Human Ecology (2022) 50:1063–1073

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-022-00346-0

Relationships between local soil classification and parametric

suitability indexes in a community of colonizers in the Alto Beni region
of Bolivia
Jorge Zapata-Muñoz1 · Isabel Morales-Belpaire2 · Luis F. Pacheco1

Accepted: 28 May 2022 / Published online: 5 July 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2022, corrected publication 2022

Abstract
Alto Beni, a valley of the Andean foothills of Bolivia, is inhabited by farmers who migrated from highlands less than 70
years ago. There is a need for land evaluation and land use planning in this region. The land evaluation must consider
the farmer’s knowledge of soil and other components. We aimed to assess how the local knowledge about soils agreed
with results obtained by laboratory analysis. Moreover, farmers’ soil preferences were compared to the soil components
of land suitability indexes obtained by following a framework proposed by the Food and Agriculture Organization. The
farmers classified their soils into five classes. Only the soils classified as clayey and sandy were clearly in agreement with
the values obtained for texture in the laboratory. However, farmers’ preferences for certain soils coincided with soils with
the best suitability indexes. This compatibility between local knowledge and calculated suitability indexes could facilitate
the use of both sources of information for decision-making on soil use.

Keywords Andean foothills · Local soil classification · Suitability index · Ethnopedology · Bolivia

Introduction 2018). However, people move from place to place. Some-

Understanding how local people interact with natural ele-
ments is crucial for natural resources management (Berkes
& Turner, 2006; Brook & McLachlan, 2008; Ruiz-Mallén
& Corbera, 2013; Espinoza-Tenorio et al., 2013; Ghorbani
et al., 2013). One key element is soil since both human-
managed lands and natural processes largely depend on its
physical and biological characteristics (FAO, ITPS, GSBI,
SCBD, and EC., 2020). Since the early 1980s, research
papers have described how indigenous peoples classify and
use different soil types (WinklerPrins, 1999), arguing for
the long-term development of local knowledge (Levis et al.,
Isabel Morales-Belpaire
imorales@fcpn.edu.bo
1
Instituto de Ecología, Carrera de Biologia, Facultad de
Ciencias Puras y Naturales, Universidad Mayor de San
Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia
2
Instituto de Biología Molecular y Biotecnología, Carrera
de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Puras y Naturales,
Universidad Mayor de San Andres, La Paz, Bolivia
times they migrate to landscapes different from those where
they may have acquired cultural relationships with the local
ecosystem characteristics, such as soil types and uses.
In some South American countries, governments have
established programs for the colonization of lowlands by
people from highlands or mid-altitude regions. These pro-
grams were based on the idea that the tropical forests offered
unexploited fertile soils and, therefore, the possibilities of
increased incomes for poor farmers (Pacheco, 2009; Kent,
2016). In Bolivia, most government-driven colonization
programs were developed in the 1960s. One of the selected
areas for colonization was Alto Beni (Pacheco, 2006; von
Stosch, 2014) a synclinal valley at the Andean foothills
of the La Paz Department (Killeen et al., 2005). After this
programmed colonization, newcomers came spontane-
ously, and nowadays, new lands are still being colonized
with almost no technical assistance. The Alto Beni valley
was originally inhabited by people from the Moseten ethnic
group, who have been mainly relegated to specific zones
of the valley called TIOC (Indigenous communal lands,
Territorio Indígena Originario Campesino in Spanish).
Therefore, most of the valley is inhabited by people from

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the Andes highlands, mainly from the Aymara ethnic group
(von Stosch, 2014). The same author indicates that there has
not been much interaction between Aymara and Moseten
people. Therefore, the Alto Beni region is inhabited mainly
by farmers with traditional agricultural knowledge of high-
lands; there is little knowledge exchange with indigenous
populations and insufficient technical assistance. Thus,
there is a need for better planning of agricultural activities to
prevent possible negative impacts such as soil erosion and
soil degradation.
Land evaluation is an initial step for planning land use
(Rossiter, 1996). In 1976, the FAO published “A framework
for land evaluation” (FAO 1976) which has been used in
numerous studies all over the world, including automated
applications (Elsheikh et al., 2013). In the framework pro-
posed by FAO, land characteristics (including soil prop-
erties, climate, and some physiographic elements) are
measured and compared to land-use expectations to deter-
mine how suitable the land is for a specific use. Suitability
can then be defined on a continuous scale (i.e., 0–100) or
by classification into discrete classes. For the continuous
scales, parametric methods can be used in which land suit-
ability indices are calculated from standardized values of
land characteristics. Guidelines for using parametric meth-
ods in the FAO framework are further explained in Sys et
al., (1991).
Land-use planning must involve local people and con-
sider that farmers have their knowledge of soil and other
elements, which has been obtained through traditions and
experience (Winklerprins, 1999). The local knowledge of
soil is studied by a relatively new discipline called eth-
nopedology whose scope includes the symbolic (Kosmos),
cognitive (Corpus), and management (Praxis) dimensions
(Barrera Bassols et al. 2006, Barrera-Bassols 2016).
Among the studies that have focused on the Corpus
dimension, several have addressed the subject of indigenous
soil taxonomies and the validation of local knowledge for
participatory land evaluation and land use planning (Bar-
rera-Bassols et al., 2003). Knowledge of local soil classifica-
tion would help develop a familiar language that scientists,
land planners, and farmers could use (Rushemuka et al.,
2014; Yageta et al., 2019). Moreover, various authors have
reported a good correlation between local knowledge of soil
productivity and laboratory results (Mairura et al., 2007;
Bautista & Zinck, 2010; Nezomba et al., 2017), showing
the value of this knowledge for participatory land appraisal.
We did not find studies about the local knowledge of soils
among populations with a long agricultural tradition, which
have migrated relatively recently (less than 70 years ago) to
ecosystems quite different from their original ones. There-
fore, we aimed to assess how the knowledge about soils of
the Alto Beni colonization region inhabitants can be related
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Human Ecology (2022) 50:1063–1073
to results obtained by physicochemical analysis of soil sam-
ples. Additionally, farmers’ soil preferences were compared
to the soil components of land suitability indexes obtained
by following Sys et al., (1991). We did not intend to compare
the local classification system to taxonomies such as those
proposed by USDA or WRB because former studies have
shown no direct relationship between indigenous classifi-
cation and the most usual “western” taxonomies (Estrada-
Medina et al., 2013; Matuk et al., 2017). Our approach was
more practical, relating local classification and preferences
with suitability indexes associated with agriculture.
Study area
The study was carried out in the “Unión Ipiri” community,
located within the municipality of Palos Blancos, La Paz
Department, Bolivia (15° 46 ̍00.01 ̎ S − 66°52 ̍59.88 ̎ W),
which belongs to the “Alto Beni” Valley. The altitude in
“Unión Ipiri” ranges from about 800 to 1800 m.a.s.l. Elbers
(1995) described this region as situated on the eastern edge
of the Bolivian Andes and containing parallel mountain
ranges (up to 2500 m.a.s.l) and broad valleys. The anticlines
are generally narrow and formed by Cretaceous sediments,
while Paleozoic sediments reach the surface in the axes. The
synclines are wide and built by tertiary sediments. These
sediments contain mostly sandstones, shales, and tertiary
conglomerates on which soils have formed. No studies
about soil classification in our specific study area are avail-
able. The soil Atlas for Latin America and Caribe (Gardi
et al. 2015) considers that the most representative soils of
the area are chromic Luvisols. According to the soil world
reference base (WRB, 2006), most soils correspond to alfi-
sols in USDA taxonomy. Studies carried out by CUMAT &
COTESU (1987), in which 12 soil profiles were analyzed
in hills, report Inceptisols and Alfisols (which correspond
to Cambisols, Lixisols, and Luvisols in WRB) as the most
representative soils in hills. A more detailed study in the
Sapecho region (Elbers, 1995) considers chromic Cambi-
sols dominant in the Alto Beni region, with Lixisols and
Acrisols as associated soils. However, the same author indi-
cates that more studies are needed in other regions. Regard-
ing climate, the Alto Beni area lies within the biogeographic
province of southwestern Amazonia, characterized by high
annual precipitation (2,000–3,000 mm) with diverse veg-
etation and a mean annual temperature of around 24 °C
(Navarro and Maldonado 2002). The rainy season goes
from December to February or March, and the dry season is
between July and August.
“Unión Ipiri” was founded in 2009 and was inhabited by
78 families at the time of the study (2013). Most inhabit-
ants were born in the Alto Beni region, but their parents or
Human Ecology (2022) 50:1063–1073
Fig. 1 Location map of Unión Ipiri Community (Alto Beni, Bolivia)
grandparents migrated from the highlands. Their ethnic ori-
gin is Aymara and Quechua; descendants of people from the
highlands who colonized amazonian landscapes are known
in Bolivia as “Interculturales”. In Union Ipiri, the main eco-
nomic activity is wood extraction; the agricultural activities
are for subsistence purposes. The area belonging to the com-
munity comprises around 37 km2, and each family owns a
narrow (100 m wide) but very long (3500 to 5000 m) plot.
Most of the area presents steep terrains, making the agricul-
tural use of complete plots very difficult. A dirt road (only
functional during the dry season) crosses the area, and the
agricultural activities are carried out in parcels close to the
road (See Fig. 1).
Methods
Local soil classification
To determine the local classification of soils and preferred
soils for “Union Ipiri” farmers, we used some of the meth-
ods described by Chambers (1992), namely group activi-
ties, participatory mapping, and work with key informants.
A workshop was organized on May 9th, 2013, in the local-
ity of Covendo, a small town close to Unión Ipiri (where
there was no town yet). We recruited attendees, requesting
the participation of at least one member per family, follow-
ing local procedures approved by the community’s authori-
ties. Twenty-five men and fifteen women from “Union Ipiri”
attended the workshop, and two authorities of the Moseten
community as observers. All participants were older than
18 years of age, and their main activity was agriculture.
No specific information about the age of the participants
was gathered. The objectives and methods of the present
research work were communicated to the attendants of the
workshop. They agreed and authorized the project.
1065
During the workshop, the attendants were divided into
four groups. For practical purposes, the community’s land
was divided into four areas, each of which contained around
20 plots, and each area was assigned to one of the four
groups. Each group assigned to a specific area consisted
of members who lived in that area and knew the kind of
soil there. To guide group discussions, we asked informal
questions and did not use structured interviews. These ques-
tions were related to farmers’ main procedures for classi-
fying soils. The members of each group prepared a list of
the different soils that can be found in their assigned area
and described those soils. The lists were then discussed in
a plenary session. After agreeing on the different soil types,
the groups established the criteria they used to classify
soils. These criteria were then discussed in a new plenary
session. Finally, a satellite image was used to establish the
approximate localization of the soil types identified in each
area. Each group identified the location of the different soil
classes, and a map of soil classes was drafted. Because of
problems with scales, the maps prepared by each group
were used only as a reference about which soils were pres-
ent in each area and not for further analysis.
After the workshop, key informants were selected from
the attendants, with local people’s approval. These infor-
mants accompanied the fieldwork carried out on the fol-
lowing days. They helped in sample collection and gave
information in the field about local soil classification by
describing the general characteristics, the means used for
identification, and the importance for agriculture of the dif-
ferent soil classes.
Soil sampling
Soils were sampled from 78 parcels. The samples were
taken from areas identified as having different local soil
classes for each parcel. The maximum distance of the sam-
pled areas to the road was around 400 m. The samples were
taken from altitudes between 840 and 1400 m.a.s.l. At the
sampling time, these areas had not yet been used (untouched
forest) but had the potential for future agriculture. All rele-
vant information on the sampled sites was recorded follow-
ing Jahn et al., (2006). Six to ten subsamples were collected
with a steel auger on a lineal or zig-zag grid and then pooled.
Before physicochemical analysis, the pooled samples were
air-dried and sieved (2 mm mesh). The depth of sampling
was 30 cm, except for very shallow soils. For each sampled
area, the coordinates of subsamples 1 and 5, the slope (by
clinometer), the percentage of superficial stones (by direct
visual observation), and total soil depth (using the auger)
were registered. Undisturbed soil was sampled with cylin-
ders in order to determine apparent density. At least ten plots
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were sampled for each local soil type, except for soils classi-
fied as “secarrón”, which appeared only in three areas.
Laboratory analysis
The laboratory analyses were carried out following stan-
dardized procedures at the Instituto de Biología Molecular y
Biotecnología (Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz,
Bolivia), except for exchangeable calcium, magnesium, and
potassium determined at the Laboratorio de Calidad Ambi-
ental (Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz, Bolivia).
Soil particle size distribution (pipette method for silt and
clay), bulk density, and soil pH (soil: water proportion
1:2.5) were determined following the methods described by
Dewis & Freitas (1984). Extractable nitrate was determined
by reaction with chromotropic acid (Clarke & Jennings,
1965). Organic carbon was determined by the Walkey Black
method (Nelson & Sommers, 1982). Exchangeable calcium,
magnesium, and potassium were determined by extrac-
tion with ammonium and atomic absorption spectrometry
(Cochrane & Barber, 1993).
Soil suitability index calculation
The values obtained for the tested physicochemical parame-
ters (soil characteristics) of each soil sample were compared
to crop requirements for cassava (Manihot esculenta), and
a rating (0–100) was given for each characteristic by using
the tables listed by Sys et al., (1991). Cassava was chosen
because it is one of the most common crops in the region,
and the complete data on cassava demands were reported by
Sys et al., (1993). Two suitability indexes were calculated
for each sample. For suitability index 1, all the measured
parameters were considered. For suitability index 2, slope
and soil depth were excluded. Both suitability indexes were
calculated following Sys et al., (1991), with the following
formula:

B C D class. It is essential to notice that the vegetation named by
SI = A × × × · · ·..
100 100 100
where SI is the suitability index, A is the rating of the most
limiting soil characteristic, and B, C, D… are the ratings of
the other soil characteristics.
Data analysis
Using Kruskal Wallis tests, soil parameters and suitability
indexes were compared among local soil classes. When
significant differences among soil classes were observed,
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Human Ecology (2022) 50:1063–1073
comparisons of mean ranks were carried out with Dunn’s
test. We employed exploratory Principal Component Analy-
sis (PCA) to determine if the set of the measured soil char-
acteristics helped separate the soil samples into discrete
groups and if these groups coincided with the local clas-
sification of soils. For the PCA analysis, the local soil class
“pedregoso” (stony) and the soil characteristic “percentage
of rough fragments” were excluded since their relationship
is evident. Both farmers and researchers evaluated this char-
acteristic by visual evaluation. All the analyses were per-
formed with Rstudio.
Results
Local soil classes
After some discussion, attendants at the workshop agreed
on the existence of five soil classes in the region: “arenoso”
(sandy), “gredoso” (clayey), “negro” (black), “pedregoso”
(stony), and “secarrón” (dry). They also showed where
these soil classes could be found on drafted maps. During
the fieldwork, all key informants mainly used visual cues
(color, presence of stones, type of vegetation). In contrast,
two of them additionally used touch to determine the tex-
ture and humidity of the soil. For all key informants, either
“negro” or “arenoso” soils were considered more suitable
for agriculture, while “gredoso” was considered second or
third best. The soils that were considered less suitable for
agriculture were the “pedregoso” soils, and all informants
(and also workshop attendants) agreed that “secarrón”
soils were the worst. Besides evaluating soil characteristics,
farmers used additional criteria for assessing whether the
soil was adequate for agriculture. These additional criteria
include the existence of dense native vegetation with large
trees in the area, water availability, slope, and exposition
to sunlight (sunny areas are preferred). Table 1 summarizes
the information provided by the attendants of the workshop
and the key informants about the characteristics of each soil
the inhabitants for the “arenoso” soils is mostly secondary
and has not been cross-checked in the field; the workshop
attendees have probably listed the plant species based on
their previous experience in other areas.
Relationship between soil characteristics and local soil
classification
Characteristics of soils sampled from the different local clas-
sification classes are listed in Table 2. Most sampled parcels
had high slopes (56% of the parcels had slopes over 30%,
and 40% had slopes comprised between 15 and 30%). Nine
Human Ecology (2022) 50:1063–1073 1067

Table 1 Main characteristics of local Local soil class

soil types as defined by Union Ipiri
“Arenoso” “Gredoso” “Negro” “Pedregoso” “Secarrón”
inhabitants
(Sandy) (Clayey) (Black) (Stony) (Dry)
Generalities Soils that can be Soils that can Soils Soils that Soils that
found on riversides become very hard with can belong to are a mix-
and flat places that when dry and high the other soil ture of dry
are prone to floods. cause death of con- classes but have earth and
Their humidity is cultivated plants, tent of a high percent- very small
variable and water this does not hap- organic age of stones pebbles.
can easily penetrate. pen with native matter on their surface. They are
Their consistency plants. They are Stones cause hard and
is soft and loose When wet, they soft and difficulties for compact.
so tillage is easy. are sticky and tillage tillage activities. Color is
They feel rough slippery and till- is easy. mostly
and granulated (like age is difficult. The reddish,
sugar) These soils are color however,
Color can vary mostly reddish. is dark gray,
between different Some of the wor- brown brown and
tonalities of brown shop attendants or blackish
and red, but some called these soils almost colors can
soils can be white, “red” (rojo). black. also be
yellow, gray or present.
beige.
Crops that can These soils can These soils can be Any If less than Soils with
be grown produce many crops used for several crop can 50% of the low pro-
such as banana, crops such as grow area is covered ductivity,
cassava, peanut, banana, orange, on these by stones it is only some
sweet potato, tomato cacao and coca, soils. possible to cul- crops
papaya, corn, but the plants tivate banana, such as
watermelon, walusa grow slower. avocado, coca, pineapple,
(Xanthosoma sagit- mango, orange papaya and
tifolium), coffee and and papaya. coca can
cacao. develop on
them.
Plants charac- Charo (Gynerium High diversity Dense and Highly variable Quina
teristic of native sagittatum), balsa of plants and big diverse depending on (Cinchona
vegetation (Ochroma pyrami- trees such as quina vegeta- the plot, they calisaya)
dale) and ambaibo quina (Myroxilon tion and can present and bilca
(Cecropia sp.). balsamum), roble high trees. cedar (Cedrela (Anade-
(Amburana cea- None sp.), walnut nanthera
rensis), huasicucho seem to (Juglans sp.) colubrina)
(Centrolobium be charac- and gabú (Virola grow on
ochroxylum), bilca teristic of sp.), besides these soils.
(Anadenanthera this type achihuete (Bixa
colubrina) and of soil. orellana), ochoa
paquio (Hymenaea (Hura crepitans),
courbaril). mascajo (Clarisia
racemose), quina
quina (Myroxilon
sp.) and motacú
(Attalea sp.).

out of ten soils with local classification “pedregoso” had
slopes over 30%. At the same time, this happened only for
one soil in the “arenoso” category, and Dunn’s test indicates
that these two soils have significantly different slopes. The
soils in the study area were shallow, only seven parcels had
depths over 50 cm, and the maximum observed depth was
81 cm. Four soils with depths over 50 cm were observed
in the “arenoso” category. The two soils with the highest
depths were also observed in this category. Four parcels
had very shallow soils (depth under 25 cm), three of these
were from the “pedregoso” category. The soils classified
as “gredoso” had neatly higher clay than the other groups.
They also contained significantly more exchangeable potas-
sium and magnesium than “arenoso” soils. The percent-
age of organic carbon in the soil samples showed a wide
spread of values. Some of the highest values were observed
for soils classified as “negro”, but some low values were
also reported in this group, while some high values were

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Table 2 Comparison of physico-chemical characteristics of the different local soil classes

Soil local class ( mean value ± standard deviation) Results from Kruskal
Soil characteristic «arenoso» «gredoso» «negro » «pedregoso » «secarrón» Wallis analyses
(n = 10) (n = 11) (n = 10) (n = 10) (n = 3)
Slope (%) 22 ± 10a 29 ± 12 ab 31 ± 9ab 37 ± 8b 40 ± 8ab H = 10.905 p = 0.0276
a a a
Coarse fragments (%) 1±2 3±4 2±5 31 ± 13b 3 ± 3ab H = 27.251 p < 0.001
a ab ab
Depth (cm) 52.8 ± 16.0 38.4 ± 6.0 43.6 ± 13.1 31.7 ± 12.2b 40.8 ± 11.6ab H = 13.4168
p = 0.0094
Apparent density (g/cm3) 1.04 ± 0.20a 1.12 ± 0.22a 0.77 ± 0.15b 0.89 ± 0.13ab 0.99 ± 0.24ab H = 16.958 p = 0.002
Sand (%) 84 ± 6a 49 ± 13b 76 ± 9a 76 ± 10a 77 ± 5ab H = 25.546 p = 0.0000
Clay (%) 7 ± 5a 35 ± 11b 10 ± 5a 11 ± 7a 10 ± 11ab H = 24.152 p = 0.0000
Textural class (USDA texture Sand (4 soils) Sandy loam (2 Sandy loam Loamy sand (3) Sandy loam -
triangle) Loamy sand (5 soils) (6 soils) Sandy loam (5) (1)
soils) Sandy clay loam Loamy sand Sandy clay loam Sand (1)
Sandy loam (1 (5 soils) (3) (1) Sandy clay
soil) Clay loam (1 soil) Sand (1) Sand (2) loam(1)
Clay (3 soils)
Electric conductivity (mS/cm) 0.08 ± 0.02 0.08 ± 0.04 0.12 ± 0.05 0.11 ± 0.04 0.08 ± 0.01 H=
pH 5.9 ± 1.1 6.4 ± 0.9 5.7 ± 1.1 6.0 ± 0.9 5.5 ± 0.9 H = 3.339 p = 0.5028
Organic carbon (%) 1.4 ± 0.5 1.4 ± 0.6 2.1 ± 1.1 2.0 ± 1.3 0.9 ± 0.6 H = 3.399 p = 0.4934
Nitrates (mgN/Kg soil) 12.8 ± 4.8ab 11.6 ± 3.8a 23.2 ± 9.0b 22.0 ± 14.0ab 15.5 ± 2.6ab H = 15.624 p = 0.036
Exchangeable potassium (cmol/ 0.3 ± 0.1a 0.5 ± 0.1b 0.4 ± 0.1ab 0.4 ± 0.1ab 0.3 ± 0.0ab H = 9.567 p = 0.046
Kg)
Exchangeable calcium 2.5 ± 2.2 4.7 ± 2.8 3.8 ± 3.3 4.9 ± 3.0 2.9 ± 2.2 H = 4.677 p = 0.322
(cmol/Kg)
Exchangeable magnesium 1.1 ± 0.5a 2.6 ± 0.8b 1.9 ± 0.9ab 2.0 ± 0.9ab 1.9 ± 1.1ab H = 14.359 p = 0.0006
(cmol/Kg)

Fig. 2 Box-plots (mean/standard error/standard deviation) for suitabil- Fig. 3 Box-plots (mean/standard error/standard deviation) for suitabil-
ity index 1 assigned to the different local classes ity index 2 assigned to the different local classes

obtained for samples from “pedregoso” soils. The “negro”
soils had apparent densities that were significantly lower
than for “arenoso” and “gredoso” soils and had significantly
higher nitrate contents than “gredoso” soils.
Significant differences among soil classes were observed
for suitability index 1, including slope and soil depth
(Fig. 2) (H = 17.382, p = 0,016). The mean value was higher
for “arenoso” soils while soils classified as “pedregoso”
showed the lowest suitability index, significantly different
from the others. The soil suitability index 2, which does
not consider the slope and soil depth (Fig. 3), also showed
significant differences among local soil classes (H = 19.408
p = 0.007). In this case, the average values were higher for
“gredoso” soils. “Pedregoso” soils showed values signifi-
cantly lower than the other soil classes for suitability index
2.
The PCA analysis for all variables, except the percentage
of rough fragments, with local classification as a grouping

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Human Ecology (2022) 50:1063–1073
Fig. 4 The plot of the first two principal components in PCA analy-
sis. The grouping variable was the local soil classification (squares: “
arenoso” soils, circles: “gredoso” soils, triangles: “negro” soils, dia-
monds: “secarrón” soils)
variable, gave rise to two main components that explained
around 65% of the variance. The grouping of the samples
corresponded relatively well to local soil classes (Fig. 4).
With only one exception, all samples corresponding to the
“arenoso” soil class were grouped on the left low quad-
rant, corresponding to high sand contents, lower contents
of organic carbon, nitrates, and exchangeable cations.
Similarly, all but one of the samples from soils classified
as “gredoso” are grouped on the right side of the quadrant,
which corresponds to high clay contents. However, they dis-
tribute between the upper and lower left quadrants, indicat-
ing variations in contents in exchangeable cations, pH, and
organic matter. Six out of ten samples from soils classified
as “negro” were in the upper left quadrant meaning high
organic content. However, the points are more spread out
than for “arenoso” and “gredoso” soils. Finally, the three
samples from “secarrón” soils are dispersed in the lower
quadrants.
Discussion
The five local classes listed by workshop attendants and key
informants were based on texture, color, stoniness, and soil
humidity. These same soil characteristics have been gener-
ally used in other local classifications (de Queiroz & Norton,
1992; Barrera-Bassols & Zinck, 2003; Bautista & Zinck,
2010). Studies in the Andes showed that people have strong
knowledge about soils and soil development. They use com-
plex classification systems based on color and texture and,
to a lesser extent, on other properties (WinklerPrins & Bar-
rera-Bassols, 2004). A survey including 62 ethnic groups
1069
from 25 countries across Asia, America, and Africa indi-
cates that local people commonly use color as a criterion.
Most use texture (98%), while 56% use consistency and
55% use soil moisture (Barrera-Bassols & Zinck, 2003).
Soil texture, color, and structure are also mentioned by Bar-
rios et al., (2006) for other African and Latino-American
sites. The authors additionally indicate that further criteria
are crop vigor and yield, type and abundance of native veg-
etation, and the presence of certain invertebrates. Farmers
in central Kenya (Mairura et al., 2007) used similar criteria.
Contrary to “Interculturales” at Unión Ipiri, Tsimane
people (an indigenous group for Amazonian Bolivia) omit
stoniness as a criterion (Piland, 2000); soils in the areas
comprised by their territory are not stony. In the present
work, native vegetation was also a crucial criterion for char-
acterizing soil classes; key informants carefully observed
surrounding vegetation and soil characteristics to come out
with a final opinion. In one study with Mayan farmers, the
most important criteria for soil classification were the topo-
graphic position and color, followed by the number of rock
fragments, outcrops, and water retention capacity (Estrada-
Medina et al., 2013). Our study did not consider the topo-
graphic position, but we recommend that this criterion be
used in future research. A more comprehensive study of
Mayan farmers also included relief position, texture, struc-
ture, and drainage (Bautista & Zinck, 2010). As humidity
was also considered an essential criterion for determining
the suitability of soils, future studies should consider field
capacity and permanent wilting point.
Soil samples were taken for laboratory studies to find a
relationship between the local classification and soil apti-
tude class. However, the slope and soil depth were measured
in the field. The steep slopes observed in our study area are
typical of many Andes regions, where they have formed by
folding and uplift of tectonic plates (Shaxson, 1999). These
steep slopes give rise to shallow soils because weathered
material can slide or creep down the slope, and the soils
are subjected to hydric erosion (Van Dijk & Peña-Aranci-
bia, 2012). Deforestation on steep slopes and shallow soils
implies a high risk of erosion.
Most of the “arenoso” soils were situated on riversides
or the lower parts of the hills. This can explain the fact that
“arenoso” soils had lower slopes and higher depths. More-
over, shallow soils imply low rooting depth, which may be
limiting for crops.
The intensity of hydric erosion depends, among oth-
ers, on balance between water infiltration and runoff (Van
Dijk & Peña-Arancibia, 2012). In soils with high porosity,
a higher proportion of water is infiltrated, and the risk of
hydric erosion is lower (Shaxson, 1999). Soil porosity can
be estimated by determining the soil’s apparent density;
lower densities imply higher porosity. The values obtained
13
1070
for apparent soil density in our samples were relatively low,
which means that soil compaction is not currently a prob-
lem, probably because our study area is new for agriculture.
Soils classified as “negro” showed the lowest values for
apparent density. This agrees with Heuscher et al., (2005),
who indicate that bulk density is strongly negatively cor-
related with the organic matter content of the soil. Future
intensification of agriculture might increase soil compaction
partly because the loss of canopy cover causes a rise in soil
temperatures (Hashimoto and Suzuki 2004), which accel-
erates organic matter decomposition and then destroys the
porous structure of the soil.
Most of our soil samples had textures that are classified
as sandy loam, loamy clay, or loamy clay sand, with clay
contents < 60% in all cases. Therefore, the texture of the
soils in the study area should not strongly limit the growth
of some typical crops of the region (Sys et al., 1993). The
organic matter contents for most samples were between 1
and 2%, which, compared to crop requirements listed by
Sys et al., (1993), are not severely restrictive for most crops.
As to the sum of basic exchangeable cations, there was
variation between samples, but in most cases, there were no
severe restrictions to crop cultivation due to this factor. In
brief, local soils were not nutrient-limited, and restrictions
to agricultural practices responded mainly to steep slopes
and some texture difficulties.
Besides the apparent relationship between the percent-
age of rough fragments and the “pedregoso” category in
our study, the most evident relationship between local soil
classes and laboratory-obtained data was for clay percent-
age. Soils classified as “gredoso” had much more clay than
the others. Sandor & Furbee (1996) found that texture was
a primary criterion for local soil classification in the South-
ern Andes of Peru and that native soil classes represented
distinct textures that corresponded well to USDA textural
classes. The significant differences found in the exchange-
able potassium and magnesium values among the local soil
classes may be explained by the correlation between clay
contents and exchangeable cations. The finding that the dif-
ference between sand content in soils classed as “arenoso”
and sand content in “negro”, “pedregoso” and “secarrón”
soils was not significant may be attributed to the fact that
these last three categories are characterized by criteria such
as color, stoniness, and low humidity retention, so they
might have any range of textures.
Surprisingly, no clear difference was obtained between
soils classified as “negro” (black) and other soil types of
organic matter contents. It is possible that there can be some
confusing factors for soil colors, such as different shades
of dark placed in the same group, a comparison with the
Munsell table could establish how different the soil colors of
samples classified as “negro”. On the other hand, reducing
13
Human Ecology (2022) 50:1063–1073
iron and manganese in soil leaves gray particles behind
(Owens & Rutledge, 2005), resulting in a darker aspect of
soils even if they do not have high organic matter content.
However, soils classified as “negro” presented higher con-
tents of nitrates, which generally come from the mineraliza-
tion of organic matter.
The local soil categories listed by Union Ipiri inhabitants
are not mutually excluding. For example, soils classified as
“pedregoso”, “negro” or “secarrón” might have any type
of texture. Similarly, soils classed as “pedregoso” can have
highly variable contents of organic matter. WinklerPrins &
Barrera-Bassols (2004) also pointed out that categoriza-
tion is nonexclusive and that pragmatic considerations are
considered. This means that there must be some hierarchy
for the classifying criteria. Criteria related to obvious limi-
tations to agriculture, such as stoniness and dryness, must
come first, regardless of other characteristics that are sub-
tler in identification. From the data that we have, it seems
that texture is a criterion that predominates over color since
soils classed as “gredoso” clearly separate in clay con-
tent from the others and may present several colors, while
“negro” and “arenoso” soils have about the same textural
classes and could be subcategories in the “arenoso” class.
There was some discrepancy in the key informants about
if “arenoso” or “negro” categories were the best for agri-
culture. The predominance of texture over color could be
because the texture has immediate effects on tillage proce-
dures. At the same time, organic matter content affects the
development of crops and is not immediately observed. A
long-term study, like the one reported by Bautista & Zinck
(2010) for the Maya, is needed to clarify the hierarchy of the
different criteria.
Either in first or second place in local people’s prefer-
ence, the “arenoso” soils were considered by all informants
as soils that are adequate for agriculture. This preference
coincides quite nicely with suitability index 1 but not so
with suitability index 2. The suitability index 1 considers
not only physico-chemical characteristics that are deter-
mined in a laboratory but also the slope and depth of soils.
This would imply that farmers choose soils depending on
their workability and not nutritional value. The “arenoso”
soils have lower slope values and are generally situated near
streams, where higher fertility is expected because of their
alluvial origin, which can also influence farmers’ decisions.
The local classification of “secarrón” soils as the worst for
agriculture coincides with their physicochemical character-
istics and their ranking with both suitability indexes. Finally,
“pedregoso” soils are avoided by farmers because, despite
having variable fertilities, they are tough to cultivate. Yageta
et al., (2019) reported consistency between Kenyan farmers’
classification of soils as “best” or “worst” and results from
physico-chemical analysis. Moreover, the authors indicated
Human Ecology (2022) 50:1063–1073
that spatial location was also an essential criterion for the
farmers.
The compatibility between the soil classes preferred by
farmers and the suitability index 1 could indicate adaptation
to a new environment. It is interesting to note that besides
using criteria based on soil characteristics for classification,
farmers also use criteria based on the type and diversity of
vegetation, which has also been reported for Maya (Bau-
tista & Zinck, 2010) and Tsimane (Piland, 2000). This might
show the acquisition of new knowledge for people at Unión
Ipiri in a few generations. The dynamic nature of local
soil knowledge is emphasized by WinklerPrins & Barrera-
Bassols (2004) and Barrera-Bassols et al., (2006), as local
people can adjust to new circumstances or to a new environ-
ment based on experiences or earlier generations. Further
research should be carried out on the origin of local knowl-
edge about soil, the persons in charge of this knowledge and
how it is transmitted, how the farmers adapted it to the new
context, and how they see this adaptation. Moreover, it is
necessary to study how the farmers see the possibility of
using this local knowledge, complemented with instruments
such as suitability indexes, for community decision-making.
The partial agreement between local knowledge and
suitability indexes based on laboratory analysis and field
measurements implies that local people are self-sufficient
to avoid low fertility soils and choose those areas with the
highest probabilities of rendering better crop yields. This
is in line with what is currently recognized as a means to
make faster advancements in the management of natural
resources, under the idea that local and scientific knowl-
edge systems are complementary and should be regarded
as potentially equally valid and valuable (Eisenberg, 2019;
Buell et al., 2020; Malmer et al., 2020).
This is the first study assessing local but non-indige-
nous peoples’ knowledge regarding agriculture, at least in
Bolivia. It is important to note that, in other areas of the Alto
Beni region, the people known as “Interculturales” carry out
extractive activities, such as unsustainable forestry and min-
ing, to the detriment of the environment and the Moseten
people (Bernal-Dávalos, 2021). A valorization of their agri-
cultural knowledge could also be the first step to incentiv-
izing more respectful activities of the environment.
Conclusions
Union Ipiri inhabitants classified their soil into four classes:
stoniness, humidity, texture, and color. Besides stoniness,
the local soil classes were mainly related to clay and sand
contents. Soils classified as “negro” for their black color
did not correlate with organic matter contents. This could
be due to the predominance of stoniness, water retention,
1071
and texture over the color as classifying criteria. The com-
patibility between the soil classes preferred by farmers and
a parametric suitability index based on physico-chemical
analysis and field measurements of slope and depth, and the
use of native vegetation as additional criteria for classifica-
tion, seems to imply the acquisition of new knowledge in a
few generations. The observed compatibility between local
knowledge and the calculated suitability index can facilitate
the use of both sources of information for decision-making
on soil use.
Author’s Contribution All authors contributed to the study’s concep-
tion and design. Jorge Zapata-Muñoz and Luis F. Pacheco performed
fieldwork with local inhabitants, soil sample collection and analysis.
The first draft of the manuscript was written by Jorge Zapata-Muñoz
and Isabel Morales-Belpaire. All authors have revised, edited, and
commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors have
read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding This work was supported by the MacArthur Foundation grant
74031-0 to Instituto de Ecología (Universidad Mayor de San Andrés).
Declarations The datasets generated during and analyzed during the
current study are available from the corresponding author on request.
Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest with the
manuscript’s contents.
Informed consent The objectives and methods of the present research
work were communicated to the inhabitants of Union Ipiri in a work-
shop that was carried out on May 9th 2013. They agreed and autho-
rized the project.
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