CHAPTER TWO

Dynamics behavior of Electric motor

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 Torques acting in a drive system
• Generally, the basic equation of motion of motor driving a load, Fig.1, is given by

(1)

Fig.1 Motor-load system

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 Cont…
• where
• J = Polar moment of inertia of motor-load system referred to the motor shaft, Kg.m2
• ωm = Instantaneous angular velocity of the motor shaft, rad/sec
• Tm = Developed torque of the motor, Nm
• TL = Load (resisting) torque, referred to the motor shaft, Nm
• TFW = Friction and windage torque

• Coulomb friction is generally neglected in drive systems.

• If TFW is small then, TFW = 0 , hence, Eq.(1) becomes,
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 Cont..

Fig. Types of Friction torques in

drive system
 Cont..

(2)
• For motor operation, Tm and ωm have same directions

• Always Tm and TL have opposite directions

• In the drive systems, depending on the mechanical load, the motor may be
subjected to variable operating conditions in its duty cycles.
• The motor in an electric car can operates in various conditions such as
starting, accelerating, steady-state, decelerating and stopping.

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 Cont..
• Fig.2 illustrates motor- load torque characteristics, the available starting torque is Tst.

• At this condition, the motor is accelerated and subjected to most severe service.

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Fig.2 Motor and load speed-torque characteristics.
 Cont..

• The steady-state operation of the motor occurs when its speed-torque

characteristic intersects with the load speed-torque characteristic at the operating
point A as shown in Fig.2.

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 Referring torque and moments of inertia from one axis to other
axis
Load Torque and Load Power

If the motor is connected directly to the load as shown in Fig.1, then

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 Cont..

• In some applications, the motor is connected to the load through a set of gears.

• The gears have a teeth ratio and can be treated as speed or torque transformers.

• The motor-gear-load connection is shown in Fig.3.

10/01/2022 Fig.3 Motor connected to the load through a gear 9

 Cont..
• In fig.3

• Z1 , Z2 = Teeth number in the gear

• B1 ,B2 = Bearings and their coefficients

• Jm ,JL = Moment of inertia of the motor and load

• The gears can be modelled from the following facts:

(i) The power handled by the gear is the same on both sides.

(ii) Speed on each side is inversely proportional to its tooth number.

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 Cont..
• Substituting above equations yields

• Now if the motor is geared to the load, then the torque seen by the load
is increased or decreased by the ratio:

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 Determination of Referred Load Torque
• In the system of Fig. 3, If the speed of the motor shaft ω1 and that of the motor is ω2 , T2 is the
load torque , T2’ is the load torque referred to motor shaft , gr = gear ratio = ,

and ηt = efficiency of transmission, then equating power :

• If the losses in transmission are neglected, then the kinetic energy due to equivalent inertia is

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 Cont..
• When there are number (k) of stages of transmission between the driving motor and the drive
load, as shown in Fig.4 becomes:

10/01/2022 Fig.4 Motor-load system with multi gears. 13

 Referring Forces and Masses Having Translation
Motion to a Rotating One
• In some machines or systems, some moving parts rotate while others undergo translation
motion, e.g. cranes, hoists, etc.

• It is necessary to refer the translational motion in terms of referred load torque and moment of
inertia referred to motor shaft.

• Fig.5 shows a hoist load lift, wound on drum driven through gears by a motor.

• If F is the force required due to gravitational pull to lift the moving weight W, η is the
efficiency of transmission , v (m/s) is the velocity of the moving mass , and ωm (rad/s) is the
angular velocity of the motor shaft, the referred load torque is obtained by equating the power.

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 Cont..
• The referred load torque TL’:

• The moment of inertia referred to the motor shaft is obtained by equating kinetic energy:

10/01/2022 Fig.5 Motor-hoist load system. 15

 FOUR-QUADRANT OPERATION OF DC MACHINE
• A d.c. machine can operate as a motor, as a generator or as a brake as illustrated in the following diagram
(Fig.6).

• It has been assumed in this diagram that the field current is fixed (in magnitude and direction)

• The ω –T equation is linear

• Assumptions :
• The positive or forward speed is arbitrarily chosen in counterclockwise direction (it can also be chosen as clockwise). The
positive torque is in the direction that will produce acceleration in forward speed, as shown in Fig.6.

• The plane of Fig.6 is divided into 4 quadrants, thus 4 modes of operation. The quadrants are marked as I, II, III and IV.

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 Cont..

10/01/2022 Fig.6 Four – quadrant operation of a d.c. motor 17

 Cont..
Quadrant I
• Both torque and speed are positive – the motor rotates in forward direction, which is in the
same direction as the motor torque.

• The power of the motor is the product of the speed and torque (P = Te ω), therefore the power
of the motor is positive.

• Energy is converted from electrical form to mechanical form, which is used to rotate the
motor.

• The mode of operation is known as forward motoring.

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 Cont..
Quadrant II
• The speed is in forward direction but the motor torque is in opposite direction or
negative value.

• The torque produced by the motor is used to ‘brake’ the forward rotation of the
motor.

• The mechanical energy during the braking is converted to electrical energy – thus the
flow of energy is from the mechanical system to the electrical system.

• The product of the torque and speed is negative thus the power is negative, implying
that the motor operates in braking mode.

• The mode of operation is known as forward braking.

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 Cont..
Quadrant III

• The speed and the torque of the motor are in the same direction but are both negative.

• The reverse electrical torque is used to rotate the motor in reverse direction.

• The power, i.e. the product of the torque and speed, is positive implying that the motor operates
in motoring mode.

• The energy is converted from electrical form to mechanical form. This mode of operation is
known as reverse motoring.

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 Cont..
Quadrant IV
• The speed is in reverse direction but the torque is positive. The motor torque is used to ‘brake’
the reverse rotation of the motor.

• The mechanical energy gained during the braking is converted to electrical form, thus power
flow from the mechanical system to the electrical system.

• The product of the speed and torque is negative implying that the motor operates in braking
mode.

• This mode of operation is known as reverse braking.

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 Electrical Braking of Dc Motors
• A motor is said to be in braking mode when Te and ωm ( motor speed) are in opposite direction
(Fig.7).

• If Ea becomes ˃ VT for any reasons, then Ia will become negative (reverse) and Te will become
in the same direction of TL ; which opposes rotation.

• Hence the speed will reduced (since negative dynamic torque is acting on the motor shaft) :

• Te remain negative until Tj = 0.

Fig.7 braking
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22
 Cont..
• If the motor supply is disconnected while motor speed is ω1 then it takes some time, tstop, until it
reaches zero speed.

• In this case the developed motor speed is zero and the accelerated torque Tj is negative (acting
to decelerate the motor).

• The stop time , tstop ,can be determined from

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 Cont..
• During the deceleration period, the stored energy is completely consumed in supplying
rotational losses and in supplying the coupled load by the required mechanical energy as
input.

• Finally, the speed of the rotating part( the rotor of the motor and its coupled load) attains zero
whereby the stored kinetic energy is zero .

• Note that TL and Tloss are, in general, rising functions of speed and being very small at low
speeds, and therefore tstop is high.

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 Types of Electric Braking
• There are three types of electrical braking applied to the d.c. motors, namely, regenerative
braking, plugging braking and dynamic breaking.
1. Regenerative Braking
• This type of braking happen when the motor speed increases above the no -load speed ωmo
(for example, lowering of a load by electrically operated winch and when an electric train
goes downhill).

• The mechanical energy in this type of breaking is converting into electrical energy, part of
which is return to the supply and the rest of the energy is lost in the machine.

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 Cont..
• Most of the motors pass smoothly from motoring to generating operation if the induced emf Ea
exceeds the source voltage Vt (due to increase of motor speed from ωmp to ωmr ).

• In this case the current Ia becomes negative and the machine will act as a generator pumping
power back into the source.

• This regeneration created by the negative TL which accelerates the machine from point 1 to
point 2, picking up the speed in excess of the no load speed ωmo at point 3 as shown in Fig. 8 .

• Under this condition Ea = K ϕ ωmr (ωmr ˃ ωmo) becomes greater than the supply voltage Vt.

Fig. 8.Regenerative braking

 Cont..
• Consider now a separately excited DC motor in regenerative mode.Fig.9 (a) shows the motor

working at is normal state at point 1 .

Fig.9 Separately excited DC motor in regenerative mode.

• Now for the transition from ❶ to ❷ in general case, for Fig.9 (b)

• Since in regenerative breaking: ωmr ˃ ωmo , then at point ❷

 Cont..

• To find the value of the electromagnetic torque developed by the motor in the regenerative
braking condition, substitute Eq.(3) into Eq.(4) ,we get

• Equation (4) indicates that, in regenerative breaking condition, the motor torque has negative
value.

• To find an analytical expression for the mechanical characteristic in regenerative condition,

equation (4) must be solved with respect to , that is
 Cont..

• Notes :

• To maintain the current below the maximum permissible value, an external

resistance Rx may be needed for this purpose.

• The series motor cannot be used in the regenerative breaking condition, i.e at
negative load torque (-Tm).
 Cont..
2. Plugging
• This type of breaking is applicable for all types of d.c. motors, namely separately
excited, shunt, compound and series motors.

• In this method the polarity of the applied terminal voltage of the motor is reversed.

• As a result the motor torque Tm reverses its direction and acts as a break to the motor
shaft by reducing its speed to zero.

• At this instant, i.e. when , the supply must be switched off otherwise the motor will run
in reverse direction with negative speed.

• Fig.10 shows braking of separately excited motor by plugging method.

 Cont..

Fig.10 Motor braking by plugging

 Cont..
• It is important that, during voltage reversal an external resistance Rx
should be inserted with the armature circuit to limit the braking current.

• Referring to Fig.11, the sequences of events during plugging for

separately excited motor are:

Fig.11 Plot of mechanical

characteristics of separately
excited motor in plugging
mode.
 Cont..

Note:

• Short circuiting the motor makes VT = 0.

• Rx is used to limit the current and to dissipate the stored kinetic energy.
 Cont..
3. Dynamic Braking
• This method of braking the motor is disconnected from the supply and operated as a generator
by the kinetic energy of rotor.

• The kinetic energy is then dissipated in an external resistance connected across the motor.

• With this technique, the energy required from the supply to brake the motor is eliminated as
compared to the previous plugging method.

• This method of braking can be applied to brake d.c. motors, synchronous a.c. motors as well as
a.c. induction motors and generally referred to as Rheostatic Braking .See Fig.13.
 Cont..

Fig.13 Dynamic breaking of d.c. separately excited motor.

Based on fig.12

Note:

Short circuiting the motor makes VT = 0.

Rx is used to limit the current and to dissipate the stored kinetic energy.
 Starting of Electric Motor

Starters for Dc Motor

• Three point Starter
• Four point Starter
• Two point Starter

Starting Methods of Squirrel Cage Induction Motors

• Direct on Line (D.O.L.) Starter
• Stator Resistance (or Reactance) Starter
• Star-Delta Starter
• Auto-transformer Starter

Rotor Resistance Starter for Slip Ring Induction Motors

 Necessity of Starter for a DC Motor
Under normal operating conditions, the voltage equation for a motor is given as

• When the motor is at rest, the induced emf Eb in the armature is zero (Eb & N).
• Consequently, if full voltage is applied across the motor terminals, the armature will
draw heavy current (Ia = V/Ra) because armature resistance is relatively small. This
heavy starting current has the following effects :
(i) It will blow out the fuses and prior to that it may damage the insulation of armature winding due
to excessive heating effect if starting period is more.
(ii) Excessive voltage drop will occur in the lines to which the motor is connected. Thus, the
operation of the appliances connected to the same line may be impaired and in some cases they may
refuse to work.
 Cont..
• To avoid this heavy current at start, a variable resistance is connected in series with the
armature, as shown in Fig. 14, called a starting resistance or starter, and thus the armature
current is limited to safe value

• Once the motor picks up speed, emf is built up and current is reduced. After that the starting
resistance is gradually reduced

• Ultimately, whole of the resistance is taken out of circuit when the motor attains normal speed.

Fig. 14 DC shunt motor

starter
 Three point starter for Dc motor
• The schematic connection diagram of a shunt motor starter is shown in Fig. 15.

• It consists of starting resistance R divided into several sections.

• The tapping points of starting resistance are connected to number of studs.

Fig. 15 Three-point shunt

motor starter
 Con..
• The last stud of the starting resistance is connected to terminal A to which one terminal of the armature is
connected.

• The + ve supply line is connected to the line terminal L through main switch. From line terminal, supply is
connected to the starting lever SL through over load release coil OLRC.

• A spring S is placed over the lever to bring it to the off position, when supply goes off. A soft iron piece SI is
attached with the starting lever which is pulled by the no volt release coil under normal running condition.

• The far end of the brass strip BS is connected to the terminal Z through a no volt release coil NVRC.

• One end of the shunt field winding in connected to Z terminal of the starter.

• An iron piece is lifted by OLRC under abnormal condition to short circuit the no-volt release coil.

• The negative supply line is connected directly to the other ends of shunt field winding and armature of the DC
shunt motor.
 Cont..
Operation

• First of all the main switch is closed with starting lever resting in off position.

• The handle is then turned clockwise to the first stud and brass strip.

• As soon as it comes in contact with first stud, whole of the starting resistance R is inserted in
series with the armature and the field winding is directly connected across the supply through
brass strip.

• As the handle is turned further the starting resistance is cut out of the armature circuit in steps
and finally entire starting resistance is cut out of armature circuit
 Cont...
No-volt Release Coil and its Function

• A no-volt release coil is a small electromagnet having many turns of fine wire.

• It is connected in series with shunt field winding and therefore, carries a small field current.

• When the handle is turned to on position, the no-volt release coil is magnetised by the field
current and holds the starting lever at on position.

• In case of failure or disconnection of the supply, this coil is demagnetised and the lever comes
to the off position due to spring tension.

• Consequently, The motor is disconnected from the supply.

• If the spring with the no-volt release coil is not used the lever would remain in ON-position in
case of supply failure.
 Cont..
• And again, when the supply comes, the motor would be connected directly to
the lines without starter.

• The other important advantage of connecting the no-volt release coil in series
with the shunt field winding is that due to an accident if the circuit of field
winding becomes open, the NVRC will be demagnetised and the starting lever
is immediately pulled back to off position by the spring.

• Otherwise the motor would have attained dangerously high speed.

 Cont..
Over-load Release Coil and its Function

• An over-load release coil is an electromagnet having small number of turns of thick wire.

• It is connected in series with the motor and carries the line current.

• When the motor is over loaded (or short circuited), a heavy current more than predetermined
value will flow through it.

• Then, the iron piece (armature or plunger) is lifted and short circuits the no-volt release coil.

• Hence the starting lever is released and pulled back to the off position due to spring tension.

• Thus the motor is disconnected from the supply and is protected against over loading.
 Four-point Starter
• For speed control of DC shunt or compound motors, a rheostat (variable resistor Rh) is connected in
series with the field winding, as shown in Fig. 16.

• In this case, if a three-point starter is used and the value of Rh is so adjusted that the current flowing
through the shunt field winding is very small.

• It may be seen that the same current flows through the no-volt release coil, then the magnetic strength of
the coil may be insufficient to hold the plunger at its ON position. This is an undesirable feature of a
three-point starter.

• This feature makes a three-point starter unsuitable for such applications.

• Accordingly, a four-point starter is designed, as shown in Fig. 16, in which the current flowing through
the no-volt release coil is made independent of the shunt field circuit. Figure 16 (a) shows a four-point
starter used with a shunt wound motor whereas Fig. 16 (b) shows a starter used with a compound wound
machine.
 Cont..

Fig.16. Four-point DC motor starter

 Cont..
Operation
• The working of a four-point starter is similar to a three-point starter with slight changes.

• In this case, when the plunger touches the first stud, the line current is divided into the
following three parts:

(i) First part passes through starting resistance and armature (as well as in series field for
compound motors).

(ii) Second part passes through the field winding (and speed control resistance if applied)
and

(iii) The third part passes through no-volt release coil and protective resistance connected in
series with the coil.
 Two point Starter
• A series motor starter is also called a two-point starter. Its internal and external connections

are shown in Fig. 17.

Fig.17 Two-point series motor starter

 Cont..
• for starting the motor, the control arm or plunger is moved in clockwise direction from its OFF
position to ON position against the spring tension.

• In the beginning, all the sections of the starting resistance are connected in series with the
armature to limit the current to predetermined value.

• As the starting arm moves, various steps of the starting resistance are cut out of circuit and
ultimately whole of the starting resistance is cut-out and the control arm is held in the ON
position by an electromagnet.

• The hold-on (no-volt release) coil is connected in series with the armature circuit.

• If the motor loses its load, current drawn by the motor decreases which decreases the strength
of the hold-on coil.
 Cont..
• Immediately the arm goes back to the OFF position due to strong spring tension; thus
preventing the motor from over-speed.
• The control arm or plunger also goes back to the OFF position when supply goes OFF or when
the supply voltage decreases appreciably.
• L and Y are the two points of the starter through which supply line terminal and the motor
(series field) terminal is connected.
• For stopping the motor, the line switch should always be opened rather than bringing the control
arm back to its OFF position.
• If it is done a heavy sparking occurs at the last stud placed near the OFF position.
• This sparking occurs due to dissipation of energy stored in the magnetic field of series field
winding
 Starting Methods of Squirrel Cage Induction Motors

• The various starters which are employed to restrict the initial rush of current in squirrel cage

induction motors are given below:

• Primary resistance (or inductance) starter

• Star/Delta Starter

• Auto-transformer Starter
 Direct On Line (D.O.L.) Starter
• It is a starter by which the motor is switched ON direct to the supply mains by switching
conductor.

• With normal industrial motors this operation results in a heavy rush of current of the
order of five to seven times of the normal full load current.

• This high current rapidly decreases as the motor picks up speed but it is at a very low
power factor and thus tends to disturb the voltage of the supply in the distribution lines.

• For this reason, the supply authorities limit the size of motor upto 5 H.P. which can be
started by this starter.

• An automatic D.O.L. Starter is shown in Fig. 18.

 Cont..
• A direct on line starter essentially consists of a contactor having four normally open (N.O.)
contacts and a contactor coil also known as no-volt coil or no volt release.

Fig.18 Direct-on-line starter

 Cont...
• There are two push buttons ON and OFF which are used to start and stop the motor.

• To protect motor against overload, thermal or magnetic over-load coils are connected in each
phase

• To start the motor, the ON push button (green) is pressed which energies the no-volt coil by
connecting it across two phases.

• The no-volt coil pulls its plunger in such a direction that all the normally open (NO) contacts are
closed and motor is connected across supply through three contacts.

• The fourth contact serves as a hold on contact which keeps the no-volt coil circuit closed even
after the ON push button is released.
 Cont..
• To stop the motor, OFF push button (red) is pressed momentarily which de-energises the no volt
coil opening the main contacts.

• When the motor is over loaded, the thermal overload relay contact, connected in the control
circuit opens thus disconnecting the No-volt relay from the supply. Overload protection is
achieved by thermal element overload relay.

• When motor is connected to the mains by direct on line starter, the starting current of the motor

will be equal to the short-circuit current Isc.

Where Tst- starting torque
Tfl- full load torque
Ist –starting current
Ifl – full load current
Sfl-full load torque
 Stator Resistance (or Reactance) Starter
• In this method, a variable resistor (or inductor) is connected in series with each phase of the
stator winding of a 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor, as shown in Fig. 19.

Fig.19 Stator resistance starter

 Cont..
• Very low voltage is supplied to each phase of the winding at the start by inserting more
resistance (or inductance) in series with the winding. As the motor picks-up the speed, the

resistance (or inductance) is taken out of circuit.

 Cont..
Merits

(i) Smooth acceleration since the resistance (or inductance) is reduced gradually.

(ii) Simple and less expansive

(iii) Higher pf during starting

Demerits

(i) Current is reduced by a fraction of x but the torque is reduced to fraction x2, hence starting torque
is poor.

(ii) More energy loss in the resistors, therefore, inductors are preferred. But still loss is more.

(iii) Starting duration is comparatively more.

• This method of starting is used very rarely.

 Star-Delta Starter
• This method is based upon the principle that in star connections, voltage across each winding is
phase voltage i.e., 1/ 3 times the line voltage, whereas the same winding when connected in
delta will have full line voltage across it.

• So at start, connections of the motor are made in star fashion so that reduced voltage is applied
across each winding.

• After the motor attains speed the same windings through a change-over switch, as shown in
Fig. 20 are connected in delta across the same supply.

• The starter is provided with overload and under voltage protection devices also. Moreover, the
starter is also provided with a mechanical inter-locking which prevents the handle to put in run
position first.
 Cont..
• Simplified connections of a star delta starter are shown in Fig. 20 (b).

Fig.20 (A) Star-delta starter (b)Simplified star-delta starter

Cont..
 Cont..
Merits

• It is a simple, cheap, effective and most efficient method of starting of squirrel cage induction motors.

• It is the most suitable method of starting for high inertia and long acceleration loads.

• However, it suffers from the following demerits.

Demerits

1. All the six terminals of the stator winding are to be brought out to starter through six leads and the
motor has to be operated in delta.

2. The starting current can only be limited to 1/3rd of the short circuit current.

3. Starting torque developed by the motor is reduced to 1/3rd which is very low to pick the load.

• Accordingly, such starters are employed with the squirrel cage induction motors having capacity 4 kW
to 20 kW.
 Auto-transformer Starter
• In the previous method, the current can only be reduced to 1/3 times the short circuit current.

• Whereas, in this method, the voltage applied across the motor and hence current can be reduced to a
very low value at the time of start.

• At the time of start, the motor is connected to supply through auto-transformer by a 6 pole double throw
switch.

• When the motor is accelerated to about full speed, the operating handle is moved to run position. By
this, motor is directly connected to the line as shown in Fig. 21.

• Overload protection and under voltage protection is provided as explained in the first method.

• Although this type of starter is expensive but is most suitable for both the star-connected and delta-
connected induction motors.

• It is most suitable for starting of large motor.

 Cont..

Fig.21 Auto-transformer starter

 Cont..
• Large size motors draw huge amount of current from the mains if they are connected to mains
without starter.

• However, if they are connected to the mains through star/delta starter, the current is limited to
1/3rd value which is still, so large that it would disturb the other loads connected to the same
lines.

• Hence, to limit the initial rush of current to low values auto-transformer starters are
employed.

• With the help of auto-transformer starters, we can limit the starting current to any
predetermined value as explained below:
Cont..
 Rotor Resistance Starter for Slip Ring Induction Motors
• To start a slip ring induction motor, a 3-phase rheostat is connected in series with the rotor
circuit through brushes as shown in Fig. 22.

Fig.22 3-phase slip-ring induction motor starter

 Cont..
• This is called rotor rheostat starter.

• This is made of three separate variable resistors joined together by means of a 3-phase armed
handle which forms a star point.

• By moving the handle equal resistance in each phase can be introduced.

• At start, whole of the rheostat resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit and the rotor current is
reduced to

• Correspondingly it reduces the current drawn by the motor from the mains at start.

• When the motor picks up speed the external resistance is reduced gradually and ultimately
whole of the resistance is taken out of circuit and slip rings are short-circuited.
 Cont..
• By inserting external resistance in the rotor circuit, not only the starting current is reduced but
at the same time starting torque is increased due to improvement in power factor:

• At starts: