of red blood cells (bone marrow suppression, drugs)
 Nutritional problems (low iron, B12, folate and malnutrition)
 Over hydration

Causes of high hematocrit are:

 Dehydration (heat exhaustion, no available source of fluid)

 Low availability of oxygen (smoking, high altitude, pulmonary fibrosis)
 Genetic (congenital heart disease)
 Erythrocytosis (over-production of red blood cells by the bone marrow)

Materials:

Capillary tube, wax, microhematocrit centrifuge and microhematocrit reader.

Procedure:

Hematocrit is diagnosed using automated analyzer or the manual method (spun hematocrit or
spuncrit).

Procedures using “spun hematocrit” method:

A thin capillary tube is filled with whole blood sample and the end is sealed with wax or
clay. The tube is then placed in a microhematocrit centrifuge to be spun for fifteen minutes.

NOTE: The red cells collect at the bottom and form a red column and are separated from the
straw-colored serum column by a small area composed of white blood cells). The tube is read
using microhematocrit reader.

Result: The height of the total blood in the capillary tube (red cells, white cells and serum)equals
100%. The height of the red cell column divided by the height of the total fluid in the capillary
tube equals the hematocrit (% of RBC of the total blood volume).

Abnormally low PCV refers to anemia and abnormally high PCV refers to polycythemia.

Ranges:

Normal values for hematocrit test vary accordingly to age, sex, pregnancy, altitude where people
live and even vary slightly between various testing methods. The following are reported ranges
of normal hematocrit levels:

New born: 55%-68%

23
Children: 29%-41%

Adult men: 42%-54%

Adult female: 38%-46%

Treatment:

The treatment of high and low hematocrit depends on the underlying causes, the HCT level, and
the overall health status of the individual. Most people are not treated with medications if result
is slightly above or below the normal levels. Some patients with very low HCT may require
intravenous iron. Some patients with very high hematocrit due to diseases, such as polycythemia
rubber vera, may require bloodletting (blood removal).

2.2.4 Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)

The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is the rate at which red blood cells sediment in a
period of one hour. It is a common hematology test, and is a non-specific measure of
inflammation. The ESR is governed by the balance between the pro-sedimentation factor, mainly
fibrinogen, and those factors resisting sedimentation, namely the negative charge of the
erythrocyte (zete potentials).

When an inflammatory process is present, the high proportion of the fibrinogen in the red blood
cells from stacks called ‘rouleaux’,which settle faster, due to their increased density.

There are three stages in erythrocyte sedimentation, namely;

Stage 1: Rouleaux formation – first 10 minutes

Stage 2: sedimentation or settling stage - 40 minutes

Stage 3: packing stage- 10 minutes (sedimentation slows and cells start to pack at the bottom of
the tube).

Diagnosis

The test is useful in diagnosing some disease, such as multiple myeloma, temporal arteritis,
polymyalgia rheumatic, various auto-immune diseases, systematic lupus erythematosus,
rheumatoid arthritis, inflammation bowel disease and chronic kidney disease. In many of these
cases, the ESR may exceed 100mm/hr.

Materials: ESR tube, ESR reservoir, ESR stands and stop watch.

Procedure (Westergren):

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 To perform the test,

1. Anti-coagulated whole blood is placed in the ESR reservoir, covered and mixed gently.
2. The pipette ESR tube is then placed upright in the reservoir and allowed to stand for one hour
without any interruption.
3. The rate at which the red blood cells sediment is measured and reported in mm/hr.

Range (Westergren)

Men 0-15mm/hr for men ≤50yrs of age

0-20mm/hr for men ≥50yrs of age

Women 0-20mm/hr for women ≤50yrs of age

0-30mm/hr for women ≥50yrs or age

Children 0-10mm/hr

New born 0-2mm/hr

NOTE: mm/hr= millimeters per hour

Treatment

Depending on the cause the doctor could detect.

2.2.5. Blood grouping and Rhesus typing

Blood grouping/typing is a test that tells what specific type of blood you have.
The type of blood you have depends on whether or not there are certain proteins, called antigens,
on your red blood cells. Blood is often grouped according to the ABO blood typing system. This
method breaks blood types into four types, namely,

 Type A
 Type B
 Type AB
 Type O

Rhesus factor is an inherited protein found on the surface of the red blood cells. It is usually
determined along with the blood type of an individual. Rhesus positive is the most common type.

25
 Ones blood type and Rhesus factor depends on the types that are been passed down to them
from their parents.

Diagnosis

Blood typing and rhesus typing may be used to ensure:

 Ensure compatibility between the blood type of a person who requires a transfusion of blood or
blood component and the ABO and rhesus type of the unit of blood that would be transfused.
 Determine compatibility between a pregnant woman and her developing baby (fetus). Rhesus
typing is especially important during pregnancy because a mother and her fetus could be
incompatible.

Materials: Anti-sera A, anti-sera B, anti-sera C, white tile, and test sample.

Procedure:

1. A drop of antibody against type A, B and D (for determining the Rhesus factor) is placed
separately on a clean white tile.
2. A drop of the blood sample is placed beside each antibody.
3. The blood sample is the mixed with each of the antibody.
4. The white tile is carefully rocked and checked for agglutination.

NOTE: Agglutination (if blood sticks together) = Positive

No agglutination (if blood does not stick together) = Negative

Result:

A B D Result

_ _ + O Rh Positive

_ _ _ O Rh Negative

+ _ + A Rh Positive

+ _ _ A Rh Negative

_ + + B Rh Positive

26
 _ + _ B Rh Negative

+ + + AB Rh Positive

+ + - AB Rh Negative

NOTE: + = agglutination

_ = no agglutination

Rh = rhesus

2.2.6 Genotyping

Genotyping is the process of determining differences in the genetic make-up (genotype)

of an individual by examining the individual DNA sequence using biological assay and
comparing it to another individual sequence or a reference sequence. It reveals the alleles an
individual has inherited from the parents. Various genotypes include: AA, AS and SS.

Diagnosis

Genotyping is required or recommended for couples intending to get married; this is because the
genotypes need to be cross-matched so as to avoid having a sickle as child (i.e. SS). Sickles have
little tendency of living long. Therefore, AA can marry AA, AS or SS, AS can marry AA only,
and SS can marry AA only.

Procedure:

1. A buffer paper soaked in genotype buffer is slightly dried by closing two filter papers on it.
2. The reference blood sample (usually AS) is placed on it and the test blood sample is placed
directly below it.
3. Genotype buffer is poured in the tank in the electrophoresis machine, and the buffer paper is
placed on the filter paper in the machine and allowed for 3-5minutes.

Result:

The reference sample (usually AS) disperses into two, one towards the positive pole and the
other towards the negative pole. If the test sample does the same, it implies AS; if the test sample

27
 does not disperse and moves towards the positive pole, it implies AA; and if the test sample does
not disperse and moves towards the negative pole, it implies SS.

2.3. Serology

Serology is the scientific study of serum and other bodily. In practice, the term usually refers to
the diagnostic identification of antibodies in the serum. Serological test may be performed for
diagnostic purposes when an infection is suspected, in rheumatic illness, and in many other
situations. Serology blood test help to diagnose patients with certain immune deficiencies
associated with the lack of antibodies.

Some tests classified under serology are: widal, retroviral screening test, hepatitis B, hepatitis c,
pregnancy test, and syphilis.

NOTE: All above mentioned tests under serology, have the same procedures but different strips
kit, except for widal.

Procedure For Serology Test(except for Widal)

 The blood sample is spun using a centrifuge and the serum is separated.
 Three drops of the serum is applied on the sample pad of the strip (each test has its own strip)
and allowed for 15 minutes.

Result

Double band (one on control and the other on test) = Positive

Single band (on the control alone) = Negative

No band = Invalid (to be repeated).

2.3.1. Widal

The Widal test developed in 1896 and named after George-Fernand Widal, who presumptive
serological test forenuretic feveror undulant fever whereby bacteria causing typhoid fever are
mixed with a serum containing specific antibodies obtained from an infected individual.

Symptoms

Salmonella typhi causes symptoms which may vary from mild to severe and usually begin six to
thirty days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days.
Weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, and headaches also commonly occur.

Causes

28
 The cause is the bacterium salmonella typhi, also known as salmonella enteric serotype typhi,
growing in the intestine and blood. Typhoid is spread by eating or drinking food or water that is
contaminated.

Materials: para-typhi reagents, sample serum, and white tile.

Procedure For Widal:

 A drop of each of the paratyphi O, A-O, B-O, C-O, and H, A-H, B-H, C-H is placed separately
on a clean white tile.
 A drop of the test serum sample is placed carefully beside each of the paratyphi and mixed.
 The tile is rocked for one minute and checked for reactions.

Result:

The Widal test is positive if paratyphi O antigen titer is more than 1:160 in an active infection,
and if paratyphi H antigen is more than 1:160 in past infection or in immunized persons.

Prevention/Treatment

Efforts to prevent the disease include providing clean drinking water, better sanitation, and better
hand-washing. Treatment of disease is with antibiotics such as azithromycin, fluoroquinolones
or third generation cephalosporins.

2.3.2. Retroviral screening test (RVST)

Retroviral screening test is used is the diagnosis of the human immuno virus, HIV.

Symptoms

The first HIV symptoms may include swollen glands in the throat, armpit, or groin. Other early
HIV symptoms include slight fever, headaches, fatigue, and muscle aches. These symptoms may
last for only a few weeks. There are usually no HIV symptoms for many years.

Transmission

HIV is transmitted in blood, semen, vagina fluids, and breast milk. The most common ways HIV
is spread are by having sexual intercourse with an infected person, sharing sharp objects, getting
HIV-infected fluids into open wounds or sores, etc. Mothers can also pass the infection to their
babies during child birth and breast feeding.

Treatment

29
There is currently no cure for HIV/AIDS. But there are treatments for people living with HIV.
HIV patients can take a combination of drugs called “cocktail”. The drugs help to strengthen the
immune system to keep HIV from developing into AIDS or to relieve AIDS symptoms.

2.3.3. Hepatitis B test (HbsAg)

Hepatitis B is an infectious disease caused by hepatitis B virus which affects the liver. It causes
both acute and chronic infections. The hepatitis B surface antigen (HbsAg) is most frequently
used to screen for the presence of the infection. It is the first detectable viral antigen to appear
during infection.

Symptoms

Many people have no symptoms during the initial infection. Some develop a rapid onset of
sickness with vomiting, yellow skin, tiredness, dark urine and abdominal pain. Often, these
symptoms last a few weeks and rarely does the initial infection result to death. It may take 30-
180 days for symptoms to begin. Most of those with chronic disease have no symptoms;
however, cirrhosis and liver cancer may eventually develop.

Transmission

Transmission of hepatitis B virus results for exposure to infectious blood or body fluids
containing blood. It is 50 to 100 times more infectious than HIV. Possible forms of transmission
include sexual contact, blood transfusion and transfusion with other human blood products, reuse
of contaminated needles and syringes, and vertical transmission from mother to child (MTCT)
during childbirth.

Prevention/Treatment

Vaccines for the prevention of hepatitis B have been routinely recommended for infants. Most
vaccines are given in three doses over a course of months. All those with a risk of exposure to
body fluids such as blood should be vaccinated, if not already.

Acute hepatitis B infection does not require treatment and most adult clear the infection
spontaneously. On the other hand, treatment of chronic infection may be necessary to reduce the
risk of cirrhosis and liver cancer. Although, none of the available drugs can clear the infection
but can stop the virus from replicating.

2.3.4. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) test

30
Hepatitis C is an infectious disease caused by hepatitis C virus (HCV) that primarily affects the
liver. Hepatitis C testing begins with blood testing to detect the presence of antibodies to the
HCV, using an enzyme immunoassay.

Symptoms

During the initial infection people often have mild or no symptoms. Occasionally a fever, dark
urine, abdominal pain, yellow tinged skin occurs and rarely does acute liver failure result.

Transmission

HCV is spread primarily by blood-blood contact associated with intravenous drug use, poorly
sterilized medical equipment, needle-stick injuries in healthcare, and transfusion. It may also be
spread from an infected mother to her baby during birth. It is not spread by superficial contact.

Prevention/Treatment

There is no vaccine against hepatitis C. Prevention includes harm reduction efforts among people
who use intravenous drugs and testing donated blood. Chronic infection can be cured about 90%
of the time with the treatments that include the medications sofobuvir or simeprevir. Those who
develop cirrhosis or liver cancer may require liver transplant.

2.3.5 Pregnancy Test

Pregnancy test also known as Human Chronic Gonadotropin (hCG) test is a test used to detect
the presence of hCG.

2.3.6 Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) Test

Venereal disease research laboratory test is a blood test for syphilis (it has high sensitivity),
whereas other, more specific tests are used to diagnose the disease.

Symptoms

At early stage, the sores are usually small painless ulcers. They occur on the genitals or in or
around the mouth somewhere between 10-90 days. The secondary stage may last one to three
months; people with secondary syphilis experience a rosy rash typically on the palm of their
hands and soles of their feet. At tertiary stage, if the infection isn’t treated, it may then progress
to a stage characterized by severe problems with the heart, brain, and nerves that could result in
paralysis, deafness, dementia and blindness, impotency, and even death if not treated.

Transmission

31
 Syphilis is a highly contagious disease spread primarily by sexual activity, including oral and
anal sex. Although, this disease is spread from sores, the vast majority of those sores go
unrecognized. The infected unknowingly pass this disease on to his or her sexual partner.
Pregnant women can as well pass it to their baby.

Causes

Syphilis is caused by the bacteria Trepneme pallidum.

Prevention

To reduce the risk of syphilis infection,

 Avoid intimate contact with a person you know is infected.

 If you do not know your partners status, use a condom.

Treatment

For those infected with syphilis for less than a year, a single dose of penicillin is usually enough
to destroy the infection. For those allergic to penicillin, any other antibiotic can be given instead.
For those4 in the later stage of disease, more doses will be needed.

2.4 CLINICAL CHEMISTRY

Clinical chemistry (also known as chemical pathology, clinical biochemistry or medical

biochemistry) is the area of clinical pathology that is generally concerned with analysis of bodily
fluids for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes (not to be confused with medicinal chemistry). The
discipline involves the use of simple chemical tests for various components of blood and urine.
All biochemical test come under chemical pathology. These are performed on any kind of body
fluid, but mostly on serum or plasma.

Common clinical chemistry test are mentioned below;

 Kidney Function Test

 Liver Function Test

 Fasting Lipid Profile

32
 CHAPTER 3

3.1 Difficulties Encountered During the Program

As they say, life is not a bed of roses, and anything that has benefits also has drawbacks. Even
while the SIWES program is fantastic and was created to provide students a practical
understanding of the subjects they are studying, it is important to also discuss some of the issues
that the program has presented.

1. Problems of Securing a Place of Attachment

Securing a place of attachment for industrial training program was a very big challenge to me.
This is due to the fact that there are very limited establishment that accepts students undergoing
industrial training. While I was searching for a place of attachments, I got to find out most of the
establishments that accepts students had already taken the maximum number of students needed,
while others would just reject the request giving one reason or the other.

2. Working Time

As an IT student working in First dominion mandate hospital 1, I was meant to work for twelve
(12) hours in a day, six days in a week (i.e. Mondays to Saturdays) and sometimes on Sundays. I
barely had time to attend to my personal needs. Not just that IT students had to work all day, but
also, the work load was quite much. Most times IT students would be asked to work overtime
even without any incentive attached to it and students have no option but to comply every given
instructions.

3.2 Relevance Of SIWES Program

SIWES- the student industrial work experience scheme stands out as one ITF program of which
its relevance to students in various areas of vocational education need be appreciated. ITF in
1973/1974 established SIWES to ensure the acquisitions of relevance industrial work experience
by universities, polytechnics and college of education students whose course are directly related
to industry and to solve the problem of lack of adequate practical skills preparatory for
employment in industries by Nigerian graduates of tertiary institutions.

SIWES is a cooperative internship program, which enable students of technology to spent some
part of their course for relevant on the job training practical experience in appropriate areas of
the Nigerian industries. The internship program, SIWES, can therefore be seen as that which is
intended to give Nigerian students studying occupationally related courses experience that would
supplement their theoretical learning.

SIWES program provides an avenue for evaluating participating students, both as students and as
prospective employees where defect are found in students job performance or attitude to work,

33
he/she through proper supervision guided to correct such defect prior to taking up permanent
employment.

The SIWES program also provide an enabling environment where students can develop and
enhance personal attributes such as critical thinking, creativity, initiative, resourcefulness,
leadership, time management, presentation skills and interpersonal skills, amongst others.

In addition, SIWES also provided students the opportunity to work in one or more area of
industry and this will enable them to relate their theoretical knowledge to the practical work
situation which is a realistic way of determining the relevance of theory and practice.

34
 CHAPTER 4

4.1Ways of Improving the Program

SIWES program can be improved by the various actors in the program which include the Federal
Government of Nigeria (FGN), Industrial Training Fund (ITF), Supervisory Agencies (NUC,
NCCE, and NBTE), the Institutions, and the Employers.

A. The Federal Government of Nigeria

 The Federal Government should make it mandatory to all ministries, companies, and other
organization to offer placement and as well as accept students for industrial attachment.
 The Federal Government should increase the fund being provided for the SIWES program and
other educational programs in general for effective and productive implementation of the
scheme.
B. The Industrial Training Fund (ITF)
 The Industrial Training Fund should provide a strong insurance policy covered for students on
SIWES program.
 The ITF should provide logistic and material necessary for the effective administration of the
scheme.
 The ITF should formulate policies and guidelines for SIWES program for enhancement to all
SIWES participating bodies, institutions and companies involved in the scheme.
 The ITF should provide information on companies for the attachment and help in the placement
of students.
C. The Supervisory Agency
 The supervisory agency should liaise with the Industrial Training Fund to ensure the
implementation of all federal government policies on the scheme.
 The supervisory agency should ensure adequate funding of the SIWES unit in all the institutions
for effective administration of the scheme.
 The supervisory agency should research into the development of the scheme in line with
advances in technological development.
 The supervisory agency should develop, monitor and review job specification in collaboration
with the institution toward the maintenance of the National Minimum Academic Standard for the
entire program approved for SIWES.
D. The Institution
 The Institution should help identify placement opportunities for student attachment with
employers.
 The Institution should ensure regular visitation of their students on industrial training to monitor
their welfare and improvement status.
 The Institution should have adequate information on some of the challenges facing the firm and
the student; it should be noted and treated immediately.

35
 The Institution should ensure payment of student’s allowances and other outstanding financial
challenges.

4.2 Advice for Future Participants

I strongly recommend that future participants should bear the following in mind;

1. The student should be focused to avoid disputing the reputation of the institution in their place of
industrial attachment and they should also bear in mind the objective of the scheme and show
commitment, diligence and honesty.
2. The student should obey and adhere strictly to all rules and regulations of the company; they
should respect the industrial based supervisors as well as other staffs of the company because the
moral standard of the student is also evaluated.
3. The student should avoid change of placement without seeking permission from the institutional
based supervisor, the employer and the industrial training fund.
4. The student should handle the equipment if the firm with great care and they should take pride in
protecting the interest of the company throughout the period of industrial attachment.

4.3 Advice for the SIWES managers

1. The SIWES managers should give attention to student welfare on industrial training and the
students allowance should be increased as a result as high cost of living in our society.
2. Technologists from various departments or program should be involved in the drafting of time
table for students on IT to ensure that students are always sent into areas where activities that
will result in learning experience are taking place.

4.4 Recommendation

The recommendations arising from the foregoing appraisal of the effectiveness of SIWES in the
formation of competent and productive technical manpower for the economy are summarized as
follows;

1. The establishment of a National Commission for Student Industrial Training or a National

Board for Cooperative Education was proposed to oversee the implementation of SIWES at the
national level.

2. Funds earmarked for SIWES should be appropriated directly by the National Assembly in the
same way for the National Youth Service Corps Scheme in order to remove the bottlenecks
associated with release of fund for the operation of the scheme.

3. The Federal Government should make adequate provisions in the annual budget for proper
funding for SIWES in view of the potentials of the scheme to contribute to enhancing the quality
of pool of technical skills available to the economy.

36
4. The stipulation that employers should accept students for SIWES should be strengthened with
stiffer penalties put in place for defaulters.

5. A review of the policies that guide and regulate SIWES is necessary to ensure that the scheme
complies fully with the tenants of cooperative education or work-integrated learning.

6.Tertiary institutions need to comply with the standards set for proper implementations of
SIWES to enable students derive the greatest benefits from participation in the scheme.

7. Tertiary institutions need to provide adequate logistics (mobility, internet service etc) and
adequate funding to make their SIWES units functional.

8. Students should be well prepared through meaningful orientation program by institutions

before embarking on SIWES. A book, such as the “Guide to successful participation in SIWES”
would be useful in achieving the purpose if read before, during and after SIWES by participants.

9. Quality assurance of SIWES, through adequate supervision of participants by the relevant

stakeholders (institutions, employers and ITF) would ensure that the scheme meets its objectives
vis-à-vis the principles of cooperative education or work-integrated learning.

4.5 Conclusion My six(6) months industrial attachment with First Dominion Mandate Hospital
has been one of the most interesting, productive and instructive experience in my life. Through
this training, I have gained new insight and more comprehensive understanding about the real
industrial working condition and practice; it has also improved my soft and functional skills. All
these valuable experience and knowledge that I have gained were not only acquired through the
direct involvement in task but also through other aspect of training such as work observation,
interaction with colleges, superior and other people related to the field. It also exposed me on
certain things about the medical field/environment

37
REFERENCES:

BakerF. J. ,Silverton, R. E. and Pallister C. J.(2001). Introduction to Medical laboratory

technology. The Nigeria edition. Bounty press, Ibadan, Nigeria

Cheesbrough M.(2005), widal test, medical laboratory manual for Tropical countries part 2,

2nd edition. Cambridge University press

Dr. Denice Moffat(2006), interpret your lab result. ITF(2010): Industrial Training Fund 2010

Training and Development Programme. Available at www.itf-nigeria.com

Mackey E. M and L. L. Mackey (1927), clinical investigation. Reflotron user manuals (2010)

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