Introduction to Biology and Laboratory Rules

We will learn about the fields and careers in biology,the safety and rules in laboratory,communicating in biology and scientific investigation in biology.

1.1 Biological Field and Career

Meaning of Biology
‘Bios’ is life & ‘logos’ is study.
Biology is the study living organisms, their life processes and interaction with the environment.

Examples of biological research areas:

Fields Explainations
Study about plant life
Botany

Study of the function and mechanims in organisms.

Physiology

Study of inheritance and genetic variation.

Genetics

Study of microorganisms.
Microbiology

Study of interactions between organisms and their environment.

Ecology

The contribution of biology in everyday life:

Medical: In vitro fertillisation,family planning,plastic surgery and gene therapy.

Pharmaceutical: Production of synthetic vitamins,vaccines,insulin abd synthetic enzymes.
Food production: Use of microorganims in the production of cheese,soy sauce,tapai and tempe.
Agriculture: Transgenic crops and animals,hydroponic and aeroponic technology.

Careers related to biology:

Agriculture officer
forest manager
Ecologist
Bio-technologist
Marine biologist
Pharmacist
Nurses
Doctors
Optician
Dentist
Dietitian
Physiotherapist
Biochemist
Veterinarian
Environmental officers
Bioinformatic engineer

1.2 Safety and Rules in Biological Laboratory

Self-protection equipment:

Self-protection equipment Descriptions and functions

Made from latex/rubber/plastics.
Gloves Protects the hands from heat and dangerous chemical substances; strong acid and strong alkali.

Lab coat: aids to protect the skin and clothes from chemicals spillage.
Lab coat and lab shoes Lab shoes: protects the legs from chemical spillage and broken glass.

Protects the face and eyes from chemicals splash and protects from inhaling chemicals that can interrupt the respiratory system.
Goggle and face mask

Washing both hands before leaving the lab is a must.

Handwash

Contains salt solution used to wash the eyes if chemical substances/foreign particles get into the eyes.
Eye washer

Station for work that involved with fumes or toxic gas; chlorine, bromine and nitrogen dioxide.
Fume hood

Emergency shower station Station used to wash the hand and body when someone exposed to dangerous chemicals.

Laminar flow cabinet Station for work involved with plant tissue culture, medium preparation that provides a sterile environment to the workplace.

Station for work involved with bacteria, fungi and virus cultures helps to prevent the cultures from contaminating the environment.
Biosafety cabinet

Substances that cannot thrown in the sink:

 1. Chemical substances, glass, metals, plastics, woods or any solid substances.
2. Grease, oil and oil paint.
3. Toxic substances; benzene, chloroform, hydrogen cyanide, argentum.
4. Heavy metals; mercury, lead, cadmium.
5. Radioactive wastes.
6. Reactive substances that are unstable; sodium metal, ether, hydrogen peroxide.

Substances that can be thrown in the sink:

1. Any liquid/solution that has low concentration, not dangerous and biodegradable.

Methods of handling biological wastes:

Waste category Example Methods of handling

Sharp waste Syringe with needle, needle, glass and scalple Throw it in the sharp-bin waste
Non-sharp waste Gloves, tissue paper, Petri dish, agar, culture waste Throw it in the biohazard bag, sterilize it and throw it in the biohazard bin
Animal carcass Organs, animal tissue waste, carcass Wrap it with tissue paper, put it in the biohazard bag and freeze it
Liquid Broth culture, liquid media, blood and blood product Decontaminate the waste through autoclave before throw it in the biohazard bin

Accidents in the laboratory:

Steps to handle general chemical spills

1. Inform your teacher
2. Declare the spill area as a restricted zone.
3. Prevent the chemical spill from spreading using sand.
4. Scoop up the chemical spill from using appropriate equipment.
5. Dispose it safely.

Steps to handle mercury spills

1. Inform your teacher
2. Declare the spill area as a restricted zone.
3. Sprinkle sulphur to cover the mercury spills
4. Call the fire and rescue department.

Practices in a biological laboratory:

Practices Explainations
Use a lab coat,gloves,safety shoes and goggles when appropriate.
Clothing ethics

Do not work alone in the laboratory without supervision.

Wash your hand after conducting an experiment.
Do not bring in irrelevant items into the laboratory.
Clean your workstation using disinfectant.
Laboratory safety rules
Dispose wastes according to the set procedures.
Do not eat and drink in the laboratory.
Identify all safety symbols on substances and equipment before use.

Stop work immediately and switch off all nearby power sources.
Unplug appliances
Exit the laboratory according to the emergency exit plan.
Call the fire and rescue department.
Safety measures for fires
Do not panic and stay calm.
Do not turn back to collect your belongings.
Assemble at the assembly point.

Be cautions when handling hot glassware.

Report any damaged equipment or glassware to teachers immediately.
Handling glass and chemicals Keep flammable chemicals away from fire sources.
Do not touch,taste and smell chemicals directly.

Use appropriate gloves when handling biological specimens.

Speciements that are not harmful and have been dissected should be buried or frozen.
Handling live specimens Wash hands with antiseptic detergents before and after experiment.
All surafaces and workstations should be cleaned with disinfectant before leaving the lab.

Inform your teacher

Call the fire and rescue emergency number.
Emergency help Remove the victim from the scene.
Give emergency treatment.
Make the place of accident as a restricted area.

1.3 Communication in Biology

Data presentation:

Types of data

Table
Graph: line, bar and histogram
Diagram
 1.4 Scientific Investigation in Biology

Scientific method - Is a series of step to finding an answer to explain a certain phenomenon.

Identify the problem

↓
Forming hypothesis

↓
Planning an experiment

↓
Identify & control variable

↓
Conducting the experiment

↓
Collecting data

↓
Analyse & Interpreting data

↓
Drawing conclusion

↓
Writing a report

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Cell Biology and Organisation
We will learn about the cell structure and their cell function, living process in unicellular organisms and multicellular organisms and the levels of organisation in
multicellular organisms.

2.1 Cell Structure and Cell Function

Cell organelles Functions

Plasma membrane Regulates the movement of substances across the cell

Separates the contents of the cell from the external environment

Cell wall Maintains the shape of plant cells

Protects the plant cells from burst

Provides strength and support to the plant cell

Cytoplasm Acts as a medium for biochemical reactions of most living processes in the cell

Nucleus Carries genetic information in the form of DNA

Vacuole Stores nutrients, wastes and metabolic by-product

Ribosome Synthesises proteins

Mitochondrion Synthesises ATP

Site of cellular respiration

Rough endoplasmic reticulum Transports proteins made by the ribosomes throughout the cell

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Synthesises lipids and carries detoxification of drugs

Golgi apparatus Modifies, transports, sort and package the proteins and carbohydrates

Lysosome Digests old and worn organelles

Breakdown complex organic molecules

Centriole Form spindle fibres during cell division

Chloroplast Site of photosynthesis

Similarities between plant cell and animal cell:

Both cells contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes.

Differences between plant cell and animal cell:

Plant Cells Animal Cells

Has a fixed shape Does not have a fixed shape

Has a cell wall Does not have a cell wall

Has chloroplasts Does not have a chloroplasts

Has a large vacuole No vacuole

Stores carbohydrates in the form of starch Stores carbohydrates in the form of glycogen

Does not have a centriole Has centrioles

2.2 Living Processes in Unicellular Organisms

Unicellular organisms are made up of only one cell.

For example: Ameoba sp. and Paramecium sp.

Differences of living process between Ameoba sp. and Paramecium sp.:

Amoeba sp.

Habitat: Freshwater and damp soil

Structural characteristics:

Can change shape

Has one nucleus
Has contractile vacuole and food vacuole

Respiration: Simple diffusion

Feeding: Phagocytosis

Movement: Extend its pseudopodium

Reproduction:

Binary fission (favourable condition)

Spore formation (unfavourable condition)

Excretion: Osmoregulation through contractile vacuole

Paramecium sp.

Habitat: Freshwater

Structural characteristics:

Slipper-shape
Has cilia
Has two nuclei; macronucleus and micronucleus
Has contractile vacuole and food vacuole

Respiration: Simple diffusion

Feeding: Oral groove

Movement: Beats the cilia

Reproduction:

Binary fission (favourable condition)

Conjugation (unfavourable condition)

Excretion: Osmoregulation through contractile vacuole

Ameoba sp. :
Source:[Biology Text Book KSSM Form 4]

Paramecium sp. :
Source:[Biology Text Book KSSM Form 4]

2.3 Living Processes of Multicellular Organisms

Specialised cells in animals and humans:

Epithelium cell

Structural adaptation: Thin cells; arranged closely

Function:

Provide protection
Aid in gaseous exchange
Helps in nutrients absorption, secretes mucus

Muscles cell

Structural adaptation:

Contains many fibres; aid in movement

Have many mitochondria; provide energy for muscle contraction

Function: Contracts to produce movement

Nerves cell

Structural adaptation:

Have long dendrites and axon

Axons covered with myelin sheath; faster transmission

Function: Transmits nerve impulse from one part to another part of the body

Red blood cell

Structural adaption:

Contains haemoglobin; transport oxygen

Elastic and flexible; allow the blood to squeeze through thin blood capillaries
Has a biconcave disc shape; increases the ratio of surface area per volume; increase the diffusion of respiratory gases

Function: Transports respiratory gases

White blood cell

Structural adaption: Can change shape; easily squeeze through the tiny blood vessels to the interstitial space to hunt the pathogens

Function: Protects the body from pathogens

Sperm cell

Structural adaption:

Has a long tail; helps the sperm to move

Contains mitochondrion; provide energy for the sperm to swim
Contains enzymes; helps the sperm to penetrate the ovum

Function: Fertilises the ovum

Specialised cells in plants:

Spongy palisade mesophyll cell

Structural adaptation: Packed loosely; efficient gaseous exchange

Function: Facilitate gas permeation

Xylem

Structural adaptation:

Consists of porous long tubes; to transport substances efficiently

Strengthen by lignin; to prevent the xylem from collapse

Function: Transport water and mineral salts from the roots to a whole plant

Sieve tubes

Structural adaptation:

Matured sieve tubes have no nucleus; provide more space for transportation
Have sieve plates
No lignin

Function: Transport organic substances; sucrose, amino acids and hormones from the shoots to other parts of the plant

Root hair cell

Structural adaptation:

Have many mitochondria; provide energy to absorb more mineral salts through active transport
The root hairs increase the surface area; maximising the absorption

Function: Absorb water and dissolved mineral salts in the ground

Guard cell

Structural adaptation:

Have chloroplasts; produce glucose

Have a large vacuole; control the osmotic pressure of the cell; aid in controlling the opening and closing of the stoma

Function: Control the opening and closing of the stoma

Cell Organisation in animals:

Types Characteristics and functions

Epithelium Consists of one or more layers of cells

Some epithelium tissues form glands (exocrine and endocrine glands)

Epithelial tissues carry out functions associated with protection, secretion and absorption

Muscles Musculoskeletal: involves involuntary movements; contracts and relaxes to move the bones

Smooth: contracts and relaxes that allows involuntary movements; peristalsis in intestines

Cardiac: found in the heart walls; contracts and relaxes that allows pumping the blood

Nerve Consists of neurons or nerve cells

Functions to transmit nerve impulses, control and coordinates the activities in the body

Connective Consists of several types of cells and fibres that are distributed across the body that has many functions

Connective Tissue:

Types Characteristics and functions

Loose connective tissues Places between the organs

Functions to anchor the epithelium tissues to other tissues and places the organs in one place

Fibrous connective tissues Consists of fibrous collagens that are arranged close to one another

Found in tendon and ligament

Cartilage Strong and flexible

Supports the nose, ears and covers the end of the bones, which functions to absorb pressure and shock

Bone Consists of cells in one matrix of mineral salts and fibrous collagen

Collagen matrix is hardened by the deposition of minerals such as calcium phosphate

Functions to protect the organs and provides support to the body

Blood tissues Consists of blood cells; red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets

Blood functions to protect, transport and regulate

Adipose tissues Functions to store fats, protects the organs and insulates heat

Found in the skin dermis and at the surroundings of the organs

Tissue organisation in plants:

Meristematic tissue

A group of undifferentiated cells; active in cell division

Two types; apical and lateral meristems

Function:

Apical meristem: primary growth; vertical growth

Lateral meristem: secondary growth; horizontal growth

Parenchyma tissue

Thin-walled cells; loosely arranged with spaces between them

Function:

Provides support and shapes

Stores food
Conducts photosynthesis

Collenchyma tissue

Elongated, polygonal cells with unevenly thickened cell walls

The cell walls are thickened by cellulose and pectin

Function:

Provides support to:

Herbaceous plants
Young stems
Leaf stalks
Petioles

Sclerenchyma tissue

The cells are rigid

Have cell walls; thickened by lignin
Most of the cells are dead at maturity
Function: Provide support and protection to the plant

Epidermis

The outermost layer that covers the whole plants

The wall of epidermal cells is normally covered by cuticle

Function:

The cuticle on the epidermal tissue helps to:

Prevent water loss

Protects the plants from mechanical injury
Prevent the invasion by disease-causing microorganisms

In roots, some of the epidermal cells have long projections called root hairs; increase the surface area for absorption of water and minerals

In leaves, the lower epidermis contains specialised cells, called guard cells; controls the opening and closing of stomata

Xylem

Consists of tracheids and xylem vessels; long tubes joined together end to end
The cell walls of the xylem are thickened with lignin; provide support to plants
Xylem tissues die upon reaching maturity; form hollow tubes

Function:

Xylem carries water and minerals from the roots to the leaves
Xylem provides support and mechanical strength to the plant

Phloem

Phloem tissue consists of parenchyma cells, sclereids, sieve tubes and companion cells
The sieve tubes have pores at both ends; called sieve plates
Sieve tubes obtain nutrients and energy from the adjacent companion cells

Function: Phloem transports carbohydrates, amino acids, hormones from the leaves to storage organs and to the growing parts of plants

The density of certain cell components and specialised cell functions:

Mitochondria

Muscle cell; Provide energy for muscle contraction

Sperm cell; Provide energy for the tail of sperm during swimming to fertilise the ovum
Meristem cell; Provide energy for cell division and cell growth
Kidney cell; Provide energy for active transport to transport substances across the plasma membrane

Chloroplast

Palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll; To conduct photosynthesis

Rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus

Goblet cell and pancreatic cell; Produces mucus, synthesises and secretes digestive enzymes

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus

Liver cell; Conduct carbohydrate metabolism and detoxification drugs and poisons

2.4 Levels of Organisation

Cell ​ → Tissue ​ → Organ ​ → System ​ → Organism ​

Main organ systems in the human body:

 Systems Functions and Organ involved
Endocrine system The endocrine gland secretes hormones

Main function:

Coordinates body activities with the nervous system

Respiratory system Trachea, nose, lungs and diaphragm

Main function:

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases between the body and the external environment

Muscular system Skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscles

Main function:

Contracts and relaxes to produce movements in different parts of the body

Male reproductive system Testes, prostate gland and penis

Main function:

Produces sperm and male sex hormones

Female reproductive system Ovary, uterus, Fallopian tube, vagina and cervix

Main function:

Produces ovum and female sex hormones

Lymphatic system Spleen, lymph nodes and lymph vessels.

Main function:

Maintains balance of bodily fluids and prevents infectious diseases

Nervous system Brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves

Main function:

Detects and send information in the body, as well as coordinates body activities

Blood circulatory system Heart, artery, vein and blood capillary

Main function:

Transports nutrients, respiratory gases and waste products

Digestive system Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small intestine and large intestine

Main function:

Digests food into a simpler form for easy absorption

Urinary system Kidney, ureter, urethra and bladder

Main function:

Eliminates waste products such as urea and uric acid from the body

Skeletal system Bone, cartilage, ligament and tendon

Main function:

Supports the body, protects the internal organs and provides a base for muscle adhesion

Integumentary system Skin

Main function:

Protects the body from physical injury, infection and dehydration

Main systems in plants:

The plant system is divided into the shoot system and root system.

The shoot system consists of stems, leaves, shoots, flowers and fruits.
Stems and twigs are support systems that support the leaves at the vertical position to allow maximum absorption of sunlight during photosynthesis
Flowers are involved in the pollination process
The root system consists of all roots in a plant that function in absorbing water and mineral salts as well as providing support for plants

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Movement of Substances Across a Plasma Membrane

3.1 Structure of Plasma Membrane

We will learn about the structure of plasma membrane,the movement across the plasma membrane,passive and active transport in plasma membrane.

The necessity of movement of substances across a plasma membrane:

Allow some substances to move into and out of the cells to maintain the living processes.
Regulates the movement of substances across the plasma membrane

The structure of plasma membrane:

Source:[Biologi Text Book KSSM Form 4]

Types of molecules Description

Strengthened the plasma membrane
Cholesterol Makes the plasma membrane to be more flexible but less permeable to water-soluble molecules

Transport large molecules such as glucose, amino acids, and vitamin C across the plasma membrane
Carrier protein

Allow small and water-soluble molecules such as ions to pass across the plasma membrane through passive transport
Pore protein

Glycolipid A combination of lipids and polysaccharides helps the cell-cell recognition

A combination of proteins and polysaccharides helps the cell-cell recognition

Glycoprotein

The permeability of plasma membrane:

The plasma membrane is semi-permeable because it only allows certain molecules or ions to pass through it by simple diffusion

3.2 Concept of Movement of Substances Across a Plasma Membrane

The characteristics of substances that are able to move across a plasma membrane:

There are three common factors that determine whether a molecule can pass through a plasma membrane, which are molecule size, polar molecule, and ionic
charge.

Characteristics of substances across the plasma membrane

Lipid insoluble substances
Lipid-soluble substances Small molecules and ions Large molecules

Non-polar molecules: Polar molecules; water Glucose and amino acids

Vitamin A, D, E, K Non-polar molecules; oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ion: K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+
Steroid compounds
Fatty acids and glycerol

Passive transport:

This process does not require energy

Examples of passive transport are simple diffusion,osmosis and facilitated diffusion.

Simple diffusion:

A process where the substances pass through the plasma membrane follows the concentration gradient.
The substances move from a high concentration region to a low concentration region.
The moving molecules are said to move down the concentration gradient until a dynamic equilibrium is achieved.
This may occur with or without the presence of a plasma membrane.
Lipid soluble molecules (fatty acids and glycerol), oxygen, and carbon dioxide diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer through simple diffusion.

Osmosis:

Osmosis is a passive transport process that is similar to diffusion but it involves only water molecules.
Osmosis refers to the net movement of water molecules from a higher water potential to a low water potential.
Osmosis occurs through the phospholipid bilayer.

Facilitated diffusion:

Lipid-insoluble molecules such as ions, large molecules such as amino acids, and glucose are unable to pass through the phospholipid bilayer.
These substances move across the membrane with the aid of transport proteins (carrier or pore proteins).
Facilitated diffusion does not require energy because the transport proteins transport molecules down a concentration gradient.
The process continues until a dynamic equilibrium is achieved when the concentration of molecules is the same at both sides of membranes.

Active transport:

The movement of a molecule or ion substances across a plasma membrane occurs against a concentration gradient.
It requires energy from ATP (adenosine triphosphate) molecules generated during cellular respiration.
It requires specific carrier proteins with specific active sites to bind with certain molecules or ions.
Carrier proteins also possess receptors to bind with ATP molecules.
Carrier proteins change shape when a phosphate group attaches to it.
As a result, molecules or ions move across a membrane.

The simillarities between passive and active transport:

Occurs through a selectively permeable membrane

Moving substance across a membrane

The differences between passive and active transport:

Passive Transport Active Transport

Energy does not required Requires energy

Occurs following the concentration of the gradient. Occurs againts the concentration of the gradient.

Occurs untill a dynamic equillibrium is achieved. There are accumulation and disposal of molecule or ions.

3.2 Movement of Substances Across a Plasma Membrane

Active and passive transport in living organisms:

Passive transport Active transport

gaseous exchange between an alveolus and a blood capillary through simple diffusion. absorption of glucose and amino acids in the villus.
reabsorption of water occurs by osmosis through the renal tubule in the kidney. reabsorption of glucose through the renal tubule in the kidney.
absorption of water by a plant root hair cell by osmosis. transport of sucrose from a leaf to a phloem tissue.
absorption of fructose molecule in the villus by facilitated diffusion. absorption of mineral ions by a plant root hair cell.

Hypertonic,hypotonic and isotonic solutions:

 Solution Description
Hypertonic A solution that has high concentration of solute
Hypotonic A solution that has low concentration of solute
Isotonic A solution that has the same concentration of solute with the water potential

The effects of hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic solutions on animal cells and plant cells:

Animal cell Condition Plant cell

Hypotonic
Hemolysis Turgid
A solution that has low concentration of solute than water in a cell; causing the water to diffuse in

Hypertonic
Crenation Plasmolysis and flaccid
A solution that has high concentration of solute than water in a cell; causing the water to diffuse out

Isotonic
Maintain its shape Maintain its shape
A solution that has the same concentration of solute with the water potential in a cell; not net movement of substance

3.3 Movement of Substances Across a Plasma Membrane and Its Application in Daily Life

Phenomena of plant wilting:

Excessive use of fertilisers may cause wilting in plants.

Dissolved fertilisers will cause soil water to be hypertonic to the sap cell of roots.
Consequently, water will diffuse by osmosis from the roots’ cell sap to the soil, and cells will become plasmolysed.
Cells in plants will recover once they are watered.
However, if the period of plasmolysis is prolonged, wilted plants will eventually die.

Application in daily life:

Rehydration drinks such as oral rehydration salts help to recover loss of water and electrolytes in individuals with diarrhea.

Isotonic drinks help athletes to recover loss of water and electrolytes such as potassium and sodium through perspiration.

Saline solutions, normally used in medicine, are isotonic solution to the blood plasma. It contains 0.85–0.90 g sodium chloride per 100 ml.

Liposomes are vesicles that contain aqueous solution surrounded by a phospholipid bilayer membrane. Liposomes are used to protect drugs or active substances
taken orally from being destroyed by gastric juices. This way, drugs can reach the target cells.

Reverse osmosis is a technology commonly used to extract fresh water from seawater using the desalination process. In reverse osmosis equipment, pressure is
applied to push the seawater through a semi-permeable membrane. The membrane allows water molecules to pass through it but not foreign particles, salt, and
microorganisms. As a result, only pure fresh water is released.

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Chemical Composition in a Cell
We will learn about the chemical composition which are water, carbohydrates, protein, lipids, and nucleic acid.

1. Cells are composed of elements.

2. Most common elements found in the cell are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
3. The elements made important compounds in the cell; carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and water.

4.1 Water

1. Consists of elements such as hydrogen and oxygen.

2. Polar molecule.

Properties of water and its importance in a cell:

Properties Descriptions and its importance

Inorganic compound consisting of the hydrogen(H) and oxygen(O) elements.
Polarity of water Polar molecules: shared electrons between oxygen (more electronegative).
Produces hydrogen bonds and allows water to act as a universal solvent.

Water molecules are attached to each other through a cohesive force.

Cohesive force and adhesive force of water Water molecules attached to other surfaces through adhesive force.
Both forces produce a the capillary action which allows water to enter and move along narrow spaces.Ex: xylem tube.

Water has a high specific heat capacity of 4.2 kJ kg-1 °C-1 .

4.2 kJ of heat energy is required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by 1°C.
Specific heat capacity Water absorbs a lot of heat energy with a small rise of temperature.
Maintain body temperature of organisms.

4.2 Carbohydrates

1. Consists of elements such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

2. Several types of carbohydrates such as monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides

The monomer of carbohydrates.

Example: glucose, fructose and galactose.

Disaccharides

Consists of two monosaccharides linked together through condensation.

Disaccharide molecule can be broken down into monosaccharide through hydrolysis.

Disaccharide Monomer
Maltose Glucose + glucose
Sucrose Glucose + fructose
Lactose Glucose + galactose

Polysaccharides

The polymer of carbohydrates.

Linked through condensation reactions of monomers to form a long chain of molecules.
Example: starch, glycogen and cellulose.

4.3 Proteins

1. Consists of elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

2. Some contain phosphorus.
3. The monomer of proteins is an amino acid.
4. Two molecules of amino acids are linked through condensation, by forming a peptide bond, which known as a dipeptide.
5. The polymer of proteins is a polypeptide.
6. The polypeptide can be broken down into amino acids through hydrolysis.
7. Have several levels; primary (linear), secondary (pleated, helix), tertiary (3D-shaped) and quarternary (having two or more tertiary structures).

4.4 Lipids
 1. Consists of elements: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
2. The ratio of element hydrogen is much higher compared to carbohydrates.

Fats and oils

Triglycerides (3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol).

Each molecule of the fatty acid consists of a long hydrocarbon chain.
Fatty acids can be either saturated (single bond carbon atoms) or unsaturated (one or more double bond between carbon atoms).
Example of saturated fats: red meat, animal fats and butter.
Example of unsaturated fats: vegetable oils, olive oil and soybean oil.

Waxes

Long-chained molecules.
Waterproof.
Found on the cuticle of leaves and in the sebum.

Phospholipids

Main components of the plasma membrane.

Controls the permeability of the plasma membrane.
Consists of a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails.

Steroids

Raw material to synthesis vitamin, cholesterol and sex hormones.

4.5 Nucleic Acids

1. Found in DNA and RNA.

2. A genetic material.
3. Basic unit: nucleotide.
4. Each nucleotide consists of a phosphate group, a pentose sugar and a nitrogenous base.
5. Nitrogenous base in DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
6. Nitrogenous base in RNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil.

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Metabolism and Enzymes
We will learn about metabolism, enzymes, and the application of enzymes in daily life.

5.1 Metabolism

Metablolism refers to all chemical reactions that occur in a living organism.

There are two types of metabolism in a cell which are catabolism and anabolism.

Catabolism Anabolism
The process of breaking down complex substances into simple substances. The process of synthesising complex molecules from simple molecules.
Releases energy. Uses or absorbs energy.
Example: The breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration to generate energy. Example: The formation of glucose during photosynthesis.

5.2 Enzymes

An enzyme is an organic catalyst that is mostly made up of proteins and is produced by living cell organisms.
Substances needed for an enzyme reaction are called substrates.
Substrates will bind with enzymes at a specific site (active site) and form an enzyme-substrate complex.

Enzyme nomenclature:

Name of enzyme is derived by adding '-ase' to the name of the substrate it catalyses.
Example: lactase, protease, and amylase.
A few enzymes that do not follow this naming system.
Example: trypsin, pepsin and renin

General characteristics of enzymes:

Enzymes are needed in small amount.

Enzymes are not breaking down at the end of the reaction.
Action of enzymes are specific due to presence of active sites.
Most of chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes are reversible.
Enzymes are sensitive to temperature and pH.
Some enzymes require cofactors in their activities.
Enzymes activities can be slowed or stopped by inhibitors such as lead.

Intracellular and extracellular enzymes:

Intracellular enzymes Extracellular enzymes

Enzymes are synthesized in a cell for their own use. Enzymes that are secreted outside the cell.
Example: The hexokinase enzyme is used in the glycolysis process Example: The trypsin enzyme is produced by the pancreatic cells and secreted into the
during cellular respiration. duodenum to break down polypeptides.

Extracellular action:

In the nucleus, the information for the synthesis of enzymes is carried by the DNA in a form of codes.
mRNA is formed to translate the codes into a sequence.
mRNA leaves the nucleus and binds with ribosome for the synthesis of protein to occur.
The synthesized protein is transported enters the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
The protein is processed and packaged into a transport vesicle which buds off from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to transports the protein to the Golgi
apparatus
In Golgi apparatus, the protein is modified to form an enzyme and is packaged in a secretory vesicle which transports the enzymes to the plasma membrane.
The secretory vesicle will fuse with the plasma membrane to release the enzymes out of the cell.

Mechanism of enzyme action:

The enzyme represented by a 'lock'

The substrate represented by a 'key'
Most reactions inside the cell require high activation energy.
Activation energy is the energy needed to break the bond in the substrate molecule before reaction can occur.
Enzyme function by lowering the activation energy.

Factors affecting the activity of enzymes:

 Factor affecting the activity of enzymes
Temperature

Enzyme concentration (limiting factor: substrate concentration)

Substrate concentration (limiting factor: enzyme concentration)

pH

Temperature:

At low temperature, the rate of enzymatic reaction is low.

The rate of enzyme reaction increases as the temperature increases.
This is because of the activation energy of the substrate molecules increases.
Therefore, more collision between the enzymes substrate molecule increases the formation of an enzyme-substrate complex.
The reaction is the maximum at the optimum temperature.
After the optimum temperature, the rate of reaction decreases because the enzyme is denatured in which the bonds that form the structure of the enzyme are
changed.
This causes the active site to lose its shape.
Therefore, the enzyme-substrate complex can no longer be formed.

pH:

Optimum pH is the pH at which the rate of reaction is at the maximum.

Small changes in the pH value of a medium will cause the enzyme to be denatured.
The shape of the active site will change.
Therefore, the enzyme-substrate complex cannot be formed again.
Different enzymes have different optimum pH:
The optimum pH of pepsin is pH 2
The optimum pH of amylase is pH 7
The optimum pH of trypsin is ph 8.5

Substrate concentration:

The higher the concentration of substrate, the higher the rate of reaction as more substrate molecules bind to the active site of the enzymes to form the enzyme-
substrate complex.
The rate of reaction becomes low when it reaches the maximum point because all of the active sites have been filled up.
At this point, the enzyme concentration is the limiting factor.

Enzyme concentration:

The higher the concentration of enzymes, the higher the rate of reaction as more active sites for substrate molecules to bind to and form the enzyme-substrate
complex.
The rate of reaction becomes low when it reaches the maximum point because all substrate molecules have bound to the active sites.
At this point, the substrate concentration is the limiting factor.

5.3 Applications of Enzymes in Daily Life

Immobilized enzymes are enzymes that combine with inert and insoluble substances to increase the resistance of enzymes towards change in factors such as pH
and temperature.
The enzyme molecules will remain in the same position throughout the catalytic reaction and then be separated easily from its product.

Enzyme immobilization technology is used in various industrial application:

Digestive enzymes are used in the medical sector.

Amylase, lipase, protease, and cellulase in bio detergent.
Trypsin enzyme extracts fur from an animal hide to make leather products.
Lactase enzymes are used in lactose-free milk.

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Cell Division
We will learn about cell division, cell cycle and mitosis and meiosis.

6.1 Cell Division

Karyokinesis involves the division of the nucleus.

Cytokinesis involves the division of the cytoplasm.

Organism cell consists of somatic and gamete cell:

Somatic cell

Body cells apart from gametes

Somatic cells are produced through the mitosis process
It contains a diploid number of chromosomes, that is, each cell contains two sets of chromosomes or 2n. In human somatic cells, 2n=46
In diploid cells, one set of chromosomes originate from the male parent (paternal chromosomes), another set is from the female parent (maternal chromosomes)

Gamete cell

Gametes are reproductive cells

Gametes are produced through the meiosis process
It contains a haploid number of chromosomes, that is, each cell contains one set of chromosomes or n.In human gametes, n=23

6.2 Cell Cycle and Mitosis

1. The division of the nucleus, followed by cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) that produces two genetically identical daughter nuclei.
2. Controlled by the cell cycle; interphase (G1, S, and G2 phase) and M phase.
3. After mitosis is completed, cytokinesis occurs to form two identical daughter cells.
4. Cytokinesis occurs in animal and plant cells.
5. Animal cells form a cleavage furrow to form two separated individual cells.
6. Plant cells form a cell plate to produce two separate cells.

The Cell Cycle and M phase:

Interphase

G1 phase

Synthesized proteins and new organelles

The metabolic rate of the cell is high
Chromosomes are thin, known as chromatin

S phase

Synthesized DNA
Form two identical sister chromatids through DNA replication

G2 phase

The cell continues to grow

Enzymes for cell division are synthesised
The cell accumulates energy

M phase

Prophase

Chromosomes become condense and visible under the microscope

Two sister chromatids joined at the centromere
Centrioles move to the opposite poles
Spindle fibres are formed
Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear

Metaphase

Chromosomes aligned on the metaphase plate

Spindle fibres form completely

Anaphase

Spindle fibres pull the two sister chromatids at the centromere

Causing the two sister chromatids to separate
Telophase

Begins when both chromosomes reached completely at the poles

Chromosomes uncoiled and became chromatin again
Spindle fibres disappear, and the nuclear membrane begins to form
Now the M phase is complete

The necessity of mitosis:

For embryo development and organism growth, mitosis ensures that rapid cell growth occurs.
When the body is injured, mitosis will produce new cells to replace cells that are dead or damaged.
Stem cell therapy uses stem cells from bone marrow to treat damaged cartilage.
Through the mitosis process, the lizard is able to grow a new tail (regeneration) if the tail breaks.

Effects of Uncontrolled Mitosis:

1. Can produce cancer cells.

2. Cancer cells are abnormal cells that compete for nutrients and energy with the normal cells for growth, which cause the normal cells to malfunction and die.

6.3 Meiosis

1. A process of nuclear division that reduces the number of chromosomes into half.
2. Produces haploid gametes.
3. Provides genetic variation from one generation to another through the process of crossing-over, independent assortment and random fertilisation.
4. Occurs in the gonads; testes and ova (humans); anther and ovary (flowering plants).
5. Consists of two separate nuclear divisions; meiosis I and meiosis II.
6. The cell undergoes interphase before entering meiosis.

Meiosis I:

Phase Key event

Chromosomes condensed and thickened.
Homologous chromosomes paired up to form bivalents through synapsis.
Non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange the DNA segments through crossing-over.
Prophase I It leads to genetic recombination.
Centrioles migrate to opposite poles and form spindle fibres.
Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.

Spindle fibres pull the homologous chromosomes to the middle cell and aligned at the metaphase plate side by side.
Metaphase I The homologous chromosomes are arranged independently.

Spindle fibres pull the homologous chromosomes to the opposite poles.

Anaphase I Each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids.

The chromosomes arrived at both poles.

Each pole now has a haploid daughter nucleus because it contains one set of chromosome.
Telophase I and cytokinesis Spindle fibres disappear, nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear.
Produce two haploid daughter cells.
Each daughter cell receives one chromosome from the homologous pair.

Meiosis II:

1. The process is similar to mitosis.

2. Produce four haploid cells which are genetically different from one another and parent cell.

Effects of Uncontrolled Meiosis:

1. Abnormal meiosis leads to non-disjunction of chromosomes.

2. Non-disjunction chromosomes lead to Turner's syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, XYY males and XXX females.

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Cellular Respiration
We will learn about the production of energy through cellular respiration, aerobic respiration and fermentation.

7.1 Production of Energy through Cell Respiration

The catabolism process releases energy.

The anabolism process uses energy

Aerobic respiration
Require oxygen to oxidize respiration substrate such as glucose completely to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.

Example: plants, fungi, Protista, animals, and some bacteria.

Anaerobic respiration

Break down respiration substrate completely such as glucose by using non-organic substances such as nitrate or sulfate, non-oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water,
and energy.

Example: denitrifying bacteria and bacteria Clostridium tetani

Fermentation

Break down respiration substrate such as glucose partially without using oxygen.

Example: plants, yeast, certain bacteria, and musculoskeletal vertebrates.

7.2 Aerobic Respiration

Aerobic respiration process:

1. Glucose is breaking down into pyruvic acid in the cytoplasm by the glycolysis process
2. In glycolysis, only two pyruvate molecules are produced
3. Pyruvic acid produced is transported into the mitochondrion
4. In the mitochondrion, pyruvic acid will be broken down and oxidized into carbon dioxide and water
5. About 34-36 ATP molecules are produced in mitochondrion

7.3 Fermentation

1. Fermentation is an alternative pathway of cellular respiration in breaking down glucose without the presence of oxygen
2. The breaking down of glucose through fermentation is incomplete and only taken place in the cytoplasm
3. Fermentation can occur in human muscle cells, yeasts, plants, and certain bacteria such as Lactobacillus
4. Fermentation can be divided into two: lactic acid and alcohol fermentation

Lactic acid fermentation

Glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid through glycolysis and then broken down into lactic acid
There are only two ATP molecules formed during glycolysis
Example:
Lactobacillus such as yogurt
Human muscle cells

Alcohol fermentation

Glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid through glycolysis and then broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide
There are only two ATP molecules formed during glycolysis
Yeast
Plant such as paddy plant

Comparison between aerobic respiration and fermentation:

Similarities between aerobic respiration and fermentation

The breakdown process of glucose and its conversion to chemical energy.
Produces chemical energy in the form of ATP.
The process begins in the cytoplasm.
The process begins with glycolysis where glucose is converted to pyruvate.
Occurs in yeast, bacteria, animals, and plants.

Differences between aerobic respiration and fermentation

 Aerobic respiration Fermentation
The breakdown process of glucose is completed in the presence of
The breakdown process of glucose is incomplete without oxygen or in limited oxygen conditions.
oxygen.

Occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondrion. Occurs in the cytoplasm.

Produces water Does not produce water

Glucose is oxidized completely into carbon dioxide and water Glucose is not oxidized completely into ethanol and carbon dioxide or lactic acid.

One molecule of glucose generates 210 kJ (alcohol fermentation) or 150 kJ (lactic acid fermentation)
One molecule of glucose generates 2898 kJ of energy.
of energy.

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Respiratory System in Humans and Animals
We will learn about the types of respiratory systems, the mechanisms of breathing, the gaseous exchange and the health issues related to the human respiratory system.

8.1 Types of Respiratory System

The respiratory structure is the respiratory surface that enables gaseous exchange to occur between respiring organisms cells and their outer environment.

Adaptions of respiratory structures for efficient exchange of gases in big organisms

Large ratio total surface area to volume (TSA/V) for the efficient exchange of respiratory gases.
A thin respiratory structure that is one cell thick, allows the diffusion of respiratory gases to occur.
The surface of the respiratory structure is always moist for respiratory gases to dissolve in them.
The respiratory structure is complete with a network of blood capillaries (except for insects), that allows for the efficient delivery of respiratory gases.

8.2 Respiratory Structure and Mechanisms of Breathing

Unicellular organism:

1. Simple organisms such as Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp., exchange the respiratory gases through simple diffusion across the plasma membrane.

Insects:
 Respiratory system

The tracheal system; spiracles, tracheae, tracheoles and air sacs (for some insects).

Structural adaptation

Tracheoles penetrate the body tissues, which to allow a direct exchange of gases.
Have many tracheoles; to increase the surface area for gases exchange.
The tips of tracheoles contain fluid; dissolving the gases.
Some insects have air sacs; speed up the movement of gases to and from tissues during vigorous movement of the body.

Source:[www.researchgate.net]

Breathing mechanism

As insects inhale, abdominal muscles relax and spiracles open.

It causes the air pressure inside the tracheae decreases, which draws the air into the tracheae through spiracles.
As the insects exhale, the abdominal muscles contract, causing the air pressure in the tracheae to increase, pushing the air out through the spiracles.

Fish:

Respiratory structure

Respiratory structure: gills

Gills are supported by the gill arch and protected by the operculum.
Each gill has thin filaments.
The filaments contain numerous lamellae.

Structural adaptation

A large surface area of filaments and lamellae increases the efficiency of gases exchange in fish.
The thin filaments are supplied with blood capillaries to transport respiratory gases efficiently.
Countercurrent flow: the water flows over the gills in one direction, while the blood flows in the opposite direction.

Countercurrent flow
 As the deoxygenated blood enters the blood capillaries, it encounters water with high oxygen content.
The high concentration gradient of oxygen in the water allows the oxygen to diffuse into the blood capillaries to be brought to the whole parts of the body.

Source:[msjoconner.weebly.com]

Breathing mechanism
 During inhalation:

The floor of buccal cavity lowers, opercular cavity enlarges, operculum closed; it lowers the pressure in the buccal cavity that allows water to draw into the
mouth.

During Exhalation:

The mouth is closed, the floor of buccal cavity rises; allows water to flow through the lamellae and gases exchange takes place.

Source:[respirationsystem.weebly.com]

Frogs:

Respiratory structure

Skin
Lungs

Structural adaptation

Skin: thin, permeable to gas and moist; enables a rapid and efficient gases exchange.
Lungs: moist, contain thin-walled sacs, and rich in blood capillaries for efficient transportation of gases.

Breathing mechanism
 During inhalation:

Air entering the buccopharyngeal cavity:

Nostrils open, the floor of buccopharyngeal lowers and glottis close.

It draws air into the buccopharyngeal cavity.

Air entering the lungs:

Glottis open, nostrils close and the floor of buccopharyngeal raise.

It increases the air pressure in the buccopharyngeal cavity that forces the air to enter the lungs.

During exhalation:

Air exits the lungs into the buccopharyngeal cavity:

Lungs muscle contract, glottis open and buccopharyngeal floor lowers; drive the air out from the lungs.

Air exits the buccopharyngeal cavity:

Glottis close, buccopharyngeal floor raise; air expelled out through the nostrils.

Humans:
 Respiratory structure

The alveoli of the lungs

Respiratory adaptation

Moist and thin-walled sacs of millions of alveoli, which surrounded by a rich network of blood capillaries.

Breathing mechanism

Inhalation
External intercostal muscle contract and internal intercostal muscle relax;
cause the rib cage to move upwards and outwards
Diaphragm muscles contract; it becomes flat
The volume of thoracic cavity increase and the pressure of the thoracic cavity
decrease
High air pressure from surrounding drives the air into the lungs
Exhalation
External intercostal muscle relax and internal intercostal muscle contract; cause
the rib cage to move downwards and inwards
Diaphragm muscles relax; it becomes dome-shaped
The volume of thoracic cavity decrease and the pressure of the thoracic cavity
increase
High air pressure from the thoracic cavity pushes the air out from the lungs

Source:[brainkart.com]

8.3 Gaseous Exchange in Humans

The exchange of gases between the alveoli and the blood capillaries:

Oxygen

Partial pressure in the alveoli: High

Partial pressure in the blood capillaries: Low

Effect: Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood capillaries

Carbon dioxide

Partial pressure in the alveoli: Low

Partial pressure in the blood capillaries: High

Effect: Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood capillaries into the alveoli

The exchange of gases between the blood capillaries and the body cells:
Oxygen

Partial pressure in the blood capillaries: High

Partial pressure in the body cells: Low

Effect: Oxygen diffuses from the blood capillaries into the body cells

Carbon dioxide

Partial pressure in the blood capillaries: Low

Partial pressure in the body cells: High

Effect: Carbon dioxide diffuses from the body cells into the blood capillaries

The transportation of gases in humans:

Transportation of carbon dioxide

1. Carbon dioxide is released by the respiring cells and can be transported in several ways:

7% of carbon dioxide is dissolved in the blood plasma.

23% of carbon dioxide is transported in the form of carbaminohaemoglobin.
70% of carbon dioxide is transported in the form of bicarbonate ions.

Transportation of oxygen

1. Oxygen binds to the hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin.

2. Oxyhemoglobin is transported to the whole parts of the body.

8.4 Health Issues Related to the Human Respiratory System

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) comprises asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema.
In emphysema, the alveolus wall is damaged, the total surface area of the alveolus decreases, and the gaseous exchange becomes less efficient.
In chronic bronchitis, the bronchiole becomes inflamed, swollen, and blocked.
This reduces the flow of air and causes difficulties in breathing.
For an asthmatic patient, the bronchiole walls become swollen and thick.
The opening of the bronchiole tube becomes smaller and the air passage becomes narrower.
This leads to difficulties in breathing and causes breathlessness.

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Nutrition and Digestive System
We will learn about the digestive system, digestion, absorption, assimilation, defaecation, balanced diet, and the health issues related to the digestive system and eating
habit

9.1 Digestive System

The human digestive system is made up of a long and muscular alimentary canal that starts from the mouth to the anus
The other organs in the digestive system are the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
Salivary, gastric, and intestinal glands secrete digestive juices into the alimentary canal

9.2 Digestion

Physical digestion: A process that involves mechanical action such as chewing action and peristalsis to break up large pieces of food into small pieces to increase
the surface area for the action of digestive enzymes.
Chemical digestion: The breaking down of complex molecules into simpler molecules to enable the molecules to be transported into body cells. The process involves
a hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by digestive enzymes.

Process of digestion of carbohydrate in the mouth

The presence of food in the mouth triggers the salivary glands; parotid gland, sublingual gland, and submandibular gland to secrete salivary amylase that digests starch
into maltose

Process of digestion of protein in the stomach

Mucous cell: Produces mucus to protect the stomach wall from being eroded due to the action of hydrochloric acid.
Parietal cell: Secretes hydrochloric acid to destroy bacteria and provides an acid medium for pepsin to function optimally.
Chief cell: Secretes pepsinogen which is later converted into pepsin in the presence of hydrochloric acid to digest protein into the polypeptide.

Process of digestion of carbohydrate, protein, and lipid in the small intestine

Liver: Produces bile which is stored in the gallbladder.

Gallbladder: Secretes bile which is channeled to the duodenum by a bile duct.
Duodenum:
Pancreatic amylase hydrolyzes starch into maltose
Lipase hydrolyzes lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
Trypsin hydrolyzes polypeptides into shorter peptides
Pancreas: Secretes pancreatic amylase, trypsin, and lipase which is channeled to the duodenum by a pancreatic duct.
Small intestine:
Maltase hydrolyzes maltose into glucose.
Lactase hydrolyzes lactose into glucose and galactose.
Sucrase hydrolyzes sucrose into glucose and fructose.
Erepsin hydrolyzes peptides into amino acids

9.3 Absorption

Adaptive characteristic of villi

Have a very thin wall (one cell thick) that diffusion of food molecule occurs rapidly.
Have a large surface area (Many folds on internal surface and microvilli).
Have a dense network of blood capillaries (Efficient transport of food molecules).
Epithelial cells have a high number of mitochondria(provide energy in nutrient transport).
Lacteal is for fatty acid and glycerol absorption.

9.4 Assimilation

The transport of nutrients by the circulatory system for the assimilation

Glucose, amino acids, water-soluble vitamins, and minerals in all blood capillaries are transported to the hepatic portal vein which then transport the nutrients to the
liver for the assimilation process.
The blood circulatory system transports the nutrients from the liver to the body cells for further assimilation.
Tiny droplets of lipids and fat-soluble vitamins inside the lacteal are transported to the lymphatic vessel and later to the thoracic duct.
The nutrients will enter the circulatory system at the subclavian vein to be transported to the body cells.

Functions of the liver

Detoxification: Liver cells remove toxic substances from the blood.

Synthesis of plasma protein: Amino acids are used for the synthesis of plasma protein and enzymes.
Storage of nutrients: Convert glucose into glycogen to be stored.

9.5 Defaecation
 Faeces formed in the large intestine

↓
Undigested materials and excretory materials are moved by peristalsis

↓
In the colon, water is absorbed making the feces more solid

↓
Colon secretes mucus to bind the feces and lubricate the feces movement.

↓
Feces stored temporarily in the rectum

↓
Defecation reflex causes contraction of the rectal muscle and relaxes the internal anal sphincter.

9.6 Balanced Diet

A balanced diet is a diet consisting of seven classes of food and taken in a correct proportion to meet the daily requirements of the body.
The importance of a balanced diet:
Provide energy for various activities
Maintain a healthy life

9.7 Health Issues Related to the Digestive System and Eating Habits

Gastric bypass is one of the treatments recommended by specialist doctors to lose weight in addition to diet management and regular exercise programs.
Gastric bypass involved reducing the size of the stomach by using the surgery method.
Short-term side effects of surgery include acid reflux, nausea, vomiting, enlarged esophagus, and risk of infection.
Long-term side effects include dizziness, low sugar levels, malnutrition, stomach ulcer, and digestive problems

Health issues related to eating habits:

Gastritis: Inflammation and damage to the stomach epithelial layer caused by the action of hydrochloric acid.
Anorexia nervosa: An eating disorder whereby an individual always restricts him or herself from eating as they have a strong desire to be thin.
Bulimia nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by excessive food intake followed by vomiting.
Muscle dysmorphia: A psychological disorder whereby an individual always feels that he or she is too small and underdevelop.

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Transportation in Humans and Animals
We will learn about the types of blood circulatory system, blood circulatory system in humans, mechanism of heartbeat, mechanism of blood clotting, blood groups of
humans, lymphatic system, dan health issues related to the blood circulatory system and lymphatic system in humans.

10.1 Types of Circulatory System

1. Open circulatory system: Hemolymph flows from the heart to the hemocoel (body cavity).
2. Closed circulatory system: Blood flows in the blood vessels from the heart to body tissues.

Blood circulatory system in insects, fish, amphibians and humans:

Insects:

Open circulatory system.

Have many segments of space.
No mixing of hemolymph content.

Fish:

Closed circulatory system.

Have a two-chambered heart; atrium and ventricle.
No mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the heart.

Amphibian:

Closed circulatory system.

Have a three-chambered heart; two atria and one ventricle.
Mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the ventricle.

Humans:

Closed circulatory system.

Have a four-chambered heart: two atria and two ventricles.
No mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in ventricles.

10.2 Circulatory System

Blood composition:

Blood
Cell Blood plasma
Dissolved substances
Erythrocytes
Protein; albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen
Leucocytes
Nutrients; glucose, amino acids, and vitamins
Granulocytes; neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils Respiratory gases; oxygen and carbon dioxide
Agranulocytes; lymphocytes, and monocytes Waste substances
Enzymes
Platelets
Water

Characteristics and functions of red blood cells and white blood cells:

Red blood cell (erythrocytes):

Biconcave disc-shaped.
Size: 8 µm (diameter) and 2 µm (thickness).
No nucleus.
Contains hemoglobin.
Elastic; allows it to squeeze into thin capillaries.
5 million cells/mL.
Life span 120 days.
Function: transport oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the form of oxyhemoglobin and carbaminohemoglobin respectively.
Produced in the bone marrow.
Destroyed in the liver and spleen.

Leucocytes Function
Basophils Secretes heparin (inflammatory response)
Eosinophils Inflammatory response
Neutrophils Phagocytosis
Monocytes Phagocytosis
Lymphocytes Produces antibodies

The function of blood:

 Transport oxygen.
Transport water.
Transport heat.
Transport wastes.
Transport nutrients.
Transport hormones.
Transport carbon dioxide.

Comparison of blood vessels in humans:

Arteries:

Size of the lumen; small.

Muscular wall: thick.
Presence of valve: absent.
Blood pressure: high.
Function: transport oxygenated blood except for the pulmonary artery.
Blood flow: transport blood from the heart to all body parts.

Capillaries:

Size of the lumen: absent.

Muscular wall: one cell thick.
Presence of valve: absent.
Blood pressure: higher than veins and lower than arteries.
Function: the site of exchange for gases and nutrients.
Blood flow: transport blood from arteries to the veins.

Veins:

Size of the lumen: large.

Muscular wall: thin.
Presence of valve: present (prevent the backward flow of blood).
Blood pressure: lower than arteries and capillaries.
Function: transport deoxygenated blood except for pulmonary vein.
Blood flow: transport deoxygenated blood from body tissues to the heart.

The heart structure:

1. The weight of a human's heart is around 250g until 350g and has the size of a fist.
2. The heart is situated at the thorax cavity, above the diaphragm, and protected by the ribcage.
3. The heart's muscles are myogenic, which means they contract and relax automatically and are not controlled by the nervous system.
4. Covered by pericardium to protect the muscle tissues of the heart.
5. The function of the valve is to ensure that the blood flows only in one direction and to prevent the backward flow of blood.
6. It has a four-chambered heart; atria (right and left); thinner than ventricles and ventricles (right and left); thicker.

10.3 Mechanism of Heartbeat

Heartbeat:
Source: [Text book Biology Form 4]

Average heartbeat = 72 times/minute.

Sinoatrial nodes (SA) and atrioventricular nodes (AV) functions to ensure the heartbeat beats at a proper rate.
Sinoatrial nodes are also known as the pacemaker of the heartbeat.

Pacemaker sets and coordinates the contraction of the heart but it is also influenced by:

Nervous system.
Endocrine system.
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves.
Adrenaline (hormone).

The sequence of the contraction of the heart muscles that pump the blood:

SA nodes produce electrical impulses.

Electrical impulses spread rapidly to both atria, causing the atria to contract simultaneously.
The contraction of the atria causing the blood pressure in the atria to increase and pump the blood to the ventricle.
Electrical impulses arrived at the AV nodes.
The electrical impulses spread through the bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers until it reaches the heart's apex.
The electrical impulses spread to both ventricles and causing them to contract simultaneously.
This causing the blood pressure in both ventricles to increase and pump the blood to the lungs and to all body parts.

10.4 Mechanism of Blood Clotting

Importance of the mechanism of blood clotting:

Prevent the entry of pathogean

Maintain blood pressure
Prevent excessive blood loss
Maintain the blood flow in the closed circulatory system

Mechanism of blood clotting:

Mechanism of blood clotting

 Platelet in contact with fibres exposed to the damaged blood vessel
↓
Platelet will clump at the site of injury and produce thrombokinase
↓
Inactive prothrombin converted to active thrombin by thrombokinase
↓
Thrombin then will convert soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin filament

Fibrin filament forms a sticky network and traps red blood cell

Blood clot is formed

Issues of blood clotting:

Cause diseases such as:

Hemophilia:

A genetic disease that caused by lacking of blood clotting factors.

Translated through sex-linked genes in chromosome X.
Can cause excessive and prolonged blood loss.
treatment: treated through injection of factor VIII or IX and genetic engineering.

Thrombosis:

A disease caused by the blood clot that form in the blood vessels.
The blood clot is known as thrombus.
Can narrow the blood vessels; interrupt the blood flow; can cause heart attack.
If the blood clot prevent the blood flow in the brain, it can cause stroke and paralyse.
Treatment: treated with aspirin, hrparin or warfarin.

Embolism:

A disease caused by embolus that cause the arteries to clog..

Embolus is the blood clot that flow in the blood flow.
Can narrow the blood vessels; interrupt the blood flow; can cause heart attack.
Treatment: treated with aspirin, hrparin or warfarin.

10.5 Blood Group of Humans

Blood group A:

Antigen (on the plasma membrane of erythrocyte): antigen A.

Antibody (in the blood serum): anti-B.
Can donate blood to the individuals with blood group A and AB only.
Can receive bloof from individuals with blood group A and O only.

Blood group B:

Antigen (on the plasma membrane of erythrocyte): antigen B.

Antibody (in the blood serum): anti-A.
Can donate blood to the individuals with blood group B and AB only.
Can receive bloof from individuals with blood group B and O only.

Blood group AB:

Antigen (on the plasma membrane of erythrocyte): antigen A and B.

Antibody (in the blood serum): absent.
Can donate blood to the individuals with blood group AB only.
Universal receipient.

Blood group O:

Antigen (on the plasma membrane of erythrocyte): absent

Antibody (in the blood serum): anti-A and anti-B
Can receive blood from the individuals with blood group O only.
Universal donor.

Rhesus factor:

Refers to the rhesus protein or known as antign D, that also found on the plasma membrane of erythrocyte.
Individuals with antigen D; individual with Rh+.
Individuals with no antigen D; individual with Rh-

Antigen and antibody

Types of rhesus
Presence antigen D Presence of antibody, anti-D (initial)
Rh+ Present Absent
Rh- Absent Absent

The effect of Rh+ blood donor to the Rh- blood receiver:

 During blood transfusion, the blood's donor will react by producing antibody, anti-D.
Antibody, anti-D cause the blood's donor agglutinate with the blood's receiver in the body and this can cause death.

Rhesus factor also can cause issues in Rh- mother that has more than one Rh+ children:

If Rh-negative mother carries the first child Rh+, there will be no blood agglutination because the mother's blood is separated from the foetal blood through
placenta.
At the last month of pregnancy, small amount of foetal blood can enters the mother's blood circulation.
This will trigger the mother's immune system untuk produce antibody anti-D.
If the mother is pregnant with Rh+ second baby, the antibody anti-D presence it the mother's blood will flows in the placenta and can destroy the foetal blood.
This can cause brain damage and death to the second baby.
The way to prevent agglutination during second pregnancy: the mother obtain anti Rh globulin through injection right after the first pregnancy to prevent the
mother's body to produce antibody anti rhesus.

10.6 Health Issues Related to The Blood Circulatory System of Humans

Importance of a healthy cardiovascular system:

Encourages a healthy growth cell.

Transport substances required by body cells such as nutrients and oxygen to allow the cells to use the oxygen and glucose for cellular respiration.
Transport waste substances such as carbon dioxide to be excreted.

Cardiovascular diseases include diseases related to the heart and the blood circulatory system such as atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, angina, hypertension, myocardial
infarction (heart attack) stroke.

Atherosclerosis is the formation and deposition of plaque on the artery walls.

The plaque is formed from cholesterol, lipid, dead muscle tissues and coagulated platelets.
The plaque will clog and narrow the lumen in blood vessels.

The restricted blood flow can cause hypertension.

Hypertension causes fine arteries to break and the patient can suffer from stroke if this happens in the brain.
Stroke is also caused by blood clots (thrombus) that clog the flow of blood in the brain.

Artherosclerosis is the early stage of arteriosclerosis.

Arteriosclerosis occurs when calcium is deposited on the plaque and causes the artery to become hard and lose its elasticity.

If the lumen of the coronary artery (artery for the heart) is narrowed, the insufficient oxygen supply to the heart muscles can cause angina (serve chest pain).
If the artery is completely clogged, myocardial infraction (heart attack) will occur.

10.7 Lymphatic System

Lymphatic system is a part of blood circulatory system and immune system.

High blood pressure from the capillaries bed causing the water and dissolved substances to diffuse into the interstitial space.
90% of interstitial fluid will be passed into the blood capillaries and veins.
10% of interstitial fluid will be passed into the blood circulatory system through lymphatic system.

Roles of lymphatic system in transportation:

Transport the excess of interstitial fluid back into the blood before they enter the heart.
Lacteal in the small intestine absorb fatty acids and glycerols,
Transport enzymes and hormones.
Cholesterol enters the blood circulatory system through the lymphatic system.
Transport nutrients and waste back into the blood circulatory system.

The components of lymphatic system:

Lymph capillaries. example: lacteal.

Lymph vessels; contain valves.
Lymph duct; transport lymph into the blood circulatory system through subclavian vein. example; thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct.
Lymph nodes; filter the lymph; contain two types of leucocytes such phagocytes and monocytes.
Lymph organs; spleen, tonsil, thymus gland, appendix and bone marrow.

10.8 Health Issues Related to The Lymphatic System of Humans

Edema is caused by the excess fluid that is trapped in the body tissues, which is usually caused by the leaking of interstitial fluid from the blood flow.

Causes of edema:

Pregnancy: The body will produce more body fluid to fulfill the needs of a growing fetus.
Prolonged bedridden patients: Paralysed or stroke patients with limited mobility can suffer from edema in the legs.
Deficiency of plasma protein: Deficiency of albumin in the blood.
Parasitic infection:
The parasite worm Brugia sp. infects the lymphatic vessel and prevents the flow of lymphatic fluid.
The infected part, for example, leg will swell.
The patient contracts lymphatic filariasis.
This worm is transmitted through mosquito bites.
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Human Immunity
We are going to learn about human immunity, action of antibodies, types of immunity, and health issues related to the immune system of humans.

12.1 Human Immunity

Immunity
Immunity is the ability of a person’s body to fight against pathogens by producing specific antibodies.
After the first infection, a portion of the lymphocytes is stored in the body as memory cells.
Memory cells remain in the body for many years, the body is said to be immune to the disease.
Antigen
Antigens are foreign protein molecules in the human body that stimulate the body's immune system to produce antibodies against the antigen.
Antibody
Antibodies are protein molecules produced by the body's immune system in response to the presence of an antigen.
Antibodies destroy or weaken as well as neutralize the toxins.

Three defense mechanisms in humans:

First-line defense

Not specific.
Prevent the entry of pathogens into the body via physical and chemical.

1) Physical

Skin epidermis; the outermost layer of skin that is permeable to microorganisms.

Blood clots; formed on wounds that help to prevent pathogens from entering the body.
Mucus membrane; lines the respiratory tract, digestive tract, urinary tract, and reproductive tract.
Cilium; moves the trapped microorganisms in the respiratory tract to the pharynx to be swallowed or spit.

2) Chemical

Mucus; secreted by mucus membrane to trap dirt particles and bacteria.

Lysozyme enzyme; found in tears and saliva that can kill the bacteria by digesting the cell wall of bacteria.
Hydrochloric acid; found in gastric juice that can kill pathogens.
Ear wax; antibacterial and antifungal, helps to trap dirt particles.
Sweat; contains lysozyme to kill pathogens.
Sebum; secreted by the sebaceous gland; protect the skin by killing pathogens and fungus.

Second-line defense

Acted after microorganisms successfully passed the first-line defense.

Non-specific defense mechanisms.
Fever, inflammation, and phagocytosis are parts of the second-line defense.
Fever is an increase in the body temperature; increases the metabolic rate in body cells; increases the phagocytic rate towards pathogens.
The high temperature helps to disintegrate the proteins of pathogens and makes their survival becomes harder.
The high temperature also helps in the healing process.
Inflammation is the condition of the cells that swell due to injuries/infection by pathogens.
Swollen tissues help to isolate pathogens at certain locations.
Swollen tissues release chemical substances; attract the phagocytic cells to move to the tissues and swallow the pathogens.
Puss will form.
Phagocytosis involves two types of phagocytes; neutrophils and monocytes (macrophages).

Third-line defense

Involved immune response and depends on the ability of the antibodies to recognize the specific pathogens and protect the body from that pathogens.
Antibodies produced are specific to kill specific pathogens.
Two groups of leucocytes; lymphocytes and macrophages.
Two types of lymphocytes; lymphocyte T and lymphocyte B.
Lymphocyte T; attack the infected cells and produces chemical substances that trigger the lymphocyte B.
Lymphocyte B divides and forms the plasma cells and memory B cells.
Plasma cells produce antibodies that are compatible with the antigens.
Memory B cells produced by the lymphocyte B function to store the information about the pathogens that infect the body.
Plasma cells get activated to produce antibodies rapidly when the body is exposed to the same pathogens.

12.2 Actions of Antibodies

There are five ways; neutralization, agglutination, precipitation, opsonization dan lysis.
 Action of antibodies Mode of action
Neutralization Antitoxin neutralizes the toxins by binding to the toxins (released by pathogens) to prevent the toxins from entering the body cells
Agglutinin binds to the antigens and makes them clump together
Agglutination
The clumping of pathogens is destroyed by the phagocytes

Precipitin binds to the dissolved antigens to form an insoluble antibody-antigen complex that will form a precipitate
Precipitation
Precipitation of antibody-antigen complex ease the phagocytes to undergo phagocytosis

Opsonin binds to the antigens of pathogen that will form a structure that is easy for phagocytes to recognize.
Opsonization
Phagocytes engulf bacteria that have been marked by opsonin

Lysin Lisin binds to the antigens of pathogen dan will lyse the pathogen

12.3 Types of Immunity

There are two types of immunity; active immunity and passive immunity.
Immunization is the process of receiving immunity artificially that can protect the individual from certain diseases.
Immunization can be done through serum, antiserum, and vaccines.

Active immunity

This immunity stays for a long period.

There are two types; natural active immunity and artificial active immunity.

Natural active immunity

This immunity is obtained when the individual recovers from the disease after the first exposure to the pathogen.
Memory cells are able to remember the infection from the first exposure.
If the same pathogen infects the body for the second time, the immune system will respond rapidly.
The number of antibodies will increase and be produced rapidly to stop the infection.

Artificial active immunity

Immunity is acquired by injecting antigens into the body to stimulate lymphocytes to produce antibodies against the antigen.
This type of immunity is known as vaccination.

Passive immunity

Provide protection on certain diseases for a short period.

Antibodies are obtained from the external source and these antibodies will be excreted after a period of time.
There are two types of passive immunity; natural passive immunity and artificial passive immunity.

Natural passive immunity

Obtained by the baby that receives the antibodies through placenta and breastmilk.
Provide full protection to the baby until the immune system of the baby can take over the task.

Artificial passive immunity

Obtained through serum injection that contains certain antibodies to destroy the antigens.
This type of immunity provides immediate protection for short period.

12.4 Health Issues Related to The Human Immune System

HIV

HIV or human immunodeficiency virus is the virus that can cause AIDS.
HIV virus infection will trigger the immune system of individuals to produce HIV antibodies against the antigen of pathogens.
Unfortunately, the antibodies produced by the immune system in humans are unable to kill the virus.
This virus always changes the shape of the antigen so that it will not be recognized by the antibodies.
HIV virus weakened and destroys the immune system of humans by attacking the lymphocyte T.
This virus incorporates its own RNA into the lymphocyte T and uses the lymphocyte's DNA to replicate and produce more HIV virus.
This process will destroy almost all lymphocyte T in the body.
Lymphocyte T is unable to trigger the lymphocyte B to produce antibodies and this weakens the immune system.
This virus can be transferred from one individual to another through blood or body fluids.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)

A chronic autoimmune disease.

The body of SLE patients produces many antibodies that attack its own tissues.
SLE can occur in anybody of all ages but it usually occurs in women compared to men.
This disease can be controlled through medication.
The symptoms of SME are rashes, mouth ulcers, hair fall, inflammation in the blood vessels and joints and the skin becomes sensitive towards the sunlight.
SLE can spread to organs that can cause organ failure especially kidney failure.
Allergies

Allergies are the body's hypersensitivity reactions that occur due to the body’s immune system reacting to allergens that enter the body.
The body’s immune system produces antibodies to attack allergens that are considered harmful, even though the allergens are actually harmless.
An allergen is a foreign substance, usually a protein that triggers a hypersensitive reaction.

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Coordination and Response in Humans
We will learn about the coordination and response, nervous system, neurons and synapses, voluntary action and involuntary actions, health issues related to the human
nervous system, the endocrine system, and the health issues related to the endocrine system.

12.1 Coordinate and Response

Multicellular organisms need to respond to environmental changes

This response will be coordinated by organs and organ systems in the body
The changes in the environment are known as stimuli
External stimuli are changes in the external environment such as light, sound, smell, taste, the surrounding temperature, pain, pressure, and touch
Internal stimuli are changes in the internal environment in the body such as blood pressure, blood pH, body temperature, osmotic pressure, carbon dioxide partial
pressure, and blood sugar level
The stimulus can be detected by an organism using receptors
Receptors are specialized cells in the sensory organs which detect stimuli and trigger nerve impulses
The nerve impulse will send to the integration centre via nerve for analysis
After analysis, the integration centre will send nerve impulses to the effector for producing appropriate responses toward that stimulus
Effectors consist of muscles (smooth, skeletal, and cardiac muscles) and glands (endocrine and exocrine glands)
Coordination is the corporation between several organs and organ systems in the body in order to function effectively by producing an appropriate response toward
a stimulus
The nervous system and endocrine system are the two main organ systems in communicating and integrating towards the environment

Coordination and response in humans can be illustrated as below:

Stimulus
↓
Sensory receptors
↓
Integrating centre
↓
Effector
↓
Response

12.2 Nervous System

Consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Central Nervous System:

Brain
Spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System:

Cranial nerves
The branch from the brain
Connect the brain, sensory organs, and effector at the head
Spinal nerves
The branch from the spinal cord
Connect the spinal cord, sensory organs, and effector at the other parts of the body
Sensory receptors
Place at end of the cranial nerves and spinal nerves in organs

Central Nervous System

Human brain and spinal cord:

Hypothalamus

Function:

Regulates homeostasis such as blood osmotic pressure and body temperature

Regulates sleep, hunger, and thirst
Controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland
Regulates the coordination of the endocrine and nervous systems

Cerebrum

The largest part of the brain, consisting of two hemispheres

The left hemisphere controls activity on the right side of the body and vice versa

Function:

Controls all activities of the mind (thinking, memory, learning, reasoning, personality)
Interpret information from receptors
Controlling skeletal muscle action (controlled muscle movement)

Pituitary gland

Located below the hypothalamus

Divided into two lobes: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe of the pituitary

Function:

Secretes hormones to regulate the growth of the body and other endocrine glands

Thalamus

Function:

Organizes incoming and outgoing information in the central cortex

Integrates information from sensory receptors and enhances signals to the brain

Medulla oblongata

Function:

Regulates uncontrolled (autonomic) actions such as heartbeat, peristalsis and respiration

Reflex centres (blinking, coughing and sneezing)

Cerebellum

Divided into two hemispheres

Function:

Coordinates muscle contraction (regulates body movements)

Receive information on posture and position
Controls body balance and produces precise movements

Functions of the spinal cord:

Located between the ventrible poles

Functions to control reflex actions and deliver signals to and from the brain

Peripheral Nervous System:

Peripheral nerves consist of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems

The somatic nervous system controls all voluntary actions
The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary actions such as heartbeat and blood vessel contraction
The function of the peripheral nervous system is to connect sensory receptors and effectors to the central nervous system

12.3 Neurones and Synapse

Structures of a Neurone:

Neurones are cells in the nervous system that transmit nerve impulses

Sensory neurone:

Send nerve impulses from receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Relay neurone:

Connects sensory neurone to motor neurone

Transmit impulse between the brain and spinal cord

Motor neurone:

Carry information from the spinal cord or brain to the effectors

Synapse and transmission of information:

Electrical impulse reaches synaptic knob and approaches presynaptic membrane

Triggers synaptic vesicle to move towards the presynaptic membrane
The synaptic vesicle fuses with the presynaptic membrane
Neurotransmitters (chemical substances) stored in synaptic vesicles are released across the synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitters bind with specific protein receptors at the postsynaptic membrane
Generates new electrical signals/impulses
Impulses will move along postsynaptic neurone or effector

Synapse plays important roles in:

Controlling and integrating nerve impulses that are transmitted by stimulated receptors.
Allow nerve impulses to be transmitted only in one direction because:
Synaptic vesicles are only present at the synaptic terminal.
Receptors are only present at the postsynaptic membrane.

12.4 Voluntary and Involuntary Actions

Voluntary actions:

Example: writing, walking, drinking

Interpretation of information in the cerebrum
According to our own will
Effector: skeletal muscle
Involves somatic nervous system
Involve processes of analysis, integration, and interpretation of information

Involuntary actions:

Example: heartbeat, sneezing, blood pressure

Interpretation of information in the medulla oblongata
Occurs automatically without notice
Effector: smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
Do not involve processes of analysis, integration and interpretation of information
Involves the autonomic nervous system

Spinal reflex action involved skeletal muscle as an effector:

This action is an involuntary action controlled by the spinal cord and responds quickly and spontaneously toward the external stimulus
The nerve impulse is sent from receptors to the spinal cord and from the spinal cord to effectors
The pathway passed by the nerve impulse in a reflex action is known as the reflex arc

Reflex arc of knee jerk (involve two types of neurones):

Stimulus: the tendon below the kneecap is knocked

Sensory receptors: stretch out the quadriceps muscle (stretch receptor) and triggers a nerve impulse
Sensory neurone: sends nerve impulses to the spinal cord
Motor neurone: receives the nerve impulse from the sensory neurone and send it to the effector
Effector: quadriceps muscle contracts
Response: leg kicks forward

Reflex arc involving three neurones:

Stimulus: Finger touches fire.

Sensory receptor: Skin (heat receptor) detects the heat and nerve impulse is triggered.
Sensory neurone: Send nerve impulse to relay neurone.
Relay neurone (in the spinal cord): Strech out the quadriceps muscle.
Receives nerve impulse from the sensory neurone and send it to the motor neurone.
Motor neurone: Receives nerve impulse from relay neurone and transmits it to the effector.
Effector: Biceps contract, triceps relax.
Response: Hand pulls away from fire.

12.5 Health Issues Related to the Nervous System

Health issues Factors Effects

Multiple sclerosis Body's immune system attacking the myelin sheath of nerves in Affects activities of the brain and spinal cord
the central nervous system
Disturbs coordination between the central nervous system and
peripheral nervous system

Alzheimer Memory cells degenerate and die progressively Memory loss

Usually occur in senior citizen Loss of intellectual and social skills

Individual experienced brain injury Unable to take care of themselves

Genetic factor

Lifestyle
Parkinson Less secretion of dopamine Shrinkage (tremor) of body

Usually occur in senior citizens progressively Movement becomes slow

Usually occur in man Muscles become weak

Genetic factor Difficulty in balancing the body

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Motor neurone degenerates and die Affects somatic nervous system
(ALS)
Age factor, between 40-60 Skeletal muscle unable to function progressively

Genetic factor Finally, skeletal muscles for moving, ingesting, speaking and
breathing are unable to function

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Genetic factor Unable to pay attention, become hyperactive and easy to get
Disorder (ADHD) bored
Premature baby, before 37th week or underweight

A pregnant mother who smokes, alcoholic and drug abuse

Effects of drug and alcohol abuse on human coordination and response:

Stimulants drug:

Examples: cocaine, nicotine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, ecstasy pill and caffeine

Increase nervous system activities
Effects: affecting the functions of the blood circulatory system (high blood pressure and heart failure), digestive system (loss of appetite) and nervous system
(mood changes, vandalism, tendency to commit suicide), kidney failure and causing hallucinations and depression

Depressant drug:

Examples: barbiturates, tranquillizer, morphine and heroin

Delays activities of the nervous system
Reduces blood pressure, relaxes muscles, relieves anxiety and promotes sleep
Effects: memory loss, unable to pay attention, respiratory problems, lung cancer, liver and brain damage, muscle cramp, drowsiness, delirium and coma

Alcohol abuse:

Influence someone's ability to think and make decisions

Slowing reflex actions, poor muscles condition, failure to control body balance and difficulty in estimating distance
Blurred vision, confusion and mental disorders

12.6 Endocrine System

Endocrine gland is a ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the blood
The endocrine gland consists of a mass of cells, tissues or organs
Hormone is a chemical substance made up of proteins or steroids which can regulate physiological processes in humans and animals

Endocrine glands and their secretion:

Endocrine gland Secretion

Hypothalamus Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
Thyroid gland Thyroxine
Pituitary gland Growth hormone (GH)

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

Prolactin

Oxytocin

Pancreas Insulin

Glucagon

Adrenal gland Aldosterone

Adrenaline

Androgen

Cortisol

Ovary Oestrogen

Progesterone

Testis Testosterone
Functions of hormones:

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Target tissue/organ: pituitary gland

Function: regulates activities of the pituitary gland to secrete LH and FSH

Growth hormone (GH)

Target tissue/organ: liver and adipose tissue

Function: stimulates growth especially in bone and muscle and regulates the metabolism of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Target tissue/organ: testis and ovary

Function: stimulates the development of follicles in the ovary, stimulates the formation of sperms in the testis and stimulates the ovaries to secrete oestrogen

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Target tissue/organ: testis and ovary

Function: stimulates testis to produce testosterone in males and stimulates the ovary to perform ovulation and formation of corpus luteum in females

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Target tissue/organ: thyroid gland

Function: stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Target tissue/organ: adrenal gland

Function: stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete corticoid hormones and regulates the growth of the adrenal cortex

Oxytocin

Target tissue/organ: uterus muscles and mammary gland

Function: simulates the contraction of the uterus during birth and stimulates the mammary gland to secrete milk

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Target tissue/organ: kidney

Function: Stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb water and reduces the production of urine

Prolactin

Target tissue/organ: mammary gland

Function: stimulates the mammary gland to secrete milk

Thyroxine

Target tissue/organ: all tissues

Function: stimulates, maintain the rate of metabolism in the body and controls physical growth and normal development of the brain

Insulin

Target tissue/organ: liver, muscles and adipose tissues

Function: lowers blood glucose level by stimulating the uptake of glucose into cells for metabolism and converts excess glucose into glycogen

Glucagon

Target tissue/organ: liver, muscles and adipose tissues

Function: raises blood glucose level by stimulating the conversion of glycogen into glucose

Adrenaline

Target tissue/organ: heart, liver and muscles

Function: increases blood glucose level and rises metabolic activities such as heartbeat rate, breathing rate, vasodilation and vasoconstriction of blood vessels for
preparing the body in a "fight or flight" situation
Aldosterone

Target tissue/organ: kidney

Function: stimulates the absorption of mineral salt in kidneys

Androgen

Target tissue/organ: reproductive organs

Function: important to reach puberty and regulates the maturity of reproductive organs and the development of secondary sexual characteristics

Cortisol

Target tissue/organ: all tissues

Function: stimulates the conversion of lipids and proteins into glucose and produced during fight and flight situations to increase the blood sugar level

Testosterone

Target tissue/organ: male reproductive organs

Function: stimulates sperm production and stimulates the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males

Oestrogen

Target tissue/organ: female reproductive organs

Function: stimulates the development of female reproductive organs, repairs and build the uterine wall, and stimulates the secondary sexual characteristics in female

Progesterone

Target tissue/organ: uterus

Function: maintains the thickening of the uterine wall for embryo implantation

Coordination of both nervous system and endocrine system in an anxious situation:

Stimulus of fear occurs

Nerve impulse sent to the central nervous system
Central nervous system interprets information
Heartbeat increases
Breathing rate increases
Blood pressure increases
Metabolic rate increases
Blood glucose level increases
Energy production increases
Skeletal muscles use the energy to fight or flight

Comparison between the nervous system and endocrine system:

Similarities
Both systems play important roles in the coordination and response of the body toward stimuli
Coordinates all body activities
Both systems have cell, tissue or organ as target

Nervous system Endocrine system

Consists of nerve tissue Comprises of endocrine glands

Signals are transmitted via nerve impulses and neurotransmitters The signal is sent via hormones

The signal is sent along the neurones The signal is sent by blood circulation

The transmission of electrical impulses is rapid The delivery of hormones is relatively slow

The region of response is small, limited to a specific region The region of response is wider, involved few target organs

The effect is short-lived and reversible Only involves involuntary actions

Involves voluntary and involuntary actions Involves in physiological processes in the body

Involves in the movement of the body

12.7 Health Issue Related to the Endocrine System

Hormonal imbalances can occur in humans when endocrine glands secrete hormones less or more than normal quantity.

Growth hormone

The effect of deficiency: Dwarfism

The effect of over secretion: Gigantism

Thyroxine

The effect of deficiency: Cretinism, hypothyroidism and myxedema

The effect of over secretion: Hyperthyroidism

Insulin

The effect of deficiency: Diabetes Mellitus and high sugar in the blood

The effect of over secretion: low sugar in the blood, dizzy, irregular and high heart rate

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

The effect of deficiency: Diabetes insipidus and body lose more water

The effect of over secretion:

Kidneys reabsorbed more water and produce less urine,

Accumulation of water in the body leads to oedema

Cortisol

The effect of deficiency: Addison disease

The effect of over secretion: Cushing syndrome

Aldosterone

The effect of deficiency: Reduces Na+ ion; more water been removed from kidneys and lowers the blood pressure

The effect of over secretion: Increases Na+ ion; increases water reabsorption in kidneys; increases the blood pressure

Androgen

The effect of deficiency: Inhibit reproductive organ in adult

The effect of over secretion: Early physical maturity in children

Adrenaline

The effect of deficiency: Disrupt body's ability to face fight and flight

The effect of over secretion:

Increase blood pressure

Increases blood sugar level; causing the glucose to be secreted in the urine

Glucagon

The effect of deficiency: Fatigue

The effect of over secretion: Hyperactive

Progesterone

The effect of deficiency: Miscarriage

The effect of over secretion: Prevent contraction of uterus muscles during birth

Oestrogen

The effect of deficiency: Prevent the development of secondary sexual characteristics in female

The effect of over secretion: Cause edema and pre-menstruation syndrome

The effect of deficiency:

Prevent the development of secondary sexual characteristics in male

Cause erectile dysfunction, loss of muscle tension

The effect of over secretion:

Hair loss, edema, increase in muscle mass, liver disease, increase blood pressure, and cholesterol level

Reduce fertility

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Homeostasis and Urinary System
We will learn about homeostasis, the urinary system, and the health issues related to the urinary system

13.1 Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the regulation of the internal environment (chemical and physical) for the cells to function in an organisms
Physical factors: temperature, blood pressure, and blood osmotic pressure
Chemical factors: pH value, concentrations of minerals and blood sugar concentration
The stimulus will reverse the reaction/response by initiating a corrective mechanism to achieve a normal state of homeostasis

In homeostasis, a number of organ systems coordinate and conduct a particular function:

In the regulation of body temperature, nervous system, endocrine system, integumentary system, circulatory system, and muscular system coordinate and function
to maintain body temperature within normal range.
In the regulation of blood pressure and osmotic pressure, nervous system, endocrine system, circulatory system, and urinary system coordinate and function to
maintain blood pressure and osmotic pressure within normal range.
In the regulation of carbon dioxide partial pressure, the nervous system, respiratory system, and circulatory system coordinate and function to maintain carbon
dioxide partial pressure within the normal range.
In the regulation of blood pH, nervous system, endocrine system, respiratory system, and circulatory system coordinate and function to maintain blood pH within
normal range
In the regulation of blood glucose, the endocrine system and circulatory system coordinate and function to maintain blood glucose within normal range

Regulation of body temperature:

When body temperature falls below the normal range, thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the changes and send stimuli to thermoregulating center in the
hypothalamus via the nerves. The thermoregulating center triggered and send nerve impulses to the spinal cord via motor neurons to produce effectors, then
returning the body temperature to normal range. The endocrine system is also functioning when the body temperature rises above the normal range.
Thermoreceptors are found in the skin and hypothalamus:
Thermoreceptors in the skin detect the temperature change of the external environment.
Thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the temperature change of the internal environment.

Regulation of body temperature physically:

The action of sweat glands:

In hot environment
Sweat glands become active
More sweat is produced
More heat is lost through evaporation

In cold environment
Sweat glands become inactive
Less sweat is produced
Less heat lost through evaporation

The action of blood capillaries on skin:

In hot environment
The muscles in the afferent arterioles relax
Vasodilation occurs
Blood capillaries expand, the diameter increases
More blood flow through the blood vessels near the skin surface
Heat eliminated through radiation increases

In cold environment
The muscle in the afferent arterioles contract
Vasoconstriction occurs
Blood capillaries constrict, the diameter decreases
Less blood flows through the blood vessels near the skin surface
Heat eliminated through radiation decreases

The action of the hair erector muscles:

In hot environment
Hair erector muscle relax
Hair becomes slanted
A thin layer of air trapped
More heat is released

In cold environment
 Hair erector muscle contract
Hair becomes erect
A thick layer of air is trapped. Air is a good heat insulator
Less heat is released

The action of skeletal muscles:

In hot environment
Skeletal muscle does not contract and relax repeatedly
Shivering does not occur
Heat is not generated

In cold environment
Skeletal muscle contracts and relaxes repeatedly
Shivering occurs
Heat is generated

Regulation of body temperature chemically:

The action of adrenal glands:

In hot environment
Adrenal glands are less stimulated
Less or no adrenaline hormone is secreted
Low metabolism rate
Less heat is generated

In cold environment
Adrenal glands are stimulated by the hypothalamus
Adrenaline hormones are secreted
Metabolism rate increases
More heat is generated

The action of thyroid glands:

In hot environment
Thyroid glands are not stimulated
Very few thyroxine hormones are secreted
Low or normal metabolism rate
Less heat is generated

In cold environment
Thyroid glands are stimulated
Thyroxine hormone is secreted
Metabolism rate increases
More heat is generated

Regulation of blood sugar level:

Blood sugar level (glucose) regulation is a homeostasis process that maintains the normal level of sugar in the blood.
Two organs are involved:
Pancrease:
alpha cells secrete glucagon
beta cells secrete insulin
Liver:
Glucagon stimulates the liver cells to exchange glycogen into glucose
Insulin stimulates the excess of glucose into glycogen
In a healthy human, the blood glucose level is regulated within a range of 75-110 mg glucose per 100ml blood

Mechanism of regulation of carbon dioxide partial pressure in blood:

Carbon dioxide produced by cells during cellular respiration

In blood and tissue fluid, the amount of carbon dioxide is measured as the partial pressure of carbon dioxide
The change in carbon dioxide partial pressure can be detected by peripheral chemoreceptor located at the aorta body and carotid bodies
Central chemoreceptors located in medulla oblongata detect the pH change of cerebrospinal fluid
The main effectors in regulating carbon dioxide partial pressure are intercostal muscles and diaphragm
The intercoastal muscles and diaphragm contract and relax repeatedly and rapidly
This increase the rate of breathing to remove excess carbon dioxide from the body and returning carbon dioxide partial pressure to normal level
In the regulation of carbon dioxide partial pressure, the respiratory control center coordinates with the cardiovascular control center.
The rates of oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal in the lungs increased with the high rate of heartbeat.

Mechanism of regulation of blood pressure:

Normal blood pressure for an adult is 120/80 mmHg

Change in blood pressure from normal level can be detected by baroreceptor found in the aortic arch and carotid arteries
The stimulated baroreceptors send nerve impulses to the cardiovascular control center and vasomotor control center in the medulla oblongata
The main effectors in regulating blood pressure are sinoatrial node (SA node), smooth muscle of afferent arteriole and adrenal gland
 13.2 The Urinary System

Important organs involved in homeostasis are kidney and heart

Functions of kidney:
Control the composition of water and salts in the body (osmotic pressure)
Controls blood pH
Remove and excrete waste by the formation of urine
Each kidney consists of millions of nephrons
Nephron consists of:
Bowman's capsule
Loop of Henle
Proximal convoluted tubule
Glomerulus
Distal convoluted tubule
Inside the Bowman's capsule, there is a tangled capillary network called glomerulus

Formation of urine:

Source:[Text Book Biology KSSM Form 4]

Process of urine formation:

Ultrafiltration:

Afferent arteriole has a larger diameter than the efferent arteriole

Thus, it results in high pressure on the blood flow in the glomerulus
This causes certain blood components to filter out into the Bowman's capsule
The glomerulus filtrate inside the Bowman's capsule is the same as the blood plasma, except it does not contain plasma protein, red blood cells, and platelets

Reabsorption:

Components in the glomerulus filtrate are water, urea, glucose, amino acids and salt
Reabsorption occurs when the substances re-enter the blood capillaries along the renal tubule

Secretion:

Secretion occurs when waste substances are secreted out from the blood capillaries and into the renal tubule (distal convoluted tubule)

Osmoregulation: A process that regulates water and salt balance in the body in order to maintain a normal blood osmotic pressure

When the water content is more, the salt content is low (low blood osmotic pressure)
When the salt content is more, water content is low (high blood osmotic pressure)

13.3 Health Issues Related to the Urinary System

Health issues related to the urinary system are such as kidney stones, urinary tract infections, prostatitis, kidney failure, and bladder cancer
Kidney stones are formed from the minerals and precipitation of salt in the kidney:
An example of kidney stone such as calcium oxalate is formed when the concentration of calcium ions in urine was high and causes mineral crystallization in the
kidney
It causes pain in the side and dorsal parts of the body, pain during urination, bad smell of urine and urine with blood

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Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals
We will learn about the types of the skeleton, musculoskeletal systems in humans, movement and locomotion and health issues related to the human musculoskeletal
system.

14.1 Types of Skeleton

1. There are three types of skeletons in humans and animals:

Exoskeleton
Endoskeleton
Hydrostatic skeleton

2. Necessities of the skeleton to humans and animals:

Gives body shapes

Support body weight
Protects internal organs
For muscle attachment
Allows the growth of organisms except for animals with an exoskeleton
Storage for calcium and phosphate ion
Allows movement and locomotions
Produces blood cells in vertebrae

14.2 Musculoskeletal System of Humans

Human skeleton
 The human skeletal structure is categorised into two
1. Axial skeleton (Skull, ribcage, & vertebral column)
2. Appendicular skeleton (Pectoral girdle, upper limb, pelvic girdle, & lower limb)

1. Axial skeleton

Skull
Skulls are made up of flat bones joined by sutures (immovable joints).
Skull is the framework of the face and support the teeth.
The lower jaw (mandible) is movable and allow mouth opening and closing.
The cranium protects the brain.

Ribcage (Sternum & ribs)

12 pairs of ribs articulate with the sternum and thoracic vertebrae.
Ribs and sternum form a cage to protect the heart and lungs.
The sternum is a flattened, narrow bone and ribs are curved bones.

Vertebral column
Consist of 33 vertebrae attached to form a strong & flexible column. There are 5 types of vertebrae.
It protects the spinal cord, support the head, provides a base for back muscle attachment and provides an articulating surface for ribs and pelvic girdle.

Characteristics of cervical vertebrae:

Vertebra Characteristics and functions

Has large neural canal
No centrum
Atlas (1) Has two transverse foramina - allow arterioles to pass through brain
Support the skull

Odontoid process extends into ventral part of the neural canal of atlas and acts as pivot to allow the head to move side-to-side
Axis (1) Has two transverse foramina
Side-to-side head movement

Broad and short transverse process

Broad centrum
Has two transverse foramina
Cervical (7) Support head and neck
Attachment for neck muscles
Has a short spinous process

Has long spinous process which points backwards

Support rib bones to form the rib cage and provide surface for attachment of muscles to the transverse process and centrum
Thoracic (12) Muscle attachment to support head and neck
Large and thick centrum
Long transverse process

The largest and strongest vertebra in the vertebral column

Large and thick centrum
Lumbar (5) Transverse process is long and flat
Spinous process is short
The large centrum supports the weight of the lower back

Five bones fused together forming a broad

Sacrum (5) and caudal (4) Coccyx is formed by fusion of four vetebrae bones
Balances and supports sitting position

Types of vertebrae Cervical vertebrae

Spinous process Short
Transverse process Broad and short
Centrum Small
Transverse foramen Has a pair of transverse foramen

Types of vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae

Spinous process Long
Transverse process Long
Centrum Medium size
Transverse foramen Absent

Types of vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae

Spinous process Short
Transverse process Short
Centrum Large
Transverse foramen Absent
Joint:

1. Movements of human limbs can be done by:

The presence of joints in which two or more bones meet

The actions between skeletal muscles and bones

Types of joint Characteristic Examples

Bone attached together by fibrous connective tissue
Immovable joints No movement is allowed Joints in skull & pelvic girdle
These joints are categorised as sutures

Bone attached together by cartilage

Slightly movable joints Movements are limited The joint between vertebrae & between ribs and sternum

Bones joint together with synovial fluid

Freely moveable joints Movement in one plane or all planes Hinge joints & ball-and-socket joints
These joints are known as synovial joints

Role of muscles, ligament, tendon and joint in movement.

Tendon - Joint muscle to bones.

Ligament - Joint the bone to bone
Synovial membrane - secretes the synovial fluid
Synovial fluid - Lubricate the joint and reduce the friction between bones. It also nourishes the cartilage.
Cartilage - Absorbs shock and protect the bone.

Tendon
Characteristics:
Not elastic
Strong
Connective tissue
Function
Joins muscle to bones
Transmits pulling force exerted by contraction of muscles to the bone and pull it up

Ligament
Characteristics
Elastic
Strong
Connective tissue
Flexible
Functions:
Join bone to bone
Hold joints together
Prevent dislocation
Allow limited movement

Muscle
Characteristic
A pair of muscles that work together
When contracts, the other relaxes
Examples: Biceps and triceps of the arm
Functions:
Exert pulling force onto bone
Support movement and locomotion

14.3 Movement and Locomotion

Actions between skeletal muscles and bones at joint causing movement

Movements of arm and leg are due to the actions of antagonistic pair of skeletal muscle

Movements of arm:

Bending of the arm Straightening of the arm

Biceps contracts, triceps relax Action of muscles Triceps contracts, biceps relax
Transmits pulling force exerted by biceps to the radius Tendon Transmits pulling force exerted by triceps to the ulna
Radius is pulled upwards Bone The ulna is pulled downwards
Holds bones together to form a joint Ligament Holds bones together to form a joint
forearm moves upwards to bend the arm Joint The forearm moves downwards to straighten the arm

Movements of leg:
 Bending of the leg Straightening of the leg
Biceps femoris contracts and quadriceps relaxes Action of muscles Quadriceps contract and biceps femoris relaxes
Transmits pulling force exerted by biceps femoris to tibia and fibula Tendon Transmits pulling force exerted by quadriceps to tibia
Tibia and fibula are pulled backward Bone Tibia and fibula are pulled forward
The leg is bent at knee joint Joint The leg is straightened

Locomotions in Animals:

Locomotion in earthworm

Characteristics
Has antagonistic muscles: circular muscle, longitudinal muscle.
Hydrostatic skeleton: contraction and relaxation of antagonistic muscles raise hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the coelom
Chaetae: fine hooks which anchor to the ground

Mechanism of location and functions

1. Posterior chaetae anchor the ground. Circular muscles in the anterior contract and the longitudinal muscles relax, producing high hydrostatic
pressure. These cause the anterior segment to extend forward
2. Anterior chaetae anchor the ground. Posterior chaetae are withdrawn. Circular muscles in the anterior relax and longitudinal muscles contract,
producing low hydrostatic pressure. These cause the posterior segments to be pulled forward
3. Continuos process - Peristaltic waves enable earthworms to move forward

Locomotion in fish

Characteristics
Scaly and slimly body to reduce water resistance
W-shaped antagonistic muscle blocks are arranged in segments on both sides of a vertebral column named myotomes
Swim bladder: an air sac inside the abdomen to maintain buoyancy
Dorsal and ventral fins - prevent yawning and rolling
Tail fin - forward thrust
Paired fin (pelvic and pectoral fins) - steering, prevent pitching

Mechanism of locomotion and function

1. Right myotomes contract, left myotomes to relax
2. Head and tail will bend to the right
3. Right myotomes relax, left myotomes contract
4. Head and tail will bend to the left
5. Continuous contraction and relaxation of muscles allow fish to move their tail
6. The tail movement creates a forward thrust

Locomotion in grasshopper:

Characteristics
Antagonistic muscles:

1. Flexor muscles
2. Extensor muscles:

Found inside the internal structure of the exoskeleton

The hind legs are bigger and longer for jumping
Movement is produced by contraction and relaxation of these muscles

Mechanism of locomotion and function

Jumping:

1. At rest, flexor muscles contract, hind legs folded in the shape of "Z"
2. Extensor muscles contract and hind legs straighten
3. Grasshopper jumps forward and upwards

14.4 Health Issue Related to the Human Musculoskeletal System

Health issues related to the human skeletal muscle system:

 Osteoporosis
Explanation
Is caused by a deficiency in the uptake of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D or women experienced menopause
Less calcium is used to form bones
Bones become weak and easy to fracture especially at the pelvic girdle, wrist and backbone.
Advice & treatment
Consumption of sufficient calcium, phosphate and vitamin D through daily diet to increase bone mass
Exercise regularly to strengthen the muscles and bones
Go through hormone replacement therapy for women experiencing menopause

Osteomalacia
Explanation
Is caused by the deficiency in the uptake of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D
Occur in adults, especially pregnant women
Osteomalacia that occurs in children known as rickets
In children, bone defects may occur
Advice & treatment
Consumption of sufficient calcium and phosphate through daily diet to increase bone mass
Consumption of sufficient vitamin D through daily
Exercise regularly to strengthen the muscles and bones

Arthritis
Explanation
Cartilages in the joints of the knee, pelvic girdle and backbone become wear off
Less synovial fluid secreted
Usually occurs in senior citizens
The joints experience inflammation, pain, swollen and hard
Advice & treatment
Exercise regularly to strengthen the muscles and joints
Go through physiotherapy to strengthen the joints
Undergo surgery operation to replace with artificial joint

Scoliosis
Explanation
The backbone of an individual is sideways curvature from the spine axis
Can be caused by genetic factor, tumour, a bacterial infection. osteoporosis, rickets or injury
Advice & treatment
Comprises three "O": observation, orthosis and operation

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Sexual Reproduction, Development and Growth
We will learn about reproductive system of humans,gametogenesis in humans,menstrual cycle,development of human foetus,formation of twins,health issues related to
the human reproductive system and the growth in humans and animals.

15.1 Reproductive System of Humans

Humans reproductive system:

Source:[vectorstock.com]

15.2 Gametogenesis in Humans

1. Process of gamete formation is known as gametogenesis

2. Gametogenesis that involved sperm formation is known as spermatogenesis, whereas those involved ovum formation is known as oogenesis

Necessity of gametogenesis:

Produces gametes and haploid chromosomal number through meiosis

Produces genetic variation in gametes
Maintains diploid chromosomal number of zygote
Produces genetic variation in offspring

Spermatogenesis

During foetus development, primordial germ cells divide mitocially to form spermatogonia

1. Each spermatogonia (2n) grows and develops into primary spermatocytes (2n)
2. Each primary spermatocyte (2n) divides by meiosis I to form tqo secondary spermatocytes (n)
3. Each secondary spermatocyte (n) divides by meiosis II to form two spermatids (n)
4. Each spermatid (n) undergoes differentiation to form sperm (n)

The sperms formed move to epididymis to be matured

Head of sperm contains nucleus and acrosome. The nucleus contains chromosomes and the acrosome contains enzymes for fertilisation.
Midpiece of sperm contains abundant of mitochondria to produce more energy for movement
The tail helps sperm to move

Oogenesis:
 During foetus development, primordial germ cells divide mitotically to form oogonia
Polar body formed has size much smaller than secondary oocyte or ovum
The three polar bodies will degenerate and do not take part in fertilisation
At first, primary oocyte that surrounded by follicle cells is known as primary follicle
At puberty, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by pituitary gland stimulates the development of follicle in ovary
Follicle cells start to divide by mitosis during development of follicle. The primary follicle developed into secondary follicle and then into a mature follicle,graafian
follicle
During the follicle development, primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I to form secondary oocyte.

1. At foetal stage, the primordial germ cells divide repeatedly by mitosis to form many diploid oogonium (2n)
2. Each oogonium grows ad develops to form primary oocyte (2n). Each primary oocyte is surrounded by a layer of follicle cells to form a primary follicle.
3. Before birth, the primary oocytes undergoes an incomplete meiosis I until prophase I
4. At puberty, one primary oocyte completes meiosis I to form a secondary oocyte (n) and a polar body (n). The haploid polar body formed also undergoes meiosis II
to form another two haploid polar bodies
5. Secondary oocyte is surrounded by follicle cells known as secondary follicle
6. Secondary follicle grows and matures to form graafian follicle which then moves to the surface of the ovarian wall
7. Ovulation: The Grafiian follicle bursts and releases the secondary oocyte into Fallopian tube
8. If fertilisation occurs, secondary oocyte completes meiosis II to form a polar body (n) and an ovum (n). All 3 polar bodies will degenerate.

Comparison between spermatogenesis and oogenesis:

Simillarities between spermatogenesis and oogenesis:

Occur in reproductive organs

Produce haploid gametes
Involved in fertilisation

Differences between spermatogenesis and oogenesis:

Aspects Spermatogenesis
Organ of gamete formation Testis
Gamete formed Sperm
Structure of gamete Head, midpiece and tail
Ability to move Move with tail
Presence of follicle cell No follicle cells surround the gamete
Number of gamete formed from one parent cell Four
Formation of polar body None
Size of gamete Small
Mitotic division on parent cell Occurs throughout life after puberty
Meiotic division during gamete formation Occurs continuously without a break
Differentiation Involves differentiation

Aspects Oogenesis
Organ of gamete formation Ovary
Gamete formed Ovum
Structure of gamete Spherical shape
Ability to move Assists by cilia in the Falllopian tube
Presence of follicle cell Follicle cells surrounding the gamete
Number of gamete formed from one parent cell One
Formation of polar body One or three
Size of gamete Large
Mitotic division on parent cell Only occurs during foetal development stage
Meiotic division during gamete formation Occurs by stages reagrding to foetal,puberty and after fertilisation stage
Differentiation Does not involve differentiation

15.3 Menstrual Cycle

1. Menstruation: Breakdown of the lining of uterine wall and its discharge through the vagina, with small amount of blood and cell
2. Menstrual cycle:

A monthly cycle, consisting of follicle development,ovulation,thickening of the endometrium and menstruation

28 days for each cycle

3. Importance of menstrual cycle:

Prepares the uterine lining for the implantation of an embryo

Controls the development of ovum and ovulation

The hormones involved in controlling menstrual cycle :

 Hormone Functions Effects
• Stimulates follicle development in the ovaries
Follicle stimulating hormone
Control the changes in the ovaries
(FSH) • Stimulates oestrogen secretion by the follicles

• Stimulates ovulation

Luteinening hormone • Causes the formation of the corpus luteum Control the changes in the ovaries

• Promotes the secretion of progesterone

• Repair and revival of of endometrium after menstruation

Oestrogen Control the changes in the uterus
• Stimulates FSH and LH secretion before ovulation

• Stimulates the endometrium to become thick,folded and highly vasculated for embryo
development
Progesterone Control the changes in the uterus
• Inhibits FSH and LH secretion

Events of the menstrual cycle:

Time (days) In the ovary In the uterus

0-5 Follicle develops Menstruation
6-13 Follicle matures Endometrium repaired, thickens
14 Ovulation Endometrium continues to thicken
15-24 Corpus luteum develops Tissue and blood vessels develop in the endometrium
25-28 Corpus luteum degenerates as no fertilisation occur Endometrium will begin to disintegrate after 28th day

Source:[britannica.com]

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS):

 Physical
Headache
Breast swelling and pain
Stomach pain
Muscle or joint pain
Feeling tired
Sleep problems
Bloating
Food cravings
Constipation

Emotion
Trouble with concentration or memory
Anxiety
Irritable
Tension
Depression
Crying spells
Mood swings

Menopause syndrome:

Factors
Occurs between 46 till 54 years old
Ovary is less sensitive to the stimulation of FSH and LH
No follicle developed and no ovum formed
low production of progesterone and oestrogen

Physical
Hot flashes
Sleep problems
Urinary problems
Vaginal problems and infections
Osteoporosis
Irregular periods
Night sweats
Weight gains

Emotion
Memory problems
Mood swings
Depression
Anxiety

15.4 Development of Human Foetus

Early development of a human zygote:

Fertilisation:

1. Definition: The union of sperm nucleus and ovum nucleus to form a zygote
2. Fertilisation occurs at the Fallopian tube
3. Ovum is surrounded by millions of sperms, but ony one will successfully penetrate the ovum wall
4. When the penetration is successful, a barrier known as the fertilisation membrane is formed to prevent the penetration of other sperms

Early embryo development:

1. 36 hours after fertilisation: the zygote undergoes repeated mitosis as it travels along the Fallopian tube towards the uterus
2. The zygote continuosly undergoes mitosis forming embryo with two cells,four cells and eight cells and resulting in the formation of a solid mass known as morula
3. On the 5th day after fertilisation, the morula develops into a ball of 100 cells with a cluster of inner cells known as blatocyst. Only one part of blatocyst will develop into
foetus
4. Implantation: The blatocyst is implanted onto the endometrium, 7 days after fertilisation. The inner cell masss develops into an embryo. Embryo will absorb the
nutrients directly form the endometrium tissue
5. 8 weeks after fertilisation, a foetus is formed and obtains nutrients through placenta
6. At 38 weeks after fertilisation, the foetus is well developed into full term, waiting for birth to take place

Role of human chorionic gonadotrotin (HCG) during pregnancy process:

1. If fertilisation is occured, zygote formed divides into embryo

The embryo begins to produce human chorionic gonadotrotin (HCG) hormone for maintaining the function of corpus luteum
The corpus luteum continue to function by secreting progesterone and oestrogen in the first two months of pregnancy
The function of corpus luteum will be taken over by placenta at the 4th month of pregnancy
Functions of placenta and umbilical cord in the development of foetus:

1. During foetus development, blatocyst forms chorionic villi into endometrium to obtain nutrients and oxygen from maternal blood
2. Chorionic villi will form placenta in the 4th week of pregnancy
3. Placenta is the site of substances exchange between foetal blood and maternal blood
4. Useful substances such as nutrients,oxygen and antibodies are transported from maternal blood to foetal blood through placenta and umbilical cord
5. While, waste substances such as urea and carbon dioxide are transported from foetal blood to maternal blood through placenta and umbilical cord
6. Umbilical cord has umbilical arteries and umbilical vein

Necessity of having seperate foetal and maternal circulatory system:

1. Protects foetus's fine blood vessels from being damaged by high maternal blood pressure
2. Prevents agglutination if blood group of foetus is incompatible to maternal blood group
3. Filters certain pathogens and harmful substances from entering foetal blood

15.5 Formation of Twins

Types of twins Identical twins

Fertilisation 1 ovum fertilised by 1 sperm
Zygote formation Formed from 1 zygote
Placenta Share one placenta but have their own umbilical cord
Embryo division Divide into two
Umbilical cords 2
Gender Same sex
Genetic constitution Identical
Physical characteristics Identical
Fingerprints Unique (different)

Types of twins Siamese twins

Fertilisation 1 ovum fertilised by 1 sperm
Zygote formation Formed from 1 zygote
Placenta Share one placenta but have their own umbilical cors
Embryo division Incomplete division
Umbilical cords 2
Gender Same sex
Genetic constitution Identical
Physical characteristics Identical
Fingerprints Unique (different)

Types of twins Fraternal twins

Fertilisation 2 ovum fertilised by 2 sperm
Zygote formation Formed from 2 different zygote
Placenta Each has their own placenta and umbilical cords
Embryo division Not divide into two
Umbilical cords 2
Gender Same/different sex
Genetic constitution Different
Physical characteristics Different
Fingerprints Unique (different)

15.6 Health Issues Related to the Human Reproductive System

Infertility in male and female:

Causes of interfility Description

Less sperm count Probability of fertilisation to occur is low
Abnormal sructure of sperm Sperms do not function and fertilisation does not occur
Blockage of sperm duct No sperm found in semen
Inactive sperm Sperm unable to move to Fallopian tube for fertilisation
Infection in testis No sperm formed or abnormal sperm formed
Impotence Sexual reproduction does not occur

Female:

Causes of infertility Description

No ovum formed Fertilisation does not occur
No ovulation No ovum is released and fertilisation does not occur
Sperm could not fertilise with ovum
Blockage of Fallopian tube

Uterus problems (abnormal structures,tumuor) Implantation difficult or does not occur

Irregular menstrual cycle Production of ovum and ovulation is affected
Overcoming infertility in male:

1. Sperm bank

Donor's sperms are collected and stored frozen in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of -196 degree celcius
The sperms chosen by the couple will be injected into the woman's Fallopian tube during ovulation

2. Artificial insemination (AI)

Due to the small amount of sperm, this technique will accumulate sperms over a certain period of time to achieve a large quantity
Sperms are injected into the Fallopian tube during ovulation

Infertility treatment:

1. In vitro fertilisation (IVF)

A mature ovum is removed form the ovary and is fertilised by the sperm in a culture plate in the laboratory
Fertilisations occurs after 5-6 hours
The fertilised ovum is re-inserted into the uterus for the embryo implantation process
The baby born is known as a test tube baby

15.7 Growth in Humans and Animals

1. Growth in multicellular organism such as humans and animals is an irreversible process which involve the increase in quantitive parameters such as size (height or
length),body mass,volume and number of cells.
2. Parameters for the growth of humans: body size,height and length
3. Parameters for the growth of animals: body mass,fresh mass and dry mass

Growth in insects:

1. Organism with exoskeleton such as insects,crabs and prawns undergo growth by either complete metamorphosis or incomplete metamorphosis
2. In development of exoskeletal organisms, metamorphosis is a developement process from larval stage to adult stage
3. During development stage, organism undergoes a moulting process known as ecdysis
4. In complete metamorphosis, the growth of organisms involves four stages starts from egg to larva,larva to pupa and pupa to adult.
5. In incomplete metamorphosis, the growth of organisms only involves three stages starts from egg to larva and from larva to adult

Sigmoid growth curve of an organism:

Phase Explanation
Slow growth rate
A (lag phase) Little or no cell division

Growth rate at the fastest

B (exponential phase) Cell division and cell elongation are active
The size of organisms increase rapidly

Steady growth rate

C (slow growth phase) Limited by growth factor such as food shortage

Form a plateau
The growth rate is zero
D (stationary phase) The organism reached maturity
Cell division occurs to replace the dead cells

The organism undergoes ageing and death

E (death phase)

Growth curve of insects:

Source:[duncanrig.s-lanark.sch.uk]

Insects have a hard exoskeleton made of chitin

In order to growth in size, insects must undergo a moulting process known as ecdysis
The horizontal lines show zero growth periods known as instars
During ecdysis:

1. I: An insect breathes in a lot of air to expand the body

2. II: The old exoskeleton breaks
3. III: The insect expands by breathing in more air, before the new exoskeleton hardens
4. IV: Ecdysis is repeated several times until the adult phase

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