(A)REPONDENT (CLASSICAL, PAVLOVIAN) CONDITIONING OF REFLEXSIVE BEHAVIOUR (B)

INCREASING A BEHAVIOUR WITH POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT (C) DEMO

Submitted To: Miss Kokub

Submitted By: Laiba Sadaf, Shahana
Zaka, Syeda Iqra, and Adan Zahra.
 Learning

•Learning
• relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
 How Do We Learn?

• We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence.

We learn by association
• Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence
• Aristotle John Locke and David Hume 200 years ago
Associative Learning
• learning that two events occur together
• two stimuli
• a response and its consequences 2000 years ago
Association

•Learning to associate two events

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

• We learn to associate two

stimuli
Operant Conditioning

• We learn to associate a
response and its conseque nce
 Classical Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning
• organism comes to associate two stimuli
• a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for
the unconditioned stimulus

• Classical Conditioning

• Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist
Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson
and B.F. Skinner

Classical Conditioning and Pavlov’s Dogs: Hypothesis

• Dogs salivate when food is placed in their mouths

• Dogs salivate at mere sight of food
• Hypothesis: Dogs can be trained, or conditioned, to salivate when exposed to an external stimulus
 Pavlov’s Experiments

• Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However,
the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

Classical Conditioning

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

• stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response
• Unconditioned Response (UCR)
• unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus
• salivation when food is in the mouth
• Neutral Stimulus
• stimulus that does not naturally trigger a response
Pavlov’s Conclusions
 Classical Conditioning

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

• originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a
conditioned response
• Conditioned Response (CR)
• learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus
 (Increasing a Behavior with
Positive Reinforcement)

Introduction to Positive Reinforcement

What is Reinforcement?

Reinforcement means you are increasing a behavior, and punishment means you are decreasing a
behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, and punishment can also be positive or negative. All
rein forcers (positive or negative) increase the likelihood of a behavioral response.

What is positive reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement is a critical component of B. F. Skinner's behavioral theory of learning. Positive

reinforcement is defined as the presentation of a stimulus contingent on a behavior that results in an
increased frequency of that behavior in the future. If a child enjoys candy and cleaning the room is the
desired behavior, the candy is a positive reinforce (reward) because it is something that is given or added
when the behavior occurs. This makes the behavior more likely to recur.

Types of Positive Reinforces

1. Natural reinforces: Reinforces that occur

directly as a result of the behavior (e.g., a
student studies hard and does well on her
exams, resulting in good grades).
2. Token reinforcers: Those that are awarded for performing certain behaviors and can be exchanged
for something of value (e.g., parents devise a reward system in which the child earns stars, points,
or some other token that they can save up and turn in for a reward).
3. Social reinforcers: those that involve others expressing their approval of a behavior (e.g., a teacher,
parent, or employer saying, “Good job!” or “Excellent work!”).

Tangible reinforcers: reinforcers that are actual physical or tangible rewards (e.g., cash, toys,
treats
Increasing a behavior with positive Reinforcement

Identify the target behavior:

First, clearly define the specific behavior you want to increase. It should be observable and measurable,
so you can track progress effectively. For example, the target behavior for a child with ADHD could
be "completing a homework assignment without getting distracted."
Consider individual differences:
People have different preferences and motivators. Tailor the reinforcement
to suit the child with ADHD needs and preferences. Some may respond well to additional playtime, while
others may prefer a different reward, such as listening to music during homework, watching cartoon or to get some
kind of toy.
Choose appropriate reinforces:
Positive reinforcement involves providing something enjoyable or desirable immediately after
the desired behavior. Consider what motivates the child with ADHD. In this case, an appropriate
reinforce might be a short break to engage in a preferred activity like drawing or playing with
a fidget toy after completing homework.

Timing is critical:
Delayed reinforcement may not be as effective. Ensure that the reinforcer is delivered
immediately after the desired behavior, such as playtime right after homework, to establish
a clear connection between the behavior and the reward.
Consistency:
Reinforce the behavior consistently. Ensure that the reinforcer is delivered every time the
behavior occurs, especially when you're initially teaching the behavior. Ensure that you consistently
provide the chosen reinforcer every time the child successfully completes their homework without
distractions.
Monitor progress:
Keep track of the behavior and the reinforcement provided. Use data and observations to assess
whether the behavior is improving as desired. Keep a record or use a behavior chart to track how often
the child completes their homework without distractions and how many times they receive the reinforcer.
Adjust the level of reinforcement:
As the child's ability to complete their homework without distractions improves, you can gradually
reduce the frequency or size of the reinforcer. For instance, you might decrease the break time
from 15 minutes to 10 minutes.
Be specific with praise:
Alongside tangible rewards, offer specific praise for the child's efforts. Acknowledge their focus
and effort in completing their homework without distractions. Wow you did it. Well-done keep it up.

Gradual shaping:
If the target behavior is challenging for the child, break it down into smaller, manageable steps.
For instance, initially, reinforce completing five minutes of focused work, then increase it to ten minutes, and so on.

Avoid over-reliance on extrinsic rewards:

While tangible rewards can be effective, the goal is often to shift from external reinforcement to
internal motivation. Over time, the individual should come to find intrinsic satisfaction in performing
the behavior. As the child with ADHD makes progress, aim to shift their motivation from external rewards to intrinsic
 satisfaction. Encourage them to take pride in their ability to focus and accomplish tasks independently.

Maintain reinforcement:
Even after the target behavior becomes more consistent, continue providing
occasional reinforcement and praise to help sustain the improved behavior. This will help the child
continue to develop and maintain their ability to focus and complete tasks effectively.

Different example of positive reinforcement

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD):
Target Behavior: Engaging in social interactions. Reinforcer: Offering praise and access to a
preferred toy or activity when the child interacts socially, promoting social engagement.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD):

Target Behavior: Complying with a request without arguing or resistance. Reinforcer: Allowing the child to select a
reward from a reward menu (e.g., extra playtime, favorite snack) when they cooperate.
Anxiety Disorders:
Target Behavior: Participating in a feared activity or confronting an anxiety-triggering situation.
Reinforcer: Praising the child for their bravery and providing a special treat or a calming activity after
they face their anxiety.
Speech and Language Disorders:
Target Behavior: Using verbal communication or engaging in speech therapy exercises. Reinforcer:
Providing praise and the opportunity to choose a favorite game or activity when the child successfully uses language or
completes speech exercises.
 Instruction for using positive reinforcement

1. Be careful not to inadvertently reinforce the wrong behaviors. For example, you might laugh when a child makes
an inappropriate joke. Even if you tell the child to stop making these jokes, your laughing has offered
them some social reinforcement to continue this behavior.

2. Use a mix of natural, tangible, and social reinforcers. Don’t depend entirely on tangible reinforcement to influence
Behavior. Social and natural reinforcers like praise and attention can be much more powerful.

3. Try to deliver reinforcement immediately after the behavior if you can. If you can’t, tell the child exactly what they’re being
rewarded for. Try to be specific. Instead of: “You were a good girl today.” Try: “I noticed you being so kind to your brother today
when you helped him get off the slide. I really appreciated that.”

4. Adapt rewards to fit each person’s developmental level. For example, a sticker chart may not have the same
influence over teenagers as it does over young children
 References

Smith, J. A. (2020). Positive Reinforcement: Strategies for Behavior Increase (2nd ed.). Academic Press.

Johnson, M. R. (2018). The Role of Positive Reinforcement in Behavior Modification. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 42(3), 235-247.

Brown, L. K. (2019). Using Positive Reinforcement in Classroom Settings. In R. S. Williams (Ed.), Advances in
Applied Behavior Analysis (Vol. 5, pp. 101-118). Springer.

Garcia, E. D. (2017). Positive Reinforcement and Behavior Change: A Review. Behavior Modification
Quarterly, 30(2), 65-79.

Turner, S. R. (2021). Behavior Change and Positive Reinforcement: A Comprehensive Guide (4th ed.). Wiley.

Adams, B. H. (2016). The Effects of Positive Reinforcement on Increasing Pro-Social Behaviors. Journal
of Positive Psychology, 12(1), 45-58.