Governing Equation of Fluid Dynamics

Shyam Sunder Yadav

BITS Pilani
Pilani | Dubai | Goa | Hyderabad
Associate Professor
Mechanical Engineering
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Outline

Introduction

Statistical or Continuum approach

Reference frames

Material derivative

Gauss Divergence Theorem

Reynolds Transport Theorem

Continuity equation

Momentum equations

Energy equation

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Ways to derive flow governing equations
Conservation
of
Mass, Momentum and
Energy

Statistical
Continuum method
method

Eulerian Lagrangian
reference frame reference frame

Fixed, finite Moving

Fixed Moving, finite
control volume Infinitesimal
Infinitesimal control mass
control volume control mass

Equations in integral, Equations in integral,

conservative form non-conservative form Equations in differential,
Equations in differential,
non-conservative form
conservative form

▶ We will make use of Gauss Divergence Theorem and Reynolds

Transport Theorem

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Derivation of the governing equations
▶ Statistical Approach ▶ Continuum Approach
▶ Based on molecular view ▶ Fluid assumed to be
point. Fluid made up of continuous matter and
molecules whose motion molecules are ignored
governed by laws of ▶ At each point of this
dynamics continuous fluid, a
▶ Attempts to predict unique value of the so
fluid’s macroscopic ⃗
called ‘field variables’ U,
behaviour using P, T , ρ etc. exist
statistical mechanics and ▶ Continuous fluid obeys
probability theory conservation of mass,
▶ Yields the expression for momentum and energy
transport coefficients like giving the differential
µ, k etc. equations governing the
▶ Accurate for monoatomic field variables
gases but yields incorrect ▶ Solution of these
results for polyatomic differential equations
gases and liquids gives the field variables
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Statistical or Continuum approach
When to use these?
▶ Continuum approach
▶ This approach requires that the mean free path between the
molecules is much smaller than the smallest physical length
scale of the flow field
▶ Smallest physical length scale?
▶ Pipe diameter in case of flow through a pipe
▶ Airfoil chord in case of flow over and airfoil
▶ Only in this way meaningful averages for fluid properties at a
point can be defined and molecular structure can be ignored
▶ Applicable in most flow situations except those mentioned
below
▶ Statistical approach
▶ Used for Rarefied gas flows
▶ Flow outside a spacecraft in outer space
▶ Used in modelling of NEMS and some MEMS devices
▶ NEMS: Nano Electro Mechanical Systems
▶ MEMS: Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

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Reference frames: Eulerian or Lagrangian?
▶ Eulerian frame
▶ Lagrangian frame
▶ Attention is focused on
▶ Attention is fixed on a
the fluid which passes
given mass of fluid as it
through a fixed control
flows
volume
▶ Independent variables: t
▶ Independent variables: x,
and x0 , y0 , z0 i.e. initial
y , z and t: i.e. field
position of control mass
description
at t = 0
▶ Fluid inside the control
▶ We follow the control
volume at any instant in
mass as it flows and
time will be different
deforms, but we always
from that at some
consider same portion of
previous time instant
fluid
▶ Most formulations in
▶ x, y , z are no longer
CFD are based on
independent variables
Eulerian approach

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Material Derivative
Rate of change of physical quantity while following a moving fluid particle

▶ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l4F2bZgwcpU

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 Dα
Material Derivative Dt

▶ Material Derivative is the rate of change of a physical quantity

while following a moving fluid particle or control mass
▶ Let α be any property of fluid like density, pressure etc.
▶ Lagrangian viewpoint: α = f (t) once we select a fluid chunk
with given initial position x0 , y0 , z0 , so Dα dα
Dt = dt
▶ Eulerian viewpoint: α = f (x, y , z, t)
▶ As a fluid chunk passes through control volume its position
changes by δx, δy , δz and α changes by δα
▶ From differential calculus: δα = ∂α ∂α ∂α ∂α
∂t δt + ∂x δx + ∂y δy + ∂z δz
▶ Divide by δt: δα ∂α ∂α δx ∂α δy ∂α δz
δt = ∂t + ∂x δt + ∂y δt + ∂z δt
▶ In the limit δt → 0 : dα ∂α
dt = ∂t + u ∂α ∂α
∂x + v ∂y + w ∂α
∂z
▶ i.e. Dα
= ∂α ⃗ · ∇α in Eulerian coordinates
+U
Dt ∂t

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Gauss Divergence Theorem
▶ This theorem helps in converting surface integrals to volume
integrals and vice versa
⃗ the theorem says:
▶ For a scalar α and vector U,
⃗ ⃗ · n⃗dS
R R
▶ ∇ · αUdV = αU
V S
▶ Application example: Gauss law for electric field
⃗ · n⃗dS = Q
R
▶ ϵ E
S 0
▶ L.H.S. ≡ flux of electric field, i.e., the number of electric field
lines passing through the closed surface S, Q is the free charge
inside the closed surface
▶ Q can be written in terms of charge density qv , i.e.,
R
Q = V qv dV
▶ Now if we apply the Gauss divergence theorem to L.H.S.:
∇ · ϵ0 E⃗ dV = Q = qv dV ⇒ ∇ · ϵE⃗ = qv
R R
▶
V V
▶ The electric field produced by electric charges diverges away
from a region of positive free charge density qv

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Reynolds Transport Theorem
Relation between Lagrangain and Eulerian derivatives of volume integral of a quantity

(a)
▶ Follow an arbitrary control mass of
u
V(t +δt)
n volume V (t) moving and deforming in
S(t)

V(t)
the flow field
▶ Let α be some property of fluid like mass,
u
(b)
n
momentum or energy per unit volume
δt
▶ In Lagrangian framework α is a function
u. n
δS
of time only, i.e., α = α(t)
▶ From basic calculus, the rate of change of integral of α is
defined as:
D
R
Dt V (t) α(t)dV
nR
=
o
limδt→0 δt1
R
V (t+δt) α(t + δt)dV − V (t) α(t)dV

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10 1956
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Reynolds Transport Theorem
Continued... R
▶ Add and subtract α(t + δt)dV to the RHS of the above
V (t)
equation

Z Z Z
D 1
α(t)dV = lim α(t + δt)dV − α(t + δt)dV +
Dt V (t) δt→0 δt V (t+δt) V (t)
Z Z 
α(t + δt)dV − α(t)dV
V (t) V (t)

▶ We can write this as

Z Z 
D 1 R
α(t)dV = lim α(t + δt)dV − V (t) α(t + δt)dV
Dt V (t) δt→0 δt V (t+δt)
Z 
1 R
+ lim α(t + δt)dV − V (t)
α(t)dV
δt→0 δt V (t)

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11 1956
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Reynolds Transport Theorem
Continued...

Z Z Z 
D 1
α(t)dV = lim α(t + δt)dV − α(t + δt)dV
Dt V (t) δt→0 δt V (t+δt) V (t)
| {z }
Hold integrand fixed, vary control volume
Z Z 
1
+ lim α(t + δt)dV − α(t)dV
δt→0 δt V (t) V (t)
| {z }
Hold control volume fixed, vary integrand

▶ This finally gives:

Z (Z ) Z
D 1 ∂α
α(t)dV = lim α(t + δt)dV + dV
Dt V (t) δt→0 δt V (t+δt)−V (t) V (t) ∂t

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12 1956
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Reynolds Transport Theorem
Continued...

▶ We need to modify the first term on

(a)
R.H.S.
u
V(t +δt)
n ▶ Now the normal distance from any point
S(t)

V(t)
on the inner surface to the outer surface
⃗ · n⃗δt
is U
u
(b)
n ▶ Surface area δS corresponds to volume
change of δV where δV = U ⃗ · n⃗δtδS
δt
u. n
δS
▶ Therefore the volume integral may be
transformed to a surface integral as:
Z Z Z
D ⃗ ∂α
α(t)dV = lim α(t + δt)U · n⃗dS + dV
Dt V (t) δt→0 S(t) V (t) ∂t
Z Z
⃗ ∂α
= α(t)U · n⃗dS + dV
S(t) V (t) ∂t

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13 1956
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Reynolds Transport Theorem
Continued...
▶ Using Gauss divergence theorem, we transform the surface
integral back to volume integral as:
Z Z
⃗ · n⃗dS =
α(t)U ⃗
∇ · α(t)UdV
S(t) V (t)

▶ Therefore we get the Reynolds transport theorem as:

(Z ) Z  
D ∂α ⃗ dV
α(t)dV = + ∇ · αU
Dt V (t) V (t) ∂t

▶ LHS of the above equation gives rate of change of total

amount of α in a moving control mass. The RHS expresses
the same in Eulerian coordinates
▶ This theorem will be used while deriving conservation laws
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Continuity equation

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15 1956
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Continuity equation
Use of a moving, finite control mass ⇒ Integral, Non-conservative form

Control surface

Control mass of
volume

▶ Physical principle:
▶ Mass m of the moving, arbitrarily deforming control mass
having volume V is fixed
▶ Mathematically: Dm D
R
Dt = Dt V ρdV =0
▶ Reynolds
n transport o theorem gives:
R ∂ρ ⃗
V (t) + ∇ · ρU dV = 0
∂t

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Continuity equation
Use of a moving, infinitesimal control volume ⇒ Differential, Non-conservative form

Volume

▶ Physical principle: Mass δm = ρδV of the moving

infinitesimal control volume δV is fixed
▶ Mathematically:
▶ D D D D
= 0 ⇒ Dt
Dt (δm)n o(ρδV ) = 0 ⇒ δV Dt (δρ) + ρ Dt (δV ) =0
▶ Dρ 1 D(δV ) 1 D(δV ) ⃗
Dt + ρ δV Dt = 0, but δV Dt =∇·U
▶ Dρ ⃗
Dt + ρ∇ · U = 0

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17 1956
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Continuity equation
Use of a fixed, finite control volume ⇒ Integral, Conservative form

Control surface

Control volume

▶ Physical principle:
▶ Net mass flow out of the control volume V through surface S
= time rate of decrease of mass inside control volume V
▶ Mathematically:
Z Z 
⃗ · n⃗dS = − ∂
ρU ρdV
S ∂t V

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Continuity equation
Use of a fixed, infinitesimal control volume ⇒ Differential, Conservative form

▶ Physical principle: Net mass flow out of the control volume

dV = time rate of decrease of mass inside control volume dV
▶ Mathematically:
 ∂(ρu)
▶ ∂x + ∂(ρv ) ∂(ρw ) 
∂y + ∂z dxdydz = − ∂ρ
∂t (dxdydz)
∂ρ
 ∂(ρu) ∂(ρv ) ∂(ρw ) 
▶ ∂t + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z = 0
▶ ∂ρ ⃗ =0
+ ∇ · (ρU)
∂t

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Momentum equations

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Momentum Conservation
Newton’s second law of motion

▶ Physical principle: The rate of change of momentum of a

moving control mass is equal to the sum of external forces
acting on the control volume
▶ Mathematically: m⃗a = F⃗ ⇒ max = Fx , may = Fy , maz = Fz
▶ Mass: m = ρ dx dy dz
▶ Accleration: ax = Du
Dt , ay =
Dv
Dt , az = Dw
Dt
▶ Material derivative used since we follow a moving control mass
▶ Forces: Body forces + Surface forces
▶ Body forces: ρ fx dx dy dz where f⃗ is the body force per unit
mass
▶ Surface forces: Viscous and pressure forces

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Momentum Conservation
Use of a moving, infinitesimal control volume ⇒ Differential, Non-conservative form

▶ Forces: Body forces + Surface forces

▶ Surface forces:
∂τxx
[P − (P + ∂P∂x dx)]dydz + [(τxx + ∂z dx) − τxx ]dydz + [(τyx +
∂τyx ∂τzx
∂y dy ) − τyx ]dxdz + [(τzx + ∂z dz) − τzx ]dxdy
∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzx
▶ Surface forces: [− ∂P
∂x + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z ] · dx · dy · dz

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Momentum Conservation
Use of a moving, infinitesimal control volume ⇒ Differential, Non-conservative form

∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzx

▶ Therefore: Fx = [− ∂P
∂x + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfx ] dx dy dz
∂τxy ∂τyy ∂τzy
▶ Similarly: Fy = [− ∂P
∂y + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfy ] dx dy dz

∂τxz ∂τyz ∂τzz

▶ And: Fz = [− ∂P
∂z + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfz ] dx dy dz

▶ So the equations governing the momentum of a fluid become:

∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzx

▶ x momentum: ρ Du ∂P
Dt = − ∂x + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfx
∂τxy ∂τyy ∂τzy
▶ y momentum: ρ Dv ∂P
Dt = − ∂y + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfy
∂τxz ∂τyz ∂τzz
▶ z momentum: ρ Dw ∂P
Dt = − ∂z + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfz

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Momentum conservation
A different form of the equations
▶ Using the Eulerian counterpart of Material derivative, we get:
▶ x momentum: 
⃗ ∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzx
ρ ∂u ∂P
∂t + U · ∇u = − ∂x + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfx
▶ y momentum: 
⃗ ∂τxy ∂τyy ∂τzy
ρ ∂v ∂P
∂t + U · ∇v = − ∂y + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfy
▶ z momentum: 
⃗ ∂τxz ∂τyz ∂τzz
ρ ∂w ∂P
∂t + U · ∇w = − ∂z + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfz

▶ Or:
▶ x momentum: 
∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzx
ρ ∂u∂t + u ∂u
∂x + v ∂u
∂y + w ∂u
∂z = − ∂P
∂x + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfx
▶ y momentum: 
∂τxy ∂τyy ∂τzy
ρ ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
∂t + u ∂x + v ∂y + w ∂z = − ∂P
∂y + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfy
▶ z momentum: 
∂τxz ∂τyz ∂τzz
ρ ∂w∂t + u ∂w
∂x + v ∂w
∂y + w ∂w
∂z = − ∂P
∂z + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfz
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Momentum conservation
Conservative form

▶ Add velocity component times the continuity eqn. on LHS, we

get:
   
▶ x LHS: ρ ∂u ⃗ · ∇u + u ∂ρ + ∇ · ρU
+U ⃗
∂t ∂t
⃗ · ∇u + u∇ · ρU
▶ i.e. x LHS = ρ ∂u + u ∂ρ + ρU ⃗
∂t ∂t
⃗
▶ Finally x LHS = ∂ρu + ∇ · ρu U
∂t
   
▶ y LHS: ρ ∂v ⃗ · ∇v + v ∂ρ + ∇ · ρU
+U ⃗
∂t ∂t
⃗ · ∇v + v ∇ · ρU
▶ i.e. y LHS = ρ ∂v + v ∂ρ + ρU ⃗
∂t ∂t
⃗
▶ Finally y LHS = ∂ρv + ∇ · ρv U
∂t
   
▶ z LHS: ρ ∂w ⃗ · ∇w + w ∂ρ + ∇ · ρU
+U ⃗
∂t ∂t
⃗ · ∇w + w ∇ · ρU
▶ i.e. w LHS = ρ ∂w + w ∂ρ + ρU ⃗
∂t ∂t
⃗
▶ Finally w LHS = ∂ρw + ∇ · ρw U
∂t

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25 1956
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Momentum conservation
Conservative form of the equations

▶ Using conservative form of LHS, we get:

▶ x momentum: ∂ρu ⃗ = − ∂P + ∂τxx + ∂τyx + ∂τzx + ρfx
+ ∇ · ρu U
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ρv ⃗ = − ∂P + ∂τxy ∂τyy ∂τzy
▶ y momentum: ∂t + ∇ · ρv U ∂y ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfy

▶ z momentum: ∂ρw ⃗ = − ∂P + ∂τxz + ∂τyz + ∂τzz + ρfz

+ ∇ · ρw U
∂t ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

▶ Or:
▶ x momentum:
∂ρu ∂ρu 2 ∂ρuv ∂ρuw ∂τxx ∂τyx ∂τzx
∂t + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z = − ∂P
∂x + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfx
▶ y momentum:
∂ρv ∂ρvu ∂ρv 2 ∂ρvw ∂τxy ∂τyy ∂τzy
∂t + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z = − ∂P
∂y + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfy
▶ z momentum:
∂ρw ∂ρwu ∂ρwv ∂ρw 2 ∂τxz ∂τyz ∂τzz
∂t + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z = − ∂P
∂z + ∂x + ∂y + ∂z + ρfz

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26 1956
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Momentum conservation
Viscous stresses in terms of velocity gradients

⃗ + 2µD where I is
▶ Viscous stresses are given by: τ = λ∇ · UI
the identity tensor and D is the deformation gradient tensor
▶ Deformation gradient tensor D is given by:
 
▶ D= 1 ⃗ + (∇U)
∇U ⃗ T
2
 ∂u ∂v ∂w 
∂x ∂x ∂x
⃗=
▶ Here ∇U  ∂u ∂v ∂w  ⃗ T is the transpose of
and (∇U)
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂w
∂z ∂z ∂z
⃗
∇U
▶ Thereforethe viscous stressesbecome:


⃗ + 2µ ∂u
λ∇ · U µ ∂v
+ ∂u
µ ∂w
+ ∂u
  ∂x
 ∂x ∂y  ∂x ∂z  
▶ τ = ∂u ∂v
 µ ∂y + ∂x ⃗ + 2µ ∂v
λ∇ · U µ ∂w
+ ∂v 
  ∂y
 ∂y ∂z 

µ ∂u ∂w
µ ∂v ∂w ⃗ + 2µ ∂w


∂z + ∂x ∂z + ∂y ∇·U ∂z

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Momentum conservation
Final set of equations in conservative form

h
▶ X momentum: ∂ρu ∂ρu 2 ∂ρuv ∂ρuw ∂P ∂
∂t + + + = − + λ∇ ·
i h  ∂x ∂y
i h∂z ∂x
i∂x
⃗ + 2µ ∂u + ∂ µ ∂u + ∂v ∂
µ ∂u ∂w


U ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x + ∂z ∂z + ∂x + ρfx

▶ Y momentum: h  i
∂ρv ∂ρvu ∂ρv 2 ∂ρvw ∂P ∂ ∂v ∂u
∂t + ∂x + ∂y + = − + ∂x µ ∂x + +
h i ∂z h  ∂y i ∂y
∂ ⃗ ∂v ∂ ∂v ∂w
∂y λ∇ · U + 2µ ∂y + ∂z µ ∂z + ∂y + ρfy

▶ Z momentum: h
∂ρw ∂ρwu ∂ρwv ∂ρw 2 ∂P ∂ ∂w ∂u

i
∂t + + + = − + ∂x µ ∂x + +
h  ∂x ∂yi ∂z
h ∂z
i ∂z
∂ ∂w ∂v ∂ ⃗ + 2µ ∂w + ρfz
λ∇ · U
∂y µ ∂y + ∂z + ∂z ∂z

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Momentum conservation
Derivation based on a moving, finite control mass
▶ Traction vector
⃗s = n⃗ · σ
P
gives the stress
Control surface vector due to
Control volume pressure and
viscous forces
on surface
▶ σ = −PI + τ
▶ τ=
⃗ + 2µD
λ∇ · UI
▶ Physical principle: Rate of change of momentum of a moving,
finite control
R volume  is Requal to sum
R of external forces
D
▶ i.e.: Dt
V
ρUdV = S Ps dS + V f⃗dV
⃗ ⃗
▶ Putting ⃗
R the value
 ofR Ps we get: R
D ⃗
ρUdV = n⃗ · σdS + f⃗dV
Dt V S V
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Momentum conservation
Derivation based on a moving, finite control mass

▶ Traction vector
Control surface
⃗s = n⃗ · σ
P
Control volume
▶ σ = −PI + τ
▶ τ=
⃗ + 2µD
λ∇ · UI
R R
▶ Using divergence theorem we get: n⃗ · σdS = ∇ · σdV
S V
▶ Reynolds
R transport
 Rtheorem
n ⃗ says: o
D ⃗ ∂ρU ⃗U ⃗ dV
Dt ρUdV =
V
+ ∇ · ρU
V ∂t
▶ Putting
R n ∂ρU⃗these we get:o R R
+ ∇ · ρ ⃗U
U ⃗ dV = ∇ · σdV + f⃗dV
V ∂t V V
∂ρU⃗
▶ This gives: ⃗U
+ ∇ · ρU ⃗ = ∇ · σ + ρf⃗
∂t

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30 1956
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Energy equation

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Energy Conservation
First law of thermodynamics for moving infinitesimal control volume

▶ Physical principle: First law of Thermodynamics

DE
Dt = Q̇ + Ẇ
where
▶ E = Total internal energy of the infinitesimal control volume
 
▶ E =ρ e+ U2
2
dx dy dz

▶ Q̇ = Net heat flux into the infinitesimal control volume due to

thermal conduction and heat generation due to a source
▶ Ẇ = Net work done on the infinitesimal control volume by
body and surface forces

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Energy Conservation
Use of a moving, infinitesimal control volume ⇒ Differential, Non-conservative form

▶ Work done by body forces: ρf⃗ · U

⃗ dx dy dz

▶ Work done by x component of surface forces:

∂(uτ )
[− ∂(uP)
∂x +
∂(uτxx )
∂x + ∂yyx + ∂(uτ zx )
∂z ] · dx · dy · dz

▶ Similar expressions exist for x and y component of surface

forces

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Energy Conservation
Work done by body and surface forces on the infinitesimal control volume

▶ Work done by body and surface forces: Ẇ =

  
∂(uP) ∂(vP) ∂(wP)
− + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂(uτxx ) ∂(uτyx ) (u∂τzx )
+ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂(v τxy ) ∂(v τyy ) (v ∂τzy )
+ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂(w τxx ) ∂(w τyz ) ∂(w τzz )
+ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

+ ρf⃗ · U
⃗ dx dy dz

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Energy conservation
Heat flux into the control volume due to conduction and energy source

▶ Heat generation: ρq̇ dx dy dz

 
∂qy
▶ Heat conduction flux: − ∂q ∂x
x
+ ∂y + ∂qz
∂z dx dy dz
h  i
∂qy
▶ Therefore: Q̇ = ρq̇ − ∂q x
∂x + ∂y + ∂z
∂qz
dx dy dz

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Energy conservation
Heat flux into the control volume due to conduction and energy source

▶ Using Fourier law: q̇x = −k ∂T ∂T ∂T

∂x , q̇y = −k ∂y , q̇z = −k ∂z
▶ Therefore:
h  
∂

i
k ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T


Q̇ = ρq̇ + ∂x ∂x + ∂y k ∂y + ∂z k ∂z dx dy dz

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Energy Conservation
Non-conservative form of energy equation in terms of total energy
▶ Final form of energy equation:

U2
       
D ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
ρ e+ = ρq̇ + k + k + k
Dt 2 ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
 
∂(uP) ∂(vP) ∂(wP)
− + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂(uτxx ) ∂(uτyx ) (u∂τzx )
+ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂(v τxy ) ∂(v τyy ) (v ∂τzy )
+ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂(w τxz ) ∂(w τyz ) ∂(w τzz )
+ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ ρf⃗ · U
⃗

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Energy Conservation
Conservative form of energy equation in terms of total energy

U2 U2 ⃗i
  h  
∂
ρ e+ +∇· ρ e + U = ρq̇
∂t 2 2
     
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
+ k + k + k
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
 
∂(uP) ∂(vP) ∂(wP)
− + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂(uτxx ) ∂(uτyx ) (u∂τzx )
+ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂(v τxy ) ∂(v τyy ) (v ∂τzy )
+ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂(w τxz ) ∂(w τyz ) ∂(w τzz )
+ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ ρf⃗ · U
⃗

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Energy Conservation
Non-conservative form of energy equation in terms of specific energy

▶ Subtract the equation for kinetic energy from the equation for
total energy derived in previous slide
▶ Equation for kinetic energy:
⃗ ·U
▶ Since: U 2 = U ⃗ = u2 + v 2 + w 2
2
▶ Therefore: ρ DUDt/2 = u ρ Du Dv Dw




Dt + v ρ Dt + w ρ Dt

▶ After putting values of Du Dv Dw

Dt , Dt , Dt from momentum
equations, we get:
2
 
∂τyx
ρ DUDt/2 = −u ∂P
∂x − v ∂P
∂y − w ∂P
+ u ∂τxx
+ + ∂τzx
+
  ∂z ∂x ∂y
 ∂z
∂τ ∂τ ∂τ ∂τyz
v ∂xxy + ∂yyy + ∂zzy + w ∂τ ∂x + ∂y + ∂z
xz ∂τzz
+ ρ(ufx +
vfy + wfz )

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Energy Conservation
Non-conservative form of energy equation in terms of specific energy
▶ After subtracting the equation for kinetic energy from the
equation for total energy, we get:

     
De ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
ρ = ρq̇ + k + k + k
Dt ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
 
∂u ∂v ∂w
−P + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂u ∂u ∂u
+ τxx + τyx + τzx
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂v ∂v ∂v
+ τxy + τyy + τzy
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂w ∂w ∂w
+ τxz + τyz + τzz
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Energy Conservation
Conservative form of energy equation in terms of specific energy

∂(ρe) ⃗ = ρq̇
+ ∇ · (ρe U)
∂t      
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
+ k + k + k
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
 
∂u ∂v ∂w
−P + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂u ∂u ∂u
+ τxx + τyx + τzx
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂v ∂v ∂v
+ τxy + τyy + τzy
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
∂w ∂w ∂w
+ τxx + τyz + τzz
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Energy Conservation
Conservative form of energy equation in terms of specific energy
▶ After putting the expression for τxx , τxy etc., we get:

∂(ρe) ⃗ = ρq̇
+ ∇ · (ρe U)
∂t      
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
+ k + k + k
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
 
∂u ∂v ∂w
−P + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w 2
 
∂u ∂v
+λ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
"  
2  2
∂w 2
 
∂u ∂v
+µ 2 +2 +2
∂x ∂y ∂z
 #
∂u ∂v 2 ∂u ∂w 2 ∂w 2
    
∂v
+ + + + + +
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
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Energy conservation
Derivation based on a moving, finite control mass

▶ Traction vector:
⃗s = n⃗ · σ
P
▶ Heat flux:
⃗q̇ = −k∇T
▶ Heat source per
unit mass: Q̇
▶ Body force per
unit mass: f⃗
▶ Physical principle: Rate of change of total energy of a moving,
finite control mass is caused by the heat conduction into and
heat generation inside the control mass plus the work done by
the body and surface forces acting on the control mass
nR   o
▶ Mathematically: Dt D U2
V
ρ e + 2 dV =
R R R R
ρQ̇dV − ⃗q̇ · n⃗dS + ⃗ · UdS
P ⃗ + ρf⃗ · UdV
⃗
V S S s V
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Energy conservation
Derivation based on a moving, finite control mass
⃗s ⇒
▶ Definition of P
R R
⃗s · UdS
P ⃗ ⃗
= S n⃗ · σ · UdS
S
▶ Divergence theorem ⇒
R
⃗
RS n⃗ · (σ · U)dS =
⃗
∇ · (σ · U)dV
RV R
⃗ · ⃗q̇dS =
n ∇ · ⃗q̇dV
nS R  V o
▶ Reynolds transport theorem says: D U2
Dt Voi
ρ e+ 2 dV =
R h n  o n  
∂ U2 U 2
⃗
V ∂t
ρ e + 2 + ∇ · ρ e+ 2 U dV
▶ R
Putting
h nthese
 we get:
o n   oi
∂ U2 U2 ⃗ dV =
V ∂t
ρ e + 2 + ∇ · ρ e+ 2 U
R R R R
ρQ̇dV + V ∇ · k∇TdV + V ∇ · (σ · U)dV ⃗ + V ρf⃗ · UdV
⃗
V n   o n   o
2 2
∂
▶ This finally gives: ∂t ρ e + U2 + ∇ · ρ e + U2 U ⃗ =
ρQ̇ + ∇ · k∇T + ∇ · (σ · U)⃗ + ρf⃗ · U⃗
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Complete Set of Navier-Stokes equations
Number of equations versus number of unknowns
▶ The set of Continuity, Momentum and Energy Equations is
collectively called the Navier-Stokes equations
▶ Continuity Equation:
▶ ∂ρ ⃗ =0
+ ∇ · ρU
∂t
▶ Momentum Equation:
⃗
▶ ∂ρU ⃗U
+ ∇ · ρU ⃗ = −∇P + ∇ · τ + ρf⃗
∂t
▶ Energy Equation:
n  o n   o
∂ U2 2
⃗ =
▶ ∂t ρ e+ 2 + ∇ · ρ e + U2 U
⃗ + ρf⃗ · U
ρQ̇ + ∇ · k∇T + ∇ · (σ · U) ⃗
▶ Total number of equations:
▶ Total 5 equations: 1 continuity + 3 momentum + 1 energy
▶ Total number of unknowns:
▶ Total 7 equations: ρ, u, v , w , P, e, T
▶ How to proceed further?
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How to proceed further?
The Thermal and Caloric equations of state

▶ Thermal equation of state:

▶ P = ρR̄T
▶ where R̄ = R
M, R = 8.314 kJ/kg·K, M is the molecular mass
of the gas
▶ Caloric equation of state:
▶ T = T (ρ, e)
▶ Example: T = e
Cv
▶ Most codes use above relations valid for ideal gases
▶ Most advanced schemes for compressibles flows assume ideal
gas behaviour
▶ For more accuracy, we have to use real gas properties based
on a physical property database like the REFPROP
▶ http://www.nist.gov/srd/nist23.cfm
▶ This limits the options available for the convective fluxes

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Governing equations for Compressible flows
∂M ∂F ∂G ∂H
∂t + ∂x + ∂y + ∂x =J
where M is the column vector of conserved variables, F , G , H
are the column vectors of flux variables, J is the column
vector of source terms
ρu
 
ρu 2 + P − τxx

 


 

   
ρvu − τxy
 
ρ

 
 F=
 ρwu − τxz 
ρu
     
ρ e + V 2 u + Pu − k ∂T − uτxx − v τxy − w τxz 
  
 

   
  2 ∂x

M= ρv 
 ρv


ρuv − τyx
ρw

 

   
ρv 2 + P − τyy
  

  2


 G=
 
ρ e +
 V 
 
  ρwv − τyz 

2

ρ e + V 2 v + Pv − k ∂T − uτyx − v τyy − w τyz 

 

 

0
 2 ∂y
 
ρfx ρw

 
  
   
J= ρfy



 ρuw − τzx 




 ρfz 
  ρvw − τzy 
H=
 
2
 
ρ(ufx + vfy + wfz ) + ρq̇  
  ρw + P − τzz 

ρ e + V 2 w + Pw − k ∂T − uτzx − v τzy − w τzz 

 

 
2 ∂z

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Governing equations for Inviscid Compressible flows:
The Euler equations

▶ Inviscid flow have no viscous and no heat conduction effects

▶ In aerodynamics, the work done by gravity is also negligible
▶ If Mach no. < Mahypersonic : No source or sink for heat
∂M ∂F ∂G ∂H
∂t + ∂x + ∂y + ∂x =0
   

 ρ 
 
 ρv 

ρu ρuv

 
 
 


 
 
 

2
M= ρv G= ρv + P


  ρw 




  ρwv 



 2   2 
ρ e + V ρ e + V
v + Pv
 
  

2 2
   

 ρu 
 
 ρw 

2
ρu + P ρuw

 
 
 


 
 
 

F= ρvu H= ρvw
2


  ρwu 





  ρw 2 + P



ρ e + V 2 u + Pu 
   
  ρ e + V w + Pw 
 
2 2

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Incompressible Flows
▶ Remember Continuity equation in the form:
▶ Dρ ⃗ =0
+ ρ∇ · U
Dt
▶ For incompressible flows, ρ is constant, i.e., Dρ
Dt =0
⃗ =0
⇒∇·U
▶ This is a mathematical constraint on the velocity which says
that velocity field should be divergence free
▶ The momentum equations also gets simplified:
2
▶ X momentum: ∂ρu + ∂ρu + ∂ρuv + ∂ρuw =
h i∂t h ∂x ∂y  i ∂z h
i
∂P ∂ ∂u ∂ ∂u ∂v ∂ ∂u ∂w
− ∂x + ∂x 2µ ∂x + ∂y µ ∂y + ∂x + ∂z µ ∂z + ∂x +ρfx
2
▶ Y momentum: ∂ρv + ∂ρvu + ∂ρv + ∂ρvw =
h  ∂t ∂x
i h ∂y i ∂z h  i
− ∂P ∂ ∂v ∂u
∂y + ∂x µ ∂x + ∂y
∂
+ ∂y 2µ ∂v ∂ ∂v
∂y + ∂z µ ∂z +
∂w
∂y +ρfy
2
▶ Z momentum: ∂ρw ∂t + i
∂ρwu ∂ρwv
∂x +h ∂y + ∂ρw
∂z =
h  i h i
− ∂P ∂ ∂w ∂u ∂ ∂w ∂v ∂ ∂w


∂z + ∂x µ ∂x + ∂z + ∂y µ ∂y + ∂z + ∂z 2µ ∂z +ρfz

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Incompressible Flows
The biggest simplification:
▶ The energy equation becomes decoupled from the continuity
and momentum equations
 
ρCv ∂T
+U ⃗ · ∇T =
∂t
 
∂
k ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂
k ∂T



ρq̇ + ∂x ∂x + ∂y k ∂y + ∂z ∂z + Φ
"

2  2
2  ∂u ∂v 2
where Φ = µ 2 ∂u ∂x + 2 ∂v ∂y + 2 ∂w
∂z + ∂y + ∂x +
#
 2
∂u ∂w 2 ∂v ∂w


∂z + ∂x + ∂z + ∂y is the viscous dissipation

▶ Φ is significant only for the flow of highly viscous fluids like

flow of lubricating oil
▶ The temperature becomes simply a scalar advected and
diffused by the flow field
▶ If there is no temperature or heat flux applied at boundary:
Simply neglect the energy equation
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Boundary and Initial Conditions
▶ To solve the governing equations, we have to specify the
values of unknowns at the boundaries
▶ We also have to specify the initial conditions
▶ What are the different physical boundaries?
▶ For external flows: The surface of an aircraft’s body, the free
stream condition etc.
▶ For internal flows: The inner surface of a pipe, inlet, exit etc.
▶ Numerical boundary conditions
▶ Dirichlet boundary condition: Values of unknown variables are
specified directly at the boundary
▶ Neumann boundary condition: Values of fluxes of the unknown
variables are specified directly at the boundary
▶ Rubin or Mixed boundary condition: A combination of
Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions
▶ Specifying correct boundary conditions for compressible flows
is particularly important

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Grid and Domain Size Independence
▶ Grid Independence:
▶ When we say that out discretization is 2nd order accurate in
space ⇒ Errors get reduced by a factor of 4 when we reduce
the grid size by a factor of 2
▶ There is no absolute information on the magnitude of error
since analytical solution itself is unknown
▶ We have to try successively refined grids and finally use the
grid on which change in solution is less than say 5%
▶ Domain Size Independence:
▶ Consider an example of investigation of flow past a cylinder
▶ How much the domain size should extend in front and aft
relative to the cylinder?
▶ Consider another example of investigation of flow past an
airfoil
▶ How much the domain size should be relative to the airfoil?
▶ We have to try several domain sizes till the quantities like
drag and lift coefficients becomes independent of domain size

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52 1956
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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act,
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Thank you all for the attention...
Any questions?

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