Unit Ten

Capitalism and the Growth of Democracy

10.1 China and Japan in the 16th and 17th C
China
China was re - united under the Han dynasty (221 B.C- 206 A.D)
China was re- unified as a single empire ruled by an emperor with absolute power
The officials appointed were educated men, qualified by passing a set of difficult
examinations based on Confucius philosophy
 The officials
Were conservative
Thought that the past was superior to the present
Not support changes or new innovations
Convinced that the Chinese civilization is the highest and the best in the
world
The Chinese regarded those who lived outside their empire as Barbarians
The Ming dynasty
At the beginning, the Ming dynasty was powerful and effective that is in the 14th C. Chinese
culture (painting, pottery and poetry) reached high level
The Ming government was interested in the outside world they sent voyages of
exploration in the 15th C
In the late Ming period, however, voyages were stopped
The Ming dynasty start declined in 16th C and finally overthrown in the 17th C because of:-
 Internal peasant revolt and
 External attack from the Manchu state.
The Ching dynasty
It was a foreign, non- Chinese dynasty from Manchuria: -
The Manchu people were not ethically Chinese and had their own language.
 In the 16th C powerful Manchu state emerged with Chinese style of administration
 In 1644, the Ching dynasty (the Manchu people) controlled the Chinese capital Beijing
The Ching rule was accepted by the landlords and educated classes
 It suppressed peasant revolt which was in the interest of the landlords
 The Ching dynasty ruled China according to the tradition of China
 It encouraged Chinese culture
 Chinese scholars were give positions in the administration
Under Ching dynasty Chinese territory was expanded
The Chinese troop won the Russian army in the North
Chinese traditional cultural continued to the 17th and 18th C
The Ching rulers continued to be culturally conservative

1
  The relationship between China and Europe was tool limited. Only the Russian
merchants traded with China
The Jesuit missionaries:-
At the beginning, they established smooth relation with the Ching rulers
Theses Jesuit had some scientific and technological knowledge with they served the
Emperor for example They made cannon and maps did astronomical and engineering
work in China
In the 18th C, the Jesuits were expelled and missionary work was stopped
 In the first half of the 19th C, the Ching dynasty started to decline
Its military technology was inferior than west
It was no longer able to resist the demands western countries
The dynasty was not so strong internally and opposition to it was grouping
Between 1839-1842, Britain defeated China and imposed unequal treaty on China
So, China was reduced to a Semi- colonial status (forced to make economic and political
concessions)
JAPAN
Japan had an ancient civilization which was influenced by China.
The Japanese borrowed ideas and institution from China but “Japanized them”
Japan was ruled by an Emperor but real power was in the hands of the Shogun
(Commandor of the army)
The Emperor was respected but was confined to his palace
The great feudal lord were called the Daimyos and Feudal warriors were the
Samurai
The Daimyos ruled their land called Han
Around 1490, Japan entered a long period of civil war between Feudal lords
The Daimyos fought each other for power using their army- Samurai
 The Tokugawa Daimyo family ruled Japan between 1603- 1687
 The head of the Tokugawa family, Ieyasu made himself Shogun in 1603- he united Japan
 He established Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1867) and had effective power No more civil
war
Japanese Feudal society, of the ruling class include-
The Shogun,
The daimyos and
The Samurai
The common were; - the merchants, craftsmen and the peasants
Within Feudal system, Japan developed capitalist elements
Had money economy
Landing at interest had began
Towns, cities and wage labour was expanded
Europeans reached Japan in the 16th C
Trade relation had started between Japan and Europe

2
 Catholic missionaries arrived Japan and by 1615 about half a million Japanese converted
to Christianity. But missionaries were expelled because the Shogun dislike them
By 1639, the Tokugawa government excluded all outside influence on Japan; - it was known as
Japans seclusion policy (Isolation)
Some limited contacts were allowed such as
Trade with Korea and china
Dutch merchants (the only Europeans) were allowed but, they were confined
only to Island of Deshima in Nagasaki
The consequences of seclusion policy of Japan
 It was an obstacle for the development of capitalism
 It hampered Japans military technology

10.2 The English Revolution

 In 1603, the last ruler of the English Tudor dynasty Queen Elizabeth 1558-1603 died
unmarried
James I (r1603-1625) of Scotland from the Stuart dynasty succeeded her and with the death of
James I, his son Charles I 1625-1649 succeeded him
She was replaced by James VI king of Scotland
He became James I of England and Ireland
He was the first Stuart king from Scotland to rule England
But England and Scotland were not united politically until 1707
 The English monarchy was not absolute because:-
The king had no regular and professional army
 There was a National representative Assembly called the parliament
It approved laws and taxation
Met only when the king called it
Met at west minster and had two Houses
The House of lord: - not elected and consisted of head of noble families, the Archbishops and
Bishops
The House of Commons: - elected represented the people. The election is not democratic
Not met since 1629
A conflict between the Parliament and the King began during the reign of Charles I (1625-
1649). The cause of the conflict were:-
i. Foreign policy:- Charles I led England to two expensive wars against Spain and
France which ended up in failure the king therefore, faced criticism
and opposition from the people
ii. Money:- When Charles I face financial Crisis, collected money through increasing
Taxation without the approval of the parliament which is illegal
iii. Religion:- The English people became suspicious and believed that Charles I and his
Wife (Henrietta Maria, a French Catholic) were taking away England
From Protestantism and back to Catholicism

3
 iv. Charles I:- ruled England without parliament
Fore Eleven years no parliament meeting
He ruled like an absolute Monarch
The Scotish Revolution started in 1637 when Charles I imposed English prayer book in
Scotland for Church services when he faced this crisis, Charles I called parliament meeting in
1640
1) The parliament refused to approve taxation, then it was dissolved this parliament is called
short parliament (April - May 1640)
2) For the second time Charles I called parliament it met in Nov 1640 and stayed up to
1653, it was called long parliament 1640- 1653
In 1642 the king faced an opposition from the parliament and the first civil war started (1642-
1646) between the parliament and the king
a) He rejected to sign the petition of right (list of parliamentary right)
b) He continued to rule without parliament
This led to the outbreak of the civil war 1642-1649 this event was commonly known as the
English bourgeoisie revolution
The parliament supported by the city of London, the Navy and got military
support from Scotland
It also organized an army called New Model Army commanded by Thomas
Fair fax and Oliver Cromwell
But the king was supported by the Royalists
Finally in the civil war, the parliament won
Before and during the civil war radical religious and political ideas had emerged. One of these
was the Levelers:-
It was secular political movement
They wanted Democracy, religious toleration and reform of harsh legal system
They had support from craftsmen, wage workers, ordinary soldiers and Junior
officers
They had been fighting for political and religious freedom for ordinary people
In 1648, the second civil war was started when the Scotish army invaded England. The new
model army quickly defeated the Scots and the English Royalists
 Then, the army and the House of commons removed the monarchy
In January 1649 the king was beheaded
England was declared a Republic
Cromwell was moved fast and Smashed the Leveles
Inside and outside the army
Immediately after the death of Charles I, Rump (remnants of the House of Commons) ruled
England from (1648- 1653).
In 1653, Cromwell dismissed the Rump and was the end of the long parliament
Cromwell conquered Ireland and Scotland and ruled up to his death in 1653 – 1658. With the
death of Cromwell, the ruling class of England tried to restore the monarchy old order and
old law

4
  In May 1660, the Son of Charles I began to rule as Charles II. This events is known as
“Restoration”
 It restored the monarchy
 The House of Lords
 The state church of England
 Traditional constitution
When Charles II died, his brother James II (1685-1688) succeeded him
 It was suspected that, James II made England Catholic
 He also ruled England as an absolute monarchy
 He became so unpopular in England
Then a group of ruling class invited William of Orange of Dutch to England
In November 1688 William of Orange arrived England with an army
James II left England and fled to France
William of Orange became William III and ruled England from 1688-1702
This events in the English Revolution is known as a “Glorious Revolution” (a
revolution without bloodshed
 The Glorious Revolution in England overthrew James II
The Glorious Revolution:-
Preserved the constitution
Marked the victory of the parliament
The parliament presented Bill of right to the king
Gave certain basic right to the people
Made illegal for the king to keep a standing army

10.3 The America war of Independence

North America had been originally settled by Amerindians Native American (Red Indians).
Since the 17th C Europeans emigrated in great numbers to North America to escape religious
and political persecutions in Europe
Gradually their number increased and the period from 1700 to 1763 came to be called
as the English colonial Era. Besides the Englishmen the French, the Spanish and
the Dutch also settled in America.
They had been continuous rivalry among European settler. Such rivalries led to wars
and conflicts. Economic and political competition between British and France
finally led to the seven Years war 1756-1763.
The most decisive war was fought between 1756-1763 when the British took control
of most of the key French territories. The British assumed a dominant role after their
victory over their colonial rival France in the Seven years’ war 1756- 1763
Result of the seven years’ war
 British victory Britain controlled most of the French territories including the
present day New York
 Weakened the French military power

5
  British domination of North America including Canada
 Britain secured her interest in the New World
 At the end of the war, the treaty of Paris was signed between the two fighting
groups
After the seven years’s war, the British government decided to make British controlled over the
13 colonies firmer.
It was a struggle for independence by 13 British colonies that later became the USA
 Location the 13 British colonies in North America extended from Canada in the
North to Florida in the south and from the Atlantic Ocean in land to the Appalachian
mountain
 Population; the population of the 13 British colonies increases because of
immigration from Europe and early marriage
By 1775, the population was 2 half million; most of them were European origin
There were also indigenous Americans and half million people of African origin who
were slaves
Slavery existed in the 1 British colonies, slaves came from Africa through the Trans-
Atlantic slave trade
Slave labor was very important in south plantation
After the war of independence slavery ended in the North but not in the South
The Economy; of the 13 colonies was based on export of cash crops to Europe from the
plantation
Fishing, handcraft trade were supplementary economic activity
No much industry because the British discouraged the growth of industry in the colonies
Political;- the 13 colonies were under the authority of British government and the British
parliament
The parliament imposed law, regulating trade and the colonial economy
The 13 colonies were give much autonomy
Each colony had a governor appointed by the British government
Each colony had elected assembly that voted taxes and passed laws
They run their affairs with not much interference from Britain
After the 18th C the colonies started to feel Americans
Serious problem started between Britain and the 13 colonies in 1763, when Britain decided strict
control
 King George III of Britain declared the land beyond the Appalachian mountain closed to
the colonists
 Trade between the colonies and other countries was restricted
 New American settlement was forbidden
 More British troops were sent to America Housing and food supply for the soldiers from
the colonies
 New taxations introduced which made the Americans more angry
 The British parliament approved stamp Act;- it is to collect revenue by staming on
document such as newspapers, wills, contracts and playing cards. It aroused violent
protests

6
  In 1773 the citizens of Boston dumped into the Boston harbor the British cargoes of tea ,
it is called the Boston Tea party
 The taxation imposed by the British government brought the 13 colonies to unity and
oppose the British government therefore, protests and rebellion was followed
In September 1774 the first continental congress met at Philadelphia delegates from all the 13
colonies represented;-
The congress made formal protest against the British government
It called the Americans to refuse to buy British goods
The British government, however, responded by sending more troops to the colonies
 Thus fighting broke out at Lexington and concord in Massachusetts in April 1775
 A pamphlet entitled common sense, the right of man and the age of reason was written by
Thomas Paine and distributed
Thomas Paine: - he was one of the leaders of the revolution
 He wrote a pamphlet entitled common sense, right of man and the age
of reason
The second continental congress met in May 1775 which raised an army and Washington
appointed commander in chief of the army
George Washington;-
 One of the famous leaders of the American war of independence
 In May 1775 by the second continental congress, he was appointed the
commander in Chief of the army
 He was elected as the first President of the USA
 In July 4 1776 the congress adopted the declaration of independence which was drafted by
Thomas Jefferson
It proclaimed that 13 colonies are independent
Thomas Jefferson
He drafted the famous declaration of Independence which was
adopted by the second continental congress met on July 4, 1776
The main contents of the declaration of independence emphasized on
 Right of self-determination of people
 Equality of rights among people
 Included democratic principle
But Britain did not accept the declaration and continued the war
 In October 1777, a British force surrendered at Saratoga
European country like France, Spain and the Dutch support the American people during the
American war of Independence against Britain
 France also came to support the Americans thus, she declared war on British in 1778
 Spain and the Dutch republic join the war in 1779 and 1780 respectively
In 1781, another British force surrendered at Yorktown
Finally the British government and the parliament decided to stop the war and signed the
treaty of Paris in September 1783. By this treaty
 Britain accepted and recognized the independence of the USA

7
  Britain ceded to the USA all the land east Mississippi and south of Canada
 Florida ceded to Spain
Three factors were responsible for the success of the success of the 13colonies over British
i. Geographic advantage; America 300 miles far from England made it difficult in
supplying large British army
ii. The leadership of George Washington;- The determined and brilliant leadership of
George Washington 1732-1799 commander of the continental force
iii. Foreign Aid;- mainly from France,
 France provided the Americas money, weapons, soldiers and warships
The USA constitution was drafted in 1787 and came into operation in 1789
 In the constitution decision making was given to the congress with two
houses;-
 senate and house of representative
 The USA constituted as a Federal state
 It guaranteed civil right to the citizens
 George Washington elected as the first president
The main result of American war of Independence
a) It created a new nation state (the USA)
b) It was the immediate cause of the French revolution
c) Collapse of British colonial rule in America
d) The development of capitalism
e) Liberation of the America people
f) But did not abolish slavery
g) It also influenced the struggle for liberation in Spain and Portuguese colonies

10.4 The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an Intellectual movement of the 18th C. The center of Enlightenment
was France and then spread throughout Europe and North America. It also known as the Age
of Rationalism or the Age of Reason
The movement created optimism in human ability to understand the laws of nature
and use them to improve the life of human beings
Leaders of the Enlightenment taught new ideas in politics, philosophy, natural science
and economics. They were called Philosophers.
France was the center of Enlightenment this was because:-
 France had become the Intellectual and cultural center of Europe
 French language became dominant in Europe that Latin
The Enlightenment Thinkers
 Sought for exploration of the universe and society in human reason than revolution
 Condemned religious persecution and intolerance
 Criticized despotism and were in favor of constitutional monarchy the only exception
was Rousseau who believed that a Republic was the best form of government

8
  Some of them were openly atheist. But a common attitude was deism (believed that the
universe and its natural law needed the existence of a creator)
 Considered the common people as too stupid and uneducated to be capable of reason
 Most of them wanted little reform above, no radical change from below by the people
 Did not have the same opinion, but they had common ideas and attitudes in
some basic thinking
 Criticized state responsibility over business attacked mercantile theory
which supported a favorable balance of trade and opposed protective tariffs
 Support free trade
 Supported liberates people and public rights
 Advocated free education to all and child centered learning
Most of them were optimistic they believed that society could be improved
Most of the Enlightenment thinkers were French philosophers they helped the French
revolution but they did not pian it.
The most known Enlightenment leaders in France were
 Jean Jacques Rousseau 1712 – 1778
 Charles de Montesquieu1689- 1755
 Denis Diderot 1717- 1784
 Voltaire (1694-1778);
Non- French Enlightenment thinkers
 Adam Smith (1723-1790) was an Scottish
 John locked (1632-1704) was an English
 Benjamin Franklin (1706- 1790) an American philosopher
Jean Jacques Rousseau 1712 - 1778; - he published a book entitled “Social contract”
 It begins with a famous statement “Man is born free and everywhere he is in
Chains”
 Believed that a republic is the best form of government
 Believed in democracy
 He was supported the existence of small independents peasants and craftsmen
 He was against the existence few extremely wealthy people and many
impoverished people
 Advocated child centered education

Charles de Montesquieu: - 1689- 1755 wrote a book entitled the spirit of Laws
 Opposed absolute monarchies of the time
 In his work he proposed to opposed despotism by recognizing government
 He proposed the separation of governmental power into three bodies;-
Legislative, Executive and Judiciary
Denis Diderot 1717- 1784; - in his writings, criticized the French old regime abuses, such
us religious intolerance, unjust taxation and governmental absolutism.
 Published French Encyclopedia in 1751
Voltaire (1694-1778); - is known for his work which had popularized the science and
9
 Philosophy of his age and his criticism against injustice and despotic
French government and bitter criticism against the Catholic Church
John locked 1632 - 1704; - was an English philosopher
 In his theory of government, he said that people had the right to
life, liberty and property
 He argued that the light of revolution against Tyranny and
establishment of government by the people
Adam Smith (1723 - 1790) A Scottish philosopher
 The founder of the political economy
Benjamin Franklin (1706 - 1790):- an American philosopher
 Contributed to science and was closely involved in the American struggle
for independence from Britain

The France Revolution

 The period From 1650 - 1789, France was under the rule of the old Regime
 The government in old regime was characterized Absolute monarchy and the rulers ruled
without constitution
 The society under the old regime was divided into three social classes called Estates
a) The first Estate
b) The second Estate
c) The third Estate
The fist estate; - include the Catholic clergy and the royal family privilege Estate
 Their legal position was more favorable and they paid extremely law tax
The second state; - The nobility
 A privileged state
 The first and the second estates were more privileged, they paid less tax
The third Estate; - included the bourgeoisie, petty bourgeoisie wage workers and the
Peasantry
 This social group paid high tax particularly the peasant
 The peasant was the most oppressed
This social division was considered as a long term cause of the French revolution
The Estate General;- the national representative assembly in France which
included the three Estate
The immediate causes of the revolution
The French revolution broke out in 1789; the main causes of the revolution were
i. The feudal oppression and the political, economic, social and cultural injustice of
the old regime of France
ii. The America war of independence
 French participation in the American war of independence which was
expensive and the soldiers retuned to France with full ideas of liberty
10
 iii. Bad harvest of the 1788 and the economic crisis as a result
 food was scares and rose in price
 unemployment
iv. The French king, Louis, XVI was weak and incompetent
Since 1614, the French rulers did not call the Estate General (the meeting of the three Estates)
 When king, Louis, XVI face financial crisis and on May 1789, he called the
meeting of Estates General
 it consisted the representatives of the three Estates
 The Estate General met in May 1789
Then, conflict broke out between the three Estates because the third estate separate from the
other Estate and tried to control and established the National Assembly
National Assembly (17 June 1789)
 On June 17, 1789 the third Estate declared itself as the National Assembly
 On June 20 1789, they met in the Paris Tennis court and took an oath. This vents called
the Tennis court Oath.
 On July 1789, by the support of the National Assembly (Third Estate) and the people of
Paris captured the royal castle and the royal prison of Bastille (the symbol of the old
regime). The Bastille which is known as the storm of the Bastille
The Bastille;- A royal castle and royal prison which was represented the old
regime it was stormed in 1789

On August 4, 1789, the National Assembly undertook several measures; - these were
 it abolish feudal and church tax
 it abolish all form of privileges
 ended the old regime in France
 National Assembly nationalized Catholic Church land as a solution to the
financial crisis and
confiscated Catholic lands and gave them to the peasants
On August 26, 1789 the National Assembly decreed the declaration of the right of man and
citizens
 all member of the nation are equal in rights and duties
 The division of France into Estate was rejected
 All French men are equal citizens of one nation
 It also expressed Various civil right such as freedom of speech and religion
The leaders of the 18th C French revolution were Bourgeoisie. The French revolution was a
bourgeoisie revolution there was active participation of the vast majority of the people
 most of the leadership was taken by the bourgeoisie but it also benefited the
people as a wholes
In June 1791, the King Louis XVI and his family attempted to escape from France to join the
counter – Revolutionaries, but the king were captured in the city of varenis

11
  But king Louis was caught in a small town called Varenis by the people- hence the
Varenis crisis
 The National Assembly however did not want to abolish the monarchy. The Assembly kept
the king up to Sep 1791 until he signed the new constitution
 In September 1791 a new constitution was introduced and France became a constitutional
monarchy, which it divided the French citizens into;-
1) Active citizens:- who had full political right of voting
 enough property
2) Passive citizen:- those French citizen who had no full political right and
had no voting right
The Legislative Assembly (Oct 1791) :- By the election of 1791, the Legislative Assembly was
created and replaced the National Assembly;- it met in Oct 1791
 Between 1792 - 1793 France was at war against most Europeans who feared the spread
of the revolution (the counter- Revolutionaries)
 The war with the counter- Revolutionaries was ended with France won the Austrian
force at the battle of Valmy Sep 1792
The Convention 1792:- The legislative Assembly was dissolved and a new Assembly
known as the convention was established
 The convention met in Sep 1792 and declared France a Republic
 On 10 Aug 1792, a revolt in Paris overthrew the monarchy and rejected the
constitution of 1791.
 In January 1793 Louis XVI was executed by the Guillotine
Guillotine;- A machine, originally from France, for cutting people’s heads off it has a heavy
blade that down a wooden frame

There were two rival political parties were emerged in the convention
1) The Girondist;- represented the big bourgeoisie
2) The Jacobins;- represented the middle class and petty bourgeoisie
 They were more radicals, extremes who determined to save France and the Revolution
 The chief Jacobin leader was Maximilian Robespierre
 From May 31 to June 2 1792, there was a big rising which led the killing of the Girondist
 They emerged victorious and ruled up to July 1794, the Jacobins ruled France through a
12 men committee called Public safety
 The Jacobins introduced a new democratic constitution (June 1793) but never came to
effect
 The reign of Terror was used to crush counter revolutionaries
 The Jacobins revolutionary dictatorship was the height of the French revolution and its
bloodiest stage
Finally the Jacobins lost support among the people of Paris by their suppression of popular
Democracy at local levels
12
  Between 27 - 28 July 1794, the convention voted the arrest of Robespierre and other
Jacobin leaders and were sent to the guillotine
 Then, the convention voted for a new constitution in 1795 which established a Directory
 But it was corrupt weak and unpopular
In November 1799, an ambitious popular and successful general, Napoleon Bona Parte
overthrew the Directory in military coup d’état and took power
Significance of the French revolution
 It brought about great changes in the society and government
 it abolished serfdom and slavery
 it also increased the spirit of nationalism
 the revolution had great effect on the rest of Europe
10.6 The Napoleonic Era in Europe
Napoleon overthrew the Directory and took power in November 17799

 He received his education in a military school and became second Lieutenant in the
French army at the age of 16
 In 1796 he was given commander of army fighting against the Austrians in Northern Italy
and defeated the Austrian army
 Then Napoleon moved to Egypt and Syria and won victories by land
 But the British fleet under Admiral Nelson destroyed his fleet, so Napoleon was forced
to return to France
 When he came back to France and took power in November 1799
 Napoleon overthrew the Directory and took power in November 17799
 He established a regime called the consulate and became the head of the regime as the
first consul
 Napoleon extended Frances influence over all Italy, Holland, Switzerland and
Germany (west of the Rhine)
 in 1804, Napoleon brought back the monarchy with himself as “Emperor” of France
 He used to called himself “the son of Revolution”
 By 1810 Napoleon controlled most of Europe except Turkey, Russia and Britain
(because of her Island position)
 soon war broke out that is Britain, Austria, Russia and Sweden were the principal
enemies
 Napoleon scored his greater victories so, most of European directly or indirectly came
under his control
Strong European force challenged the Napoleon Empire

1) In 1805 the British fleet or Navy force under Admiral moratio Nelson defeated the French
fleet at sea battle of Trafalgar in 1805
2) In 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia (A big mistake which led to him downfall)

13
  At first he defeated the Russian army and captured Moscow
 but the Russians cut off supplies of food and destroyed roads and bridges so
Napoleon was forced to retreat
3) In 1813, at the battle of Leipzig Napoleon suffered a disastrous defeat by the European
coalition force of Russia, Britain, Sweden Prussia and Austria,
4) In 1814 Napoleon was sent into exile on the island of Elba and the Europeans restored the
monarchy
 Napoleon escaped and returned to France in 1815. But, the coalition force
defeated the army of Napoleon at the battle of Waterloo in Belgium in June
1815.
 He was sent to the Island of Helena, he died there in 1921.
Napoleon introduced many reforms and contribution in the political, economic, social and
cultural fields, these included

 Napoleon brought about stability after Years of disaster and insecurity against
extreme counter- Revolutionaries
 he expanded education
 He introduced a new code of civil, criminal and commercial laws called “Code of
Napoleon”
 he introduced new system of provincial administration by appointing governors
(prfects)
 He also ended the quarrel between the Revolution and the Catholic Church and the
Catholic Church became established Church of France
 He settled the difference between the state and the Catholic Church
 He set up the whole system of public school, military academics and universities

10.7 The Industrial Revolution

Industrial revolution: - Industrial revolution began in England in mid-18th c (1700s) and
Spread in to Europe and North America.
Industrial revolution first appeared in England; - in the late 1700s because England
 Was richer than other countries
 Had colonies across Atlantic and India
 Had large supplies of coal, ore and iron resources for industrial use
The term Industrial Revolution means
Industrial revolution was a change the process of production, from hand tools into Machines.
It also means that transition from hand production to machine production

14
 Machine replaced human labor and Technological changes which transformation of
communication and transport system.
The invention and use of machines in place of hard labor. Work previously done by hand
with simple tools and equipment was now done by machine

Features of the industrial revolution at this stage

A. The machine of industrial revolution operated first by water power
B. second by steam power produced by steam engine
C. Replacement of coal by gas and oil as a source of power
D. Electricity used as a major source industrial energy
E. Radical change in transportation and communication
F. Development of automatic machinery and high degree of specialization
G. Spread of industrialization to Europe and USA

New inventions of the 18th and 19th century that facilitated industrial capitalism include.
 Steam engines were invented by Thomas Savery 1698 and Thomas newcomen
 James Watt improved steam engine for factory uses in 1782-1784.
 James Hargreaves invented the spinning Jenny in 1765
 Richard Ark Wright 1771 invented another spinning machine. It was run
by horse power, Later replaced water power.
 Richard Trevithick of England in 1804 built the first steam locomotive
 the American inventor Robert Fulton in 1807 built the first steam boat
 In 1831 Michael Faraday (American) studied the principle of Dynamo and electricity
 The first railway locomotive invented in 1804 by George Stephenson an England and
his son Robert made improvement on the Locomotives
 In 1825 the first commercial railway worked between Stockton and Darlington
in Britain
 Liverpool- Manchester railway 1830
Industrial revolution made important technological advances in producing metal;- iron
 Iron was produced in greater quantity and was cheap
 Iron used as a basic industrial material
The most important industrial transformed by the first industrial revolution and transport
industries were;- Textile, Iron, mechanical engineering chemical and transport industries

Effects of Industrial Revolution

15
The industrial revolution had wide economic, social and political effect
1. Economic Effects:-
a) Changed people’s way of life.
b) Enabled industrial Europe to dominate the rest of the world (colonialism)
c) Urbanization was accelerated as the result of the industrial revolution. This brought
about movement of people from rural areas to urban centers
d) The agriculture sector ceased to be dominant sector
e) Population increased fast more people lived in urban center
2. Political Effect: - One of the outcomes of the industrial revolution was the establishment
of European colonial system. The emergence of colonization due to this European nation
Needs sources of raw materials for their industry,
Markets for its manufactured goods and
place of Settlement for its overgrowing population
3. Social effects: - New social classes had emerged. The division of the society in to two basic
social classes
1) The capitalist or bourgeoisie :- This social class was made up of factory owners and
The rich merchants of the period
 The bourgeoisie owned the factory building the machines ,the raw
materials and the manufactured products
2) The proletariat or working class :- They were the industrial workers who sold their
Labor for money
However, the workers had a number of problems during the period such as.
 Working for long hours, for more than 12 hours a day
 Bad working conditions
 To get more profit the capitalists employed women and children who were extremely
exploited
 Poor payment, poor sanitation and poor house construction
 The workers also face problem of malnutrition and disease like cholera
 Machines replaced human labor so many workers became unemployed
Generally, all of the above mentioned problems enforced the works to struggle and uprising, for
their rights. Workers used different forms of struggle in different countries.
The Luddite movement:- They were a group of skilled workers in England who destroyed
the machines to express their grievances
The chartists movement:- worker believed that problems could only get a possible answer
by presenting petition to the English parliament
Scientific Socialism:-One of the most famous founders of scientific socialism was Karl

16
 Mark (1818-1883)

Two new ideas developed as a result of industrial revolution;- the bourgeoisie program of
ideology and liberalism
 Political liberalism had its origin in the 17th C revolution in England
 Political liberalism meant having a constitution an elected representative (to
make or change laws and approve taxation)
 Political liberalism also meat civil right freedom of newspaper and book,
criticism of government policy, religious freedom and fair trial
Liberalism in the 19th C ;- did not want the mass and the right plus democracy
Existed in USA before 1848 at least for white male
Not existed in Europe before 1848 exception France and Britain
Countries with elected assemblies limited voting right to minority
In almost all countries women were excluded from political rights
The working class from 1840s turned to new ideology called socialism
The communist manifesto written by Karl Marx and F. Engles became the guiding book for tis
ideology
Industrialization;-
 Increased national wealth
 Increased the gap between the industrial states and non- western states
The development of socialist thought
Many writers like Robert owen (English man) and Charles Fourier (French man) made
proposal ideal social condition
These social were frequently called utopians, an ideal society that provides equality and
Justice
Then, K.Marx became the most influenced socialist. He basic socialist idea expressed in
the communist manifesto 1848 scientific communism is the principle
Marx predicted that the ruling class would be over thrown by the working class
In the late 19th C many socialist parties appeared between 1890-1914 socialist movement
grew strong
Darwin theory evolution and its impacts

17
Charles Darwin (England) published his theories in 1859 in his book called the origin of Species
according to his theory evolution occurred through a process called Natural selection (the
survival of the fittest)
Social Darwinism is the belief that people in society compete for survival the ideas of
natural selection favor the surval of the fittest members of society
It is an attempt to explain difference in achievement and wealth among people
Individuals or group must compete with one other to survive (the survival of the fittest
member of society)
Social Darwinism
 Developed as an important social theory in the late 19th C
 Herbert Spencer (a British) first proposed the theory
 Grhamsumner made social Darwinism popular in the USA
 K.M compared the struggle for survival among organism to the struggle for power
among social classes

UNIT ELEVEN
PEOPLE AND STATES IN PRE- COLONIAL AFRICA 1000-1884
11.1 North Africa
Mamluk Egypt
Between 969 and 1171 AD Egypt was ruled by the Fatimid dynasty. They were succeeded by
the Ayyubid dynasty that stayed on power from 1171-1250 A.D. The Ayyubid ruler’s recruited
soldiers from Turkish origin they were called Mamluk.
Before the Mamluk rise to power in 1250 Egypt was under the rule Muslim dynasty
called , the Ayyubid dynasty, this rule ended in 1250 A.D because of;-
i. Power struggle within the Ayyubid dynasty
ii. The military weakness of the Ayyubid rulers
iii. Mongol invasion of the Middle East
The immediate factor that enabled the Mamluks to seize power in Egypt was the result of two
invasions that they fought and saved Egypt.
They saved Egypt from Mongols and the Crusade
The Mamluk defeated the army of the Sixth crusade and took their leader, Louis XI,
prisoner. Thus, they saved Egypt from possible destruction.
This encouraged them to overthrow the Ayyubid dynasty from power and established their own
rule. The last Ayyubid rulers Turan Shah was assassinated in 1250
Mamluk 1250-1517;- The Mamluk military Aristocracy ruled Egypt 1250- 1517
 The Mamluks were Turkish origin.

18
  The Mamluks were white slaves of Turkish origin, Gave military service to any sultan
or prince who could afford to pay.
 The Mamluks gradually became military commanders and members of the landed
Aristocracy.
Finally, they took military power and founded their own dynasty called Mamluk dynasty that
ruled Egypt from 1250 and lasted until 1517 when Ottoman Turkey controlled Egypt.
The Egyptian sultans were elected from the Mamluks and successfully seized power
Egypt attained greatness and prosperity under the Mamluk because
i. Mamluk Egypt actively participated in Trans- Sharan Trade
ii. The rich west African rulers passed through Egypt in their pilgrimage who paid
gold as tribute
iii. Spice, valuable trade item for Europe passed through the trade sea which was
under Mamluks control.
The economic growth of Egypt strengthened the power of Mamluks
The Mamluks launched military expansion toward the South. In this direction, they
annexed and conquered the Christian kingdom of Nubia in 1275. The rulers of the
kingdom were converted to Islam.
The Ottoman were the main enemy of Mamluks, however, Ottomans were weaken
because of the Mongols attack
The end of the Mamluks virtual rule in Egypt was caused by the revival of the Ottoman power
at the beginning of the 16th C. At the time, Ottomans were engaged in a rivalry with the
Portuguese for the control of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean region
 So the Ottomans invaded Egypt in 1516
 Mamluks were defeated and in 1517 Ottoman rule was setup in 1517

The Mamluk power finally came to an end with the Ottoman Turkish invasion and defeat the
Mamluk force and they occupied Egypt in 1517.

The Funj Sultanate

The Funj sultanate was established in 1504 in Nubia in northeast Africa in the present-day
territory of the Republic of Sudan.
 Befor the rise of the Sultanate, two Christian kingdoms existed in Nubia. They were
called Alwa and Makuria. Bothe of them was annexed by the Egyptian Mamluk in
1275.
 Since 1317, Islam gradually spread into Nubia
The founders of Funj were cattle keepers and horsemen. The origin of the Funj nomads is not yet
known. But some say they belong to the Shilluk people while others associate their origin with
the state of Borun around Lake Chad. Still other locale their origin to the northern part of the
Ethiopia region.

 in 1504 they established the Funj sultanate with its center Sennar served as a capital
the Funj accepted Islam
 During its long period of history, the Sultanate undertook territorial conquests on
neighboring peoples, states and chiefdoms.

19
  The Funj sultanate fought against the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia The Funj sultanate
face two round of attacks from the Christian Kingdom
The first was the expedition of king Susenyos in about 1620. In this
expedition several villages of the Funj sultanate were destroyed and looted by
the Christian army.
The second expedition was launched by king Iyasu II in the 1730s which
ended up in defeat for the Christian army.
 The Funj sultanate survived until the rise of Mohammed Ali in Egypt in 1805 and his
conquest of the Sultanate in 1821.

The Almoravids
The Almoravid movement was organized by the Sanhaja Berber warriors in the in Maghrib
region the 11th C.

Maghrib; - is the region of the western half of North Africa.

was the center of Islamic revival movement called the Almoravids
The Almoravids was a movement of reaction against the Arabs who attacked the Barbers
came westwards across North Africa
At the beginning the movement had a religious character. The leader of the movement was
called Abdallah -Ibn Yasin.
He preached a Jihad (Muslim holy war) against non- Muslim.
Abdallah and his followers came to be known as the people of hermitage, al-
Murabitun. This was later changed to Almoravids.
The Almoravid launched their Jihad in two directions.
i. The first was led by Abdallah Ibni Yasin brought the Berber under his control and
captured the city of Sijilmasa in 1056. The Almoravid also conquered Morocco and part
of Spain in the second half of the 11th c.
ii. Another branch of the Almoravid, led by Abu Baker, captured the city of Audaghust in
1054 and Kumbi Saleh, the capital of Ghana in 1076.
 However, the Almoraved were overthrown by the Almohad in the middle of the 12th c.

The Almohads
The Almohads movement first started as a religious movement and was antagonistic to the
Almoravids
The movement had political and economic goals
i. Its political goal was to build an Islamic Empire
ii. to control the Trans- Saharan Trade was its economic goal
The Almohad movement was strongly opposed to the Almoravids. The founder of the
movement was Ibn Turmart who was born in the present day Morocco about 1075
from a Masmuda Berber family.
He had been a well- experienced administrator and community leader
Ibn Turmart started his rebellion to overthrow the Almoravid government

20
 They established their capital at Markesh
He got wide acceptance from the Berber tribes
Almohads were not successful to overthrow the Almoravids when Ibn Turmart was alive.
In 1122 the Almohads scored their first victory over the Almoravids, but Ibn Turmart died
before he overthrew the Alomravid rule.
The Almohad besieged the capital, Marrakish, in 1128, after a six years war, but they were
unable to capture it, because the Almoravids cavalry successfully defended the capital, in this
battle, Ibn Tumart lost many of his prominent companions.
Ibn Tumart died in 1130 and a long period of crisis followed in the Almohad movement.
Ibn Tumart was finally succeeded by one of his companions named Abd al Mumin who
became caliph in 1133 - 1163 who built strong Empire and defeated the Almoravids
completely and most of the Magrib was conquered
By the time of his death in 1163 Al Mumin had established Muminid dynasty took the
leadership of the movement up to the collapse of their empire in the middle of the 13th C.
The Almohad Empire finally collapsed because of
i. Efficient administration was not able possible to rule over the vast Empire
ii. The attempt to solve the economic problem by imposing heavy taxes did not
succeed, because it brought or led popular dissatisfaction
iii. The military weakness of the Almohads
The Almohads controlled all of what are now Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia and part of
Spain.

The Almohad Empire continued to exist until it finally collapsed in the middle of the 13 th C. The
last Almohad Caliph Al - Wathing (1266-1276) was overthrown by a rival family called
Marindi dynasty. With this Almohad movement and Empire came to an end.
11.2 West Africa (Western Sudan)
The region immediately to the south of the Sahara is part of West Africa. The Arabs called this
region “Bilad al Sudan” meaning the country of the Black.

The Sudan is a vast territory that extends from the Nile Valley in the east to the sores of the
Atlantic Ocean in the West. This vast territory is divided into Western and Eastern Sudan
a) The region that runs from the Atlantic Ocean to the Lake Chad is called Western Sudan,
b) The region from Lack Chad to the Nile valley is known as Eastern Sudan.
In this section, we will see the history of the most important states of Western Sudan
which came into being as a result of the Trans- Saharan trade.

Ghana
 The oldest kingdom in western Sudan was Ghana. The kingdom got its name from the
title of the kings known as Ghana meaning “War Chiefs”
 Ghana was founded in the 4th c AD and reached the height of its power at about 1000 AD.
Kumbi saleh was its capital. The people of Ghana were called Soninke.
Causes for Greatness of Ghana

21
  The main factor for the prosperity and greatness of Ghana was Tans –Saharan
trade.Ghana was located on the Trans- Saharan trade routes between North Africa and
the forest belt. The Ghanaians were skilled in iron workers, helped them to use weapons
against their neighbors who had no iron technology.
 As a result of this rulers of Ghana were able to build a vast empire. It included the present
day Mauritania and Mali.
Main Causes for the Decline and fall of Ghana
 The decline of ancient Ghana was the result of the Almoravids invasion in the 11th c. The
Almoravids controlled the city Audaghaust in 1054 AD, and the capital, Kumbi Saleh
in 1076. Thus, the powerful kingdom of ancient Ghana came to an end.
Mali
Mali emerged after the fall of Ghana .The kingdom of Mali was founded before 1000 A.D by the
Kangaba people, one of the clans of the Mandinka people.
it was emerged after the fall of Ghana
its first leader was Sundiata who ruled Mali 1230- 1255

Sundiata;- the leader of the Kangaba people (the founder of Mali) who controlled
Kumbisaleh and the trade route

The Kangaba people led by Sundiata fought Sumanguru controlled the ancient capital of
Ghana, Kumbisaleh and the trade route of the region.
Its first leader was called Sundiata. He ruled Mali from 1230 - 1255. He was succeeded by
Mansa Ali (r 1255- 1270). During the reign of these two rulers,
Mali expanded and controlled of the gold- mining area of Wangara and Bambak
Mali attained greatness under Mansa Kankan Musa, commonly known as Mansa Musa
ruled Mali from 1312- 1337. Mali also became one of the largest and powerful empires of the
world during the reign of Mansa Musa.
Islam expanded in the empire at this time.
Mansa Musa accepted Islam in
Mans Musa made a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324. This pilgrimage Mali
popular in the Muslim world.
Timbuktu became one of the most important centers of Islamic learning and
culture
Mails economy was based on farming, iron working and trade.
The major item of trade was gold. The Kangaba were traders mainly engaged in the gold
trade of the region. They took the gold of Wangara region to the markets of ancient
Ghana
Mali had controlled the gold mine of wangara and Bambuk. The wealth obtained from
the gold mines helped Mali to build large empire.

The Decline of Mali

 Internal and external factors contributed a lot for the collapse of Mali
Internal:-caused by the difficult of administering the vast territory of the empire.
External:-The rulers could not defend the attacks of the neighboring people, the Tekrur and

22
 Wolof people. The empire of Mali finally came to an end around 1550.

Songhai
Songhai; - was a West African empire extended from the central area of the present- day North
Western Nigeria to the Atlantic coast. Its capital Gao, stood on the Niger River.
Songhai became powerful by controlling trade across the Sahara. Most of the people
in Songhai were farmers, fishers and traders.
In 13th C A.D the Sunni dynasty strengthened its power in Songhai and became independent
Sunni Ali and Askia Muhammad were the two strong kings of Songhai who strengthened
the empire.
i. Sunni Ali ruled from (1464-1492). His army conquered the two West African trading
centers of Timbuktu and Jenne 1468.
ii. Askia Muhammed, (1493-1528) also known as Askia I or Askia the Great became king
in 1493. Songhai reached its highest peak under his rule.
 He expanded trade and spread Islam in the empire,
 His three sons deposed him in 1528. The empire ended in1591 when a Moroccan army
defeated Songhai in the battle of Tondibi.
Kanem Bornu
The kingdom of Kanem was emerged around the 9th c in the region to the north of Lake
Chad.
 It was founded by a group of pastoral communities.
 Trade was important for kanems greatness.
 Kanems army kept the trade route safe and collects tax from traders.
The kingdom of Kanem-Bornu was founded by a group of pastoral nomads who had founded
a local dynasty called Saifawa from 9th c to the 19th .The ruling family was a Muslim
dynasty.
After Bornu became a Provence of kanem, the empire was often called kanem - Bornu.
In 14th c, the Bulala people conquered part of kanem on the north-east side of Lake Chad but
Mali (sultan) Idris Alooma, who ruled kanem from 1580 to 1617, re conquered the lost
territory and extended the empire to its greatest size.
The Decline of Kanem
Kanem- Bornu probably began to decline because
i. The decline of trade and trade centers shifted from inland routes to the Atlantic coast
of West Africa.
ii. It faced strong rivals from the neighboring North African Muslim state. In 1846, the
Fullani completely destroyed the empire of Kanem- Bornu.
Hausa state
The Hausa city- states emerged in the present day Nigeria between 1000 and 1200 AD
 The people of Hausa- city state were both nomads and farmers.
 Hausa people used to build wall villages in order to defend themselves from
raiders.
The most important city-state was kano, katsina, zazzau (zaria), Gobir, kebbi, Rano and
zamfara. As population increased, different villages grouped together to from the Hausa
city- state.
23
The economy of the Hausa city- state
 The economy of the Hausa city- state was based on agriculture and the trans-saharan
trade.
 There was closer relation between the Hausa city- state and Kanem-Bornu. Islam spread
to Hausa land from kanem-Bornu. The administrative system of the Huausa city- state
was also provided by Kanem- Bornu.
Some of the city- states had particular specialization for example.
 Zazzau was a major supplier of slaves,
 kano was famous in craft technology.
Its people were skilled in weaving clothes. They also developed cloth- dying skill and
leather works. “Moroccan” leather sold to Europe was first made by kano craftsmen.
11.3 People and state in Equatorial, Eastern and
South Eastern Africa
The Kingdom of Kongo
The kingdom of kongo was located in the lower bank of the Zaire River. It was founded
in the late 14th c by a Bantu people called Bakongo.
 Their king was called Manikongo.
 The people were hunters and warriors.
The economy of Kongo based on
 Agriculture and trade played an important role in economy of the kingdom.
 The major items of trade were iron tools, pottery, sea-salt, mats and basket work.
Portuguese explorers arrived the kongo around 1482 AD.
 They sent Catholic missionaries to the kingdom in 1491 and converted the king
and his family to Catholicism, but later they face an opposition.
 They also sent masons, carpenters and other artisans. The capital, Mbanza, was
re-built in stone.
Causes for the decline of Kongo
At first, relations between the Portuguese and the kongo was good,
i. The arrival of the Portuguese enslaved the kongolese people. Beginning of the slave trade
weakened the kingdom of Kongo from the 16th c,
ii. Finally, the Kongo kingdom entered into war with the Portuguese colonizers who finally
defeated the kingdom. By 1710 the kingdom of Kongo collapsed and broken up into
several small provinces.
Zimbabwe
The kingdom of Zimbabwe was founded by the Bantu people called shone about
1000AD.
 Zimbabwe a shone word means “stone houses”
 Stone houses and walls were built in the 13th or 14th c in Great Zimbabwe.
Great-Zimbabwe was known for its gold mines. It maintained trade relations with the
ports of East Africa, such as Sofala and kilwa who benefited from the gold of Great
Zimbabwe.
Great Zimbabwe had been abandoned since 1450 AD. Because the grazing, resources,
timber and salt had been used up completely in the region. It was finally succeeded by a
state that came to be known as Mwene Mutapa.

24
Mwene Mutapa
Mwene Mutapa was founded at the end of the 15th c by Mutato. He was a member of the
Rozwi clan of the shone people.
 Mwene Mutapa was atitle given to the Rozwi kings. Mwene Mutapa means “master
pillager”
 Mutotas son and successor, Mutope, expanded the territory in the northern direction.
His head quarters also moved northwards. Mwene Mutapa controlled the Mazoe
region, which was a valuable source of alluvial gold.
 Mwene Mutapa dominated the long distance trade which led to the Indian Ocean
coast.
The Portuguese came to the region in the early 16th c. They maintained trading contacts
with Mwene Mutapa. But later on the Portuguese conquered Mwene Mutapa in the late
16th c.
11.4 Southern Africa
The Southern part of Africa was occupied by three major ethnic and linguistic groups.
The dominant people of the region were the Bantu. The other two groups were the Khoi-
Khoi and the San peoples.
The European colonizers called these people Hottentots and Bushmen. The languages
of the two people are grouped under the language super family of Khoisan
The Khoi- Khoi
The Khoi- Khoi were pastoral people who inhabitant the Southern and Western South-
Africa
The majority of the Khoi- Khoi lives in the Southern part of Namibia. From 1300s they
began to expand from what is now Botswana and established themselves in South-
Africa by the 15th C.
The Khoi- Khoi were related to the two neighboring people the San (Bushmen) and the
Bantu. The Khoi- Khoi closely resembled the San
Their economy based on hunting and gathering After1000AD they began to bread sheep
and cattle.
After the Dutch settlers landed in southern Africa in mid 17th c, the Khio- Khoi was
driven out of their land to the Kalahari Desert. The Europeans white settler called Khoi-
Khoi as Hottentots means “men of men”.

The San (Bushmen)

The San (Bushmen) lived in South Africa for thousands of years, in the present day
Angola and Namibia before the coming of the Europeans
They were driven out of their lands by the European settlers the Dutch farmers to the
Kalahari Desert. Europeans called them Bushmen.
The San live by hunting and gathering, they organized into small groups. at this stage
Women gathered wild plant and fruits, men hunted animals.
The San were pushed by the Dutch farmers to the Kalahari Desert, where they still lived as
hunters. The San have yellowish- brown skin and tightly coiled black hair.
They speak Khoisan languages, which are characterized by clicking sounds.

The Bantus
25
 The Bantu are a linguistically related group of about 60 million people living in
Equatorial and Southern Africa
They were originated from border land Cameroon and Eastern Nigeria and moved ward
into Southern Africa
The cause of their movement might have been an increase in population
Early in their history the Bantu split into two major linguistic branches
i. The Easter;- migrated through the present- day Zimbabwe and Mozambique down to
South Africa. The Shone, the xhose, the kikuyu and Zulu belonged to this branch
ii. The Western;– moved into what is now Angola, Namibia and North- western
Botswana;- the herero and Tongo people belonged to this branch

the date for arrival of the Bantu speakers not exactly known some suggested 1000 A.D while
others in the 15th C
The Dutch farmers came in 1780s and settled at cape colony
Then from cape colony the Dutch settlers moved northwards to the centre of Southern
Bantus
This led to century long war between Bores and Babtus

In response to the struggle several Bantu states emerged such as the Zulu kingdom
It became dominant during the reign of Shaka Zulu (1818-1828) ;- He defeated his
kingdom from the neighboring Bantu clans and the Dutch farmers
After the death of Shakazulu, the kingdom weakened and finally conquered by the British
in 1860s.
11.5 The Trans- Atlantic Slave Trade Origins
The discovery of America in 1492, by Christopher Columbus, followed by the conquest of
America by European. After the discovery of America, the European conquest and established
large agricultural plantations and mine fields in New world, these laid for the beginning of the
Trans - Atlantic slave trade.
Main causes for Trans-Atlantic slave trade
The starting of the agricultural plantation and mines established by Europeans in
America
European conqueror needs laborers to work on the plantations and gold mine.
i. Europeans first enslaved the Native American (Red Indians), were forced to work on their
plantation and mine field. Many American Indians died from Europeans diseases and harsh
treatment.
ii. Then, white slave from Europe brought to America, but the slaves were unable to resist the
Epidemic and hardships.
iii. Europeans began transporting the blacks from West Africa as slave across the, Atlantic
Ocean to America called Trance Atlantic slave trade.
Portugal was the first European country that began slave trade in Africa, the Spain
followed
The harsh environment to work forced the Europeans to use the labor of Africa
In Africa slave trade was conducted nearly for 300 years

26
Essential Features of the slave trade
The Trans - Atlantic slave trade passed through three different phases.
A. The piratic slave Trade
The first of phase of slave trade was known as the Piratic slave trade in Africa. It
began in the 15th and continued up to the last quarter of the 16th C
The Traders in this phase were ;- individual merchants, adventures, navigators or sea
robbers.
European government did not take part.
B. The monolistic slave trade
The second phase was known as the monopolistic slave trade .It began in the 1580s to
1690s.
In this phase, the trade was conducted by monopolistic slave- trading companies. These
companies were officially supported by their governments. They were also supported by
armed forces.With the help of these force they penetrated deep into the interior of west
Africa
 At this stage, the slave- hunting ground was widened, the volume of trade
increased and Slave merchant and companies collected huge profit.
The second phase was also known as the Triangular trade because the trades connected
three continents (Europe, Africa and Americas),
 From Western Europe goods like cotton, alcoholic drinks, firearms and metal
wares were taken from Western Europe to Africa.
 These goods were exchanged for slaves. Then, the African slaves were taken
across the Atlantic to be sold to the plantation owners in Americas.
 In America, slaves were solid to plantation agriculture owners in exchange for
sugar, tobacco and other products. Finally, these goods were taken back to
Europe and sold at high prices. The west European nation accumulated wealth
as a result of the Triangular –Trade.
C. Free- Trade
The third phase was known as free trade. It began in the second half of the 17th C1. In
this phase, several individual traders joined the slave trade.
In 1689, the British government took a legal action by instituting free trade. the law
provided for every individual of the British- Empire the right of participation in many
kind of business, including the slave trade.
There was fierce competition between the individual’s trades and the former companies.
Consequences of the Triangular Trade
 More than 15 million young African were transported to the American
 The Triangular trade helped the west European nations to accumulate a huge amount of
wealth. The accumulated wealth led to the industrialization of Western Europe in the 19 th
 The Triangular trade caused great human suffering and horrors on Africans. Slaves were
never treated as human beings but as properties.
 African lost her valuable human resources. The Triangular trade also depopulated Africa
of its productive young men and women.

27
28