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CRS 102 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY ● Movements from this area are activated by
WEEK 9- MOTOR SYSTEMS II: VOLUNTARY external stimuli
MOVEMENT ● Takes input from the cerebellum
● Present here is the “mirror neurons” which
helps us learn by imitation
OUTLINE:
● Main functions:
○ Controlling axial and proximal
● CORTICAL CONTROL OF
muscles
MOVEMENT
○ Facilitating sequential movement
○ Prefrontal Cortex
○ Premotor Area
○ Supplementary Motor Area
○ Primary Motor Area SUPPLEMENTARY MOTOR AREA
● The supplementary motor area and
● BRAINSTEM & DESCENDING Brodmann Area 6 both contribute to motor
MOTOR TRACKS planning and coordination, with the
● PYRAMIDAL SYSTEM supplementary motor area specializing in
● Lateral System the planning of complex, bilateral
○ Corticospinal Tract movements, while Brodmann area 6 plays
○ Rubrospinal Tract a broader role in motor planning and
● Medial System execution.
○ Reticulospinal Tract ● Movements in this area are initiated
○ Vestibulospinal Tract internally
○ Tectospinal Tract ● This area receives input from basal
○ Brainstem ganglia
○ Spinal Cord ● Main functions:
○ Mental rehearsal
● SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF UPPER ○ Bimanual movement (e.g. using
AND LOWER MOTOR LEISIONS both hands to button a shirt)
○ Faster, more complex movement
● EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYSTEM
○ Basal Ganglia
○ Cerebellum PRIMARY MOTOR AREA
● The primary motor area, located in
Brodmann area 4 of the cerebral cortex, is
primarily responsible for the execution of
CORTICAL CONTROL OF MOVEMENT voluntary motor movements.
● Is responsible for the force and speed of
PREFRONTAL CORTEX action (e.g how fast we walk)
● The Prefrontal cortex is responsible for ● Main functions:
motor planning, integrating sensory ○ Facilitates direct activation of alpha
information, and selecting the most motor neurons in the spinal cord
appropriate response to stimuli. for movement

PREMOTOR AREA
● The premotor area, often associated with
Brodmann area 6, is a brain region that
plays a central role in motor planning and
organizing complex movements

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BRAINSTEM & DESCENDING MOTOR
TRACKS
PYRAMIDAL SYSTEM
● Associated with conscious and fine motor
control
LATERAL SYSTEM
● Major motor pathway in the CNS that
originates in the primary motor cortex and
descends on the contralateral (opposite)
side of the spinal cord, controlling
voluntary muscle movements on the
opposite side of the body.
● Consists of:
○ Corticospinal Tract
○ Rubrospinal Tract
CORTICOSPINAL TRACT
● Also known as the pyramidal/ upper motor
neuron
● Betz cells are the upper motor neurons
responsible for initiating and controlling
the movements carried out by the
corticospinal tract
● The corticospinal tract receives input
from the premotor and supplementary
motor cortex, which play roles in motor
planning and coordination.
● The corticospinal tract, originating from the
motor cortex, is primarily responsible for
controlling voluntary muscle movements,
while the somatosensory cortex
processes sensory information, and the
two regions are functionally distinct
but closely connected for coordinated
motor and sensory functions.
● The corticospinal tract is decussated at
the medulla oblongata
● Terminates interneurons and alpha motor
neurons
● The main function is to facilitate
precise movement of the distal
muscles of the limbs
RUBROSPINAL TRACT
● Originating from the red nucleus, a
structure located in the tegmentum of the
midbrain.
● This tract plays a role in controlling fine
motor movements and is involved in motor
coordination.
● Injury to the rubrospinal tract may cause
gross/ coarse movement in a person
● Its function through an indirect pathway is
facilitating the activity of flexor
muscles
● non-significant in humans
MEDIAL SYSTEM
● The medial descending motor tract refers
to a group of motor pathways within the
CNS that is responsible for contributing to
posture and balance (axial musculature)
● Consists of:
○ Reticulospinal Tract
○ Vestibulospinal Tract
○ Tectospinal Tract
RETICULOSPINAL TRACT
● The reticulospinal tract, originating in the
reticular formation of the brainstem, plays
a crucial role in regulating arousal
● 2 subdivisions:
○ Pontine reticulospinal tract
■ powerful exitation of
antigravity muscles through
the body
○ Medullary reticulospinal tract
■ Inhibits antigravity muscles
in certain portions of the
body to allow those
portions to perform special
motor activities
VESTIBULOSPINAL TRACT
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● The vestibulospinal tract is a neural ● The spinal cord takes an important role in
pathway that originates in the vestibular central pattern generation, responsible for
nuclei of the brainstem and plays a key generating rhythmic motor patterns such
role in relaying signals from the vestibular as walking or swimming, due to networks
system to the spinal cord to regulate of neurons within the spinal cord known as
posture and balance. central pattern generators.
● Facilitates activity of extensor muscles
● Inhibits flexor muscles
● Main function is to control the excitatory SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF UPPER AND
signals to different antigravity muscles to LOWER MOTOR LEISIONS
maintain equilibrium
● 2 divisions:
○ Lateral Vestibulospinal Tract Lower motor Upper motor
■ Facilitates the postural neuron neuron
muscles of the back and syndrome syndrome
lower extremities Strength Weakness or Weakness
○ Medial Vestibulospinal Tract paralysis
■ Facilitates the postural
Muscle bulk Severe atrophy Mid or no
muscles of the neck and
develops atrophy
upper extremities
develops
Reflexes Hypoactive, Hyperactive,
superficial and deep reflexes
TECTOSPINAL TRACT
deep reflexes after the initial
● The tectospinal tract is a neural pathway
period of spinal
that originates in the midbrains superior
shock
colliculus
● Plays a role in coordinating head and eye Special signs Initial signs and Initial period of
movements in response to visual stimuli. and symptoms spinal shock,
symptoms persist then spasticity
ensues
Fasciculations
BRAINSTEM
and fibrillations Bobinski’s sign
● The brainstem is critical for regulating
and clonus
postural reflexes, as it houses vital centers
Georgraphic
such as the vestibular and reticular
distribution of More
formation that control balance, muscle
impairment widespread
tone, and anticipatory postural
distribution
adjustments.
Impairment of
● Also regulates postural tone by integrating
reflexive and Impairment of
sensory information and coordinating
gross or fine fine voluntary
motor responses to maintain balance and
voluntary movements,
stability.
movements gross
● Initiates locomotor rhythm by coordinating
movements
and regulating motor patterns necessary
relatively
for activities like walking and running.
unimpaired

SPINAL CORD
EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYSTEM

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● Responsible for more automatic and
subconscious motor functions, including
maintaining posture, balance, and
coordination
BASAL GANGLIA
● Consists of several nuclei, with the
striatum (comprising the caudate and
putamen) serving as the primary input
structure
● Output within the basal ganglia occurs
through GABA
● Involved in the dopaminergic pathway,
which is linked to motivation and reward
● Functions of the basal ganglia:
○ prepare and facilitate movements
while inhibiting unwanted or
unnecessary ones
○ This includes selecting the
appropriate movement for a given
context
○ And controlling the timing and
scaling of these movements.
○ Essentially, it contributes to the
execution of complex, skilled
movements and helps individuals
perform tasks with precision.
● When the basal ganglia are affected by
injury or neurodegenerative diseases,
such as Parkinson's disease, it can lead to
a range of movement-related issues:
○ Akinesia
■ poverty of movement
○ Bradykinesia
■ Unaturally slow movement
○ Dyskinesia
■ involuntary abnormal
movement
○ Rigidity
■ stiff or inflexible muscles
CEREBELLUM
● Plays a crucial role in motor control and
coordination, which can indirectly
influence extrapyramidal functions,
particularly in terms of fine-tuning and
regulating movement.
● The cerebellum has 3 functional divisions:
○ Vestibulocerebellum
■ closely related to the
flocculonodular lobe,
■ primarily processes
information related to
balance and eye movement
■ considered the oldest
■ controls the axial muscles
( muscles that contribute to
maintaining an upright
posture and stability in the
body)
○ Spinocerebellum
■ facilitates the actual
execution of a movement
■ compares feedback and
correct any that deviate
■ maintains coordination of
hands and fingers
■ prevent overshooting and
undershooting, ensuring
that voluntary movements
are executed smoothly and
accurately
○ Cerebrocerebellum
■ significant role in planning
and programming
movements within the body
■ receives input from the
cerebral cortex to help
optimize motor control in
activities that demand
precision and dexterity
■ sequential to progressive
movement
■ provides planning to rapidly
changing movement
● Conditions of the cerebellum can include:
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○ Dysmetria
■ inability to judge distance,
includes over and
undershooting
■ can be determined using
the finger to nose test
○ Ataxia
■ seemingly drunken walking
○ Dysdiadochokinesia
■ inability to perform rapid
alternative movements
○ Hypotonia
■ reduced muscle tone or
muscle weakness

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CRS 102 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY SENSES

WEEK 10: SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM ● Refer to the mechanisms by which we
&SPECIAL SENSES perceive and respond to the world, which
is then processed by the nervous system
OUTLINE: to generate appropriate responses

● SENSES GENERAL SENSES

○ General senses & Special ● Receptors distributed over a large part of
senses the body
○ Somatic (located in skin, muscle &
● SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM joints)
○ Types of Sensory Receptors
■ Touch
● PROCESS OF SENSATION ■ Pressure
○ 3 order neurons ■ Temperature
○ Ascending Pathways ■ Pain
■ Proprioception
● ANTEROLATERAL SYSTEM ○ Visceral ( located in internal
○ Spinothalamic Tract
organs)
○ Dorsal- Column/ Medial-
Leminiscal Tract ■ Pain
■ Pressure
● SPECIAL SENSES: VISION
○ Eye Anatomy SPECIAL SENSES
○ Eye Mechanism ● Receptors localized within specific organs
○ Problems with Visual Acuity ○ Smell
○ Visual neuronal pathway ○ Taste
○ Sight
● SPECIAL SENSES: HEARING & ○ Hearing
BALANCE ○ Balance
○ Ear & Balance Anatomy
SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM
○ Hearing neuronal pathway
● Way to communicate to the world through
● SPECIAL SENSES: SMELL sensory input, such as pain, pressure, and
○ Olfactory Anatomy temperature.
○ Olfactory neuronal pathway ● Is considered an important protective
mechanism for survival, as it helps
● SPECIAL SENSES: TASTE organisms detect potential threats, find
○ Taste Anatomy food, navigate their surroundings, and
○ Taste neuronal pathway interact with others in their environment.
The nervous system processes sensory
● BROADMANN AREAS TO input and generates appropriate
REMEMBER responses, allowing organisms to adapt
and respond to changing conditions.

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TYPES OF SENSORY RECEPTORS BASED ON STRUCTURE

BASED ON THE TYPE OF STIMULUS THEY DETECTS

DETECT Free Nerve Ending Pain, itch, tickle,
temperature, joint
RESPONDS TO movement, and
Mechanoreceptors touch, pressure, proprioception
hearing, balance & Merkel Disk Light touch
proprioception Hair Follicle Receptor Light touch through
Chemoreceptors smell and taste slight bending of the
hair
Thermoreceptors changes in Pacinican Corpuscle Deep pressure,
temperature
vibration, and
Photoreceptors light, vision/ sight
proprioception
Nocireceptors/ Pain painful stimuli
receptors Ruffini End Organ Continuous touch or
pressure
Muscle Spindle Amount of stretch in a
BASED ON THEIR LOCATION: muscle, proprioception
Golgi Tendon Organ Associated with the
RESPONDS TO stretch of a tendon;
Cutaneous provide information about important for control of
receptors the external environment. muscle contraction,
Visceroreceptors from the name itself “ proprioception
viscera” are associated Meissner Corpuscle Two-point
with the organs discrimination

visceroreceptors provide
information about the
internal environment.
Proprioceptors associated with joints,
tendons, and other
connective tissue

provide information about

body position, movement,
and the extent of stretch or
the force of muscular
contraction

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PROCESS OF SENSATION
3 ORDER NEURONS
● A somatic sensory pathway consists of 3
order neurons
1. First-order (primary) neurons
a. sensory neurons that conduct
nerve impulses from somatic
sensory receptors into the
brainstem or spinal cord
2. Second-order (secondary) neurons
a. conduct nerve impulses from the
brainstem or spinal cord to the
thalamus
b. axons of the second-order neurons
decussate as they course through
the brainstem or spinal cord before
ascending to the thalamus
3. Third-order (tertiary) neurons
a. conduct nerve impulses from the
thalamus to the primary
somatosensory cortex on the same
side
ASCENDING PATHWAYS
● Ascending pathways carry conscious
and unconscious sensations. The 3
ascending systems are the:
○ Anterolateral system
■ Spinothalamic tract
■ Spinoreticular tract
■ Spinomesencephalic tract
(and spinotectal)
○ Dorsal column/Medial-lemniscal
systems
■ Fasciculus gracilis
■ Fasciculus cuneatus
○ Spinocerebellar tract
■ Posterior
■ Anterior
ANTEROLATERAL SYSTEM
● The anterolateral system is one of the
major systems that convey cutaneous
sensory information to the brain
SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT
● The spinothalamic tract allows conscious
perception of pain, temperature, light
touch, pressure, tickle, and itch sensations
● Transmits sensory signals from peripheral
receptors to the cerebral cortex through
this three neuron sequence:
○ PRIMARY NEURON: The primary
neurons of the spinothalamic tract
are the first neurons in the
pathway. Primary neurons connect
the sensory receptor with the
spinal cord.
■ neuron: cell bodies are in
the dorsal root ganglion
○ DECUSSATION: within the level of
the spinal cord, occurring through
the anterior portion of the gray and
white commissures
○ SECONDARY NEURON: The
spinal cord relay information to the
brain where it will synapse to the
thalamus
○ TERTIARY NEURON: from the
thalamus relay information to
neurons in the somatosensory
cortex
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DORSAL-COLUMN/ MEDIAL-LEMNISCAL
SYSTEM
● Transmits sensory signals from peripheral
receptors to the cerebral cortex through
this three neuron sequence:
○ PRIMARY NEURON: primary
neurons of the
dorsal-column/medial-lemniscal
system are located in the dorsal
root ganglia, and synapse with
secondary neurons located in the
medulla oblongata
○ DECUSSATION: axons of the
primary neurons of the
dorsalcolumn/medial-lemniscal
system enter the spinal cord,
ascend its entire length without
crossing to its opposite side, hence
its path continues within the
medulla oblongata
○ SECONDARY NEURON: The
medulla oblongata will relay
information to the brain where it
will synapse to the thalamus
○ TERTIARY NEURON: from the
thalamus relay information to
neurons in the somatosensory
cortex
2 TRACTS OF THE DC/MLS
● In the spinal cord, the
dorsal-column/medial-lemniscal system is
divided into two tracts based on the
source of the stimulus
1. Fasciculus Gracilis
a. conveys sensations from the lower
part of the body, lower extremities
b. below the midthoracic level
c. terminates by synapsing with
secondary neurons in the nucleus
gracilis
2. Fasciculus Cuneatus
a. conveys sensations from the upper
part of the body, upper extremities
b. above the midthoracic level
c. terminates by synapsing with
secondary neurons in the nucleus
cuneatus
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SPECIAL SENSES: VISION ● Visual acuity- the ability to focus on an

image on the retina so that a clear image
EYE ANATOMY is perceived

Sclera gives shape to the eyeball, the PROBLEMS WITH VISUAL ACUITY
“white” of the eye ● Visual acuity problems can arise from
Cornea Transparent coat that covers the various factors and conditions that affect
iris the eye's ability to see clearly and
Pupil hole in the center of the iris distinguish fine details.
Iris colored portion of the eyeball &
regulates the size of the pupil
Lens located behind the pupil and iris,
helps focus images on the retina to
facilitate clear vision

transparent, flexible, biconves

structure that bends or refracts light
rays so they focus on the nerve
● Emmetropic eye or normal vision
cells of retina
● Myopic eye or nearsighted
Rods bipolar photoreceptor cells that are
○ concave corrective lenses are
involved in noncolor vision. They
used
are responsible for vision under
● Hyperopic eye or far-sighted
conditions of reduced light
○ convex corrective lenses are used
(making out objects in dim light)
Cones bipolar photoreceptor cells are
responsible for color vision and
visual acuity

EYE MECHANISM
● Accommodation- the process of
changing the shape of the lens, when
looking at something near or far
● Convergence- medial rotation of the eys
as an object is kept focused on
corresponding areas of each retina.
Otherwise, the object appears blurry
● Reflection- bouncing of light from the
surface when it strikes and object that is
not transparent
● Refraction- bending of light, as it passes
from air to a denser substance, such as a
glass of water, its speed slows and the
rays bend.

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VISUAL NEURONAL PATHWAY 6. These axons synapse in the lateral

geniculate nuclei of the thalamus, with
some collateral branches also synapsing
in the superior colliculi.
7. Optic radiation is made up of axons from
thalamic neurons that project to the visual
cortex.
8. The right part of each visual field sends
signals to the left side of the brain, while
the left part of the visual field sends
signals to the right side of the brain, whee
the primary visual areas of the occipital
lobe are located

SPECIAL SENSES: HEARING & BALANCE

EAR ANATOMY
● Nasal part of visual field ● 3 structures of the external ear:
○ the medial area of the eye near the ○ Auricle/ pinna
nose ○ External auditory canal
● Temporal part of visual field ○ Tympanic membrane
○ the lateral area of the eye near the ● 3 ossicles located in the middle of the
temporal area of the head ear:
○ Malleus or Hammer
1. The visual field is split into temporal and ○ Incus or Anvil
nasal sections. ○ Stapes or Stirrup
2. After passing through the eye's lens, light ● 3 bony labyrinth regions that compose
from one side of the visual field projects to the inner ear:
the opposite side of the retina. ○ Vestibule- primarily involved in
3. The optic nerve is composed of axons balance
that extend from the retina to the optic ○ Semicircular canals- primarily
chiasm. involved n balance
4. At the optic chiasm, axons from the nasal ○ Cochlea- responsible for hearing
portion of the retina cross over and project
to the opposite side of the brain, while
axons from the temporal portion do not
cross.
5. An optic tract consists of axons that have
passed through the optic chiasm, whether
they crossed over or not, on their way to
the thalamus.

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HEARING NEURONAL PATHWAY ■ detects left and right head

movement
1. Sensory axons originating from the ○ Posterior Semicirclular canal
vestibular ganglion travel through the ■ detects upward and
vestibular nerve to reach the vestibular downward head movement
nucleus, which additionally receives input
from various other sources, including SPECIAL SENSES: SMELL
proprioceptive information from the legs.
2. Neurons in the vestibular system transmit OLFACTORY ANATOMY
axons to the cerebellum, where they
influence the muscles responsible for
maintaining posture.
3. Vestibular neurons also project axons to
motor nuclei like the oculomotor, trochlear,
and abducens, which control the
movement of the external eye muscles.
4. Vestibular neurons further extend axons to
the posterior ventral nucleus of the
thalamus.
5. Neurons in the thalamus, in turn, send
signals to the vestibular region of the
cortex.
OLFACTORY NEURONAL PATHWAY
BALANCE ANATOMY
● Utricle and Saccule 1. Processes of the olfactory nerves, formed
○ two otolith organs located in the by the axons of the olfactory neurons,
vestibule that function to detect the project through through the foramina in
the cribriform plate to the olfactory bulb.
position of the head, relative to
2. Axons of neurons in the olfactory bulb
gravity as well as lineal project through the olfactory tract to the
acceleration and deceleration olfactory areas of the cerebrum.
● Macula 3. The central olfactory cortex areas, located
○ small thickened region of otolith in the temporal and frontal lobes, are
organs attached to their inner wall involved in the complex processing of
where hair cells are bundled olfactory stimuli perception
together
● Otolith
○ a layer of dense calcium carbonate
crystals that are pulled down by
gravity to detect head tilt
● 3 Spacial Planes
○ Anterior Semicirclular canal
■ detects forward and
backward head movement
○ Lateral Semicirclular canal
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SPECIAL SENSES: TASTE
TOUNGE ANATOMY
● Posterior ⅓
○ Sensory and Taste of the posterior
⅓ of tongue is controlled by CN IX
Glossopharyngeal
● Anterior ⅔
○ Sensory portion of the Anterior ⅔
is controlled by CN V Trigeminal,
specifically the lingual branch of V3
○ Taste portion of the Anterior ⅔ is
controlled by CN VII Facial, which
is carried by the lingual branch
● Motor
○ Motor movement of the tongue is
facilitated by CN XII Hypoglossal
NEURONAL PATHWAY
1. Axons of sensory neurons, which synapse
with taste receptors, pass through cranial
nerves VII, IX, and X and through the
ganglion of each nerve (enlarged portion
of each nerve).
2. The axons enter the brainstem and
synapse in the nucleus of the tractus
solitarius.
3. Axons from the nucleus of the tractus
solitarius synapse in the thalamus.
4. Axons from the thalamus terminate in the
taste area of the insula
BROADMANN AREAS TO REMEMBER
● Primary Sensory Area (BA 3,1,2)
● Secondary Sensory Area (BA 5,7)
● Primary Auditory Area (BA 41)
● Auditory Association Area (BA 42)
● Olfactory Area (BA 35)
● Taste Area (BA 43)
● Primary Visual Area (BA 17)
● Visual Association Area (BA 18, 19)
TEST YOURSELF!! :)
1. What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in
the human brain, particularly concerning
motor planning and responses to stimuli?
2. Explain the main functions of the premotor
area in the brain, including its connection
with the cerebellum and the concept of
"mirror neurons."
3. What functions are associated with the
supplementary motor area and its
distinction from Brodmann area 6 in terms
of motor planning and coordination?
4. Describe the functions of the primary
motor area (Brodmann area 4) and its role
in executing voluntary motor movements.
5. Discuss the corticospinal tract, its origin,
and its role in controlling voluntary
6. What are the main types of sensory
receptors in the human body, and what
types of stimuli do they detect?
7. Explain the process of sensation,
including the roles of first-order,
second-order, and third-order neurons in
somatic sensory pathways.
8. Differentiate between the anterolateral
system and dorsal
column/medial-lemniscal system in
conveying cutaneous sensory information
to the brain.
9. Describe the anatomical structures of the
eye and the process of visual perception,
including how light is refracted and the
role of rods and cones.
10. Discuss the sensory neuronal pathway for
hearing and balance, including the
structures involved and their functions.
General Reminder: This reviewer was not
further reviewed by the faculty. Kindly refer to
the reference if there are corrections.
– End of topic –
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REFERENCES:

BOOK REFERENCES

Seeley, R. R., Stephens, T. D., & Tate, P. (2007).

Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology.
McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Marieb, E. N., & Smith, L. A. (2022). Human

Anatomy & Physiology. Pearson.

Fox, S. I., & Rompolski, K. (2022). Human

physiology. McGraw-Hill.

MULTIMEDIA
Broschak, Dr. M. (2023, March 29). Myopia vs.
hyperopia: What’s the difference?: Kelowna.
Orchard Park Optometry | Kelowna’s Family
Optometrists.
https://orchardparkoptometry.com/myopia-vs-hyp
eropia-whats-the-difference/

Maurya, N. (2019, February 14). Visual Pathway.

www.medicoapps.org.
https://medicoapps.org/m-visual-pathway/

Fox, S. I., & Rompolski, K. (2022). Human

physiology. McGraw-Hill.

Seeley, R. R., Stephens, T. D., & Tate, P. (2007).

Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology.
McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

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