Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ENVIRONMENT
Anis CHARIRI
Reference
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Think about these issues?
What is worldwide accounting diversity?
Why does accounting diversity exist?
Do the following factors influence accounting
practice? Why?:
Political and economic system
Legal system
Taxation system
Corporate financing system
Accounting profession
Religion
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What is Worldwide Accounting
Diversity?
Differences in accounting and financial reporting
practice/rules between countries
Accounting for Goodwill
US: goodwill an asset
Germany: goodwill often subtracted from
stockholders’
Asset revaluation
US: upward revaluation of fixed assets is not generally
allowed.
Mexico, Chile, and The Netherlands: upward
revaluations are allowed and sometimes required.
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Accounting and Environment
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Factor Affecting Accounting
Diversity
A. Political and economic system
B. Legal system
C. Taxation system
D. Corporate financing system
E. Accounting profession
F. Other Influences
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A. Political and economic system
Differences in how the economy is organized and
controlled
a. Economic Systems:
Capitalist Economic VS Socialist Economic Systems
b. The regulation of accounting
Government vs Profession
c. Types of business organization
the complexity of business organizations
the industrial structure of the country
d. The importance of inflation
High VS Low Inflation countries
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B. The legal system:
Common VS Code Law
COMMON LAW
The role of law is to prohibit
undesirable behavior rather
than to prescribe or codify the source of
desirable behaviour accounting
More interpretation by rules non-
courts to apply laws to governmental
specific situations.
organizations
Found most often in Great
Britain and other English-
speaking countries.
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B. The legal system:Common VS
Code Law
CODE LAW
Laws are generally codified
the role of law is to describe Accounting
and mandate acceptable rules to be
behavior. legislated
Laws consist of rules and (i.e., the
procedures that have to be source is the
followed. government).
Found more often in non
English-speaking countries.
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C. The taxation system
a. Independent tax and financial reporting
regulations
Anglo-Saxon Countries: UK, USA, Australia,
Canada & NZ
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E. The accounting profession
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F. Other Influences
Religion
Islamic financial institutions use accounting
standards issued by the Accounting and Auditing
Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions
Accidents of history
The exporting or imposition of accounting rules
or practices by more powerful or sophisticated
societies
Price Waterhouse (from London to NY, Chicago etc)
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DEFINITION
Culture refers to “a set of common ideas, beliefs
and values that shared by the member of a group of
individuals” (Roberts et al., 2002)
Culture is “the collective programming of the mind
which distinguihes the members of one human
group from another” (Hofstede 1984)
So what? CULTURE:
Collective
Not directly observable but can be inferred from
behaviour
Helps differentiate groups
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LEVEL of CULTURE
LEVEL OF CULTURE:
Symbols—with particular meaning
Heroes—characters prized by society
Rituals—routine activities
Values—general beliefs or social norms
SUBCULTURE
Culture exists at many level (ethinic, religious, areas, etc)
Each group will have its own culture
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Structural Elements of
Culture
Hofstede - 4 Underlying societal
dimensions:
Individualism VS Collectivism
Power Distance
Uncertainty Avoidance
Masculinity VS Feminity
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Individualism Collectivism
How a society views and maintains social
relationship among individuals
Individualism (“I”) Collectivism (“We”)
• Preference for a loosely- • Preference for a tightly-
knit social framework. knit social framework
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Uncertainty Avoidance
the degree to which the members of society feel
uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity.
The fundamental issue is how a society reacts to
the fact that the future is unknown.
Weak Strong
People feel relatively People feel anxious about
secure and do not try to future and create
control future through institutions to add security
laws. More tolerance for and avoid risk. Associated
deviant ideas and behavior with formal and informal
and willingness to take rules to guide behavior.
risks.
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Masculine Feminine
This dimension relates to the division of the
roles between sexes in society.
Masculine Feminine
Societal preference for Societal preference for
showing off, achievement, putting relationships with
heroism, assertiveness, people before money, helping
making money, thinking others, caring for the
big, etc. Competitiveness. weaker, the quality of life,
Concern for equity rather preservation of the
than equality. environment, “small is
beautiful” and so on.
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Classification
Dimension A B C D
Power Low High Low High
Distance
Uncertainty Weak Weak Strong Strong
Avoidance
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Conservatism versus Optimism
Conservatism seen as a fundamental value
Strongly conservative
Japan, France, Germany, Switzerland
Less conservative
U.S., U.K., the Netherlands – though changing post
Sarbanes Oxley -
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Secrecy versus Transparency
Stems from management and accountants
Closely related to conservatism
Secrecy relates to disclosure
Conservatism relates to measurement
Secrecy
High – Japan, France, Germany, Switzerland
Low – U.S. and U.K.
Link to societal value dimensions – Secrecy
Strong uncertainty avoidance
High power distance
Collectivism
Femininity
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Accounting Values and Societal
Values
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CULTURAL DIMENSION & ACCOUNTING
VALUES
Relationship to accounting Values
Dimension Profess. Uniformity Conservatism Secrecy
Individualism + - - -
Uncertainty
Avoidance - + + +
Power
Distance - + NR +
Masculinity vs
Feminity NR NR + +
Accounting
practice mainly Authority Application Measurement Disclosure
influenced
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Gray’s Accounting Cultural Dimensions affecting the country’s
Values accounting values
Professionalism vs Professionalism Statutory Control :
Statutory Control Individualism collectivism
Is there any
Weak relationship of Gray’s
uncertainty
avoidance
strong uncertainty avoidance
large power distance
Accounting
Small powerValues
distance and Cultural
Uniformity Unformity : Flexibility :
vs Dimensions?
Strong uncertainty weak uncertainty avoidance
Flexibility avoidance low power distance
Large power distance individualism
Collectivism
Conservatism Conservatism : Optimism :
vs Strong uncertainty weak uncertainty avoidance
Optimism avoidance individualism
Collectivism masculinity
Feminism
Secrecy Secrecy : Transparency:
vs Strong uncertainy weak uncertainy avoidance
Transparency avoidance low power distance
Large power distance individualism
Collectivism Masculinity
Feminism 31
International Pressures for
Accounting Change
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Economic Groupings and
International Organizations
European Union
Promotes economic integration/harmonization
UN
World Bank
International Monetary Fund
UN conference on Trade and Development
World Trade Organisation
OECD
Foster international economic and social development
in industrialized countries
“Code of Conduct” for MNEs
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Impact of MNEs and
Globalization
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Impact of MNEs and
Globalization
OECD, EU, IOSCO work for harmonization
and internationalization of securities markets
IASB and the International Federation of
Accountants (IFAC)
Professional organizations involved in
harmonization
Adoption of International Financial Reporting
Standards (IFRS)
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SO WHAT?
Accounting is a socially constructed reality
Accounting is influenced by culture,
economic, politics, social forces and interest
Accounting is not universal practice
applicable anywhere
Accounting should be developed based on
unique characteristics of environment in
which accounting take place
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