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TABLE OF
CONTENTS
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
CHRONOLOGY: A CONCISE HISTORY OF COSMIC DISCOVERY . . . . . . . 1
2800 BC to 1600 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1600 to 1700 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1900 to 2010 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
GLOSSARY WITH DATA TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
AUTHOR INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
SUBJECT INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
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"! "!"

'*( /RIGINAL (ERTZSPRUNG 2USSELL DIAGRAM 7HEN DATA ON STELLAR

PARALLAX ENABLED THE DISTANCE AND ABSOLUTE LUMINOSITY OF STARS TO BE DETER
MINED (ENRY .ORRIS 2USSELL ¥ PUBLISHED IN THIS PLOT
OF THE ABSOLUTE VISUAL MAGNITUDES LEFT AXIS OF STARS AGAINST THEIR SPECTRAL
CLASS TOP AXIS 4HE TWO DIAGONAL LINES MARK THE BOUNDARIES OF %JNAR
(ERTZSPRUNGS ¥ SEQUENCE INFERRED IN FOR THE 0LEIADES
AND (YADES OPEN STAR CLUSTERS THIS IS NOW KNOWN AS THE MAIN SEQUENCE
ALONG WHICH MOST STARS INCLUDING THE 3UN ARE LOCATED 4HE GIANT STARS ARE
LOCATED AT THE UPPER RIGHT ! SINGLE FAINT ANOMALY IS FOUND IN THE LOWER
LEFT HAND CORNER IT IS NOW KNOWN TO BE A WHITE DWARF STAR 4HE LARGER DOTS
DENOTE STARS WHOSE ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDES HAD A PROBABLE ERROR OF MAG
NITUDE AND THE SMALL DOTS REPRESENT RESULTS WITH LARGER ERRORS 4HE LARGER
OPEN CIRCLES DENOTE MEAN RESULTS FOR ABOUT BRIGHT STARS OF SMALL PROPER
MOTION THE SMALLER OPEN AND lLLED CIRCLES DENOTE RESPECTIVELY STARS
WHOSE PARALLAXES HAD BEEN MEASURED ONCE OR MORE THAN ONCE
"NFSJDBOBTUSPOPNFS)BSMPX4IBQMFZ ¢ TVHHFTUTUIBUUIFCSJHIUOFTTWBSJ

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'*( 0RECESSION OF -ERCURYS PERIHELION )NSTEAD OF
ALWAYS TRACING OUT THE SAME ELLIPSE THE ORBIT OF -ERCURY PIVOTS
AROUND THE FOCUS OCCUPIED BY THE 3UN 4HE POINT OF CLOSEST
APPROACH TO THE 3UN THE PERIHELION IS SLOWLY ROTATING AHEAD OF
THE POINT PREDICTED BY .EWTONS THEORY OF GRAVITATION 4HIS WAS
AT lRST EXPLAINED BY THE GRAVITATIONAL TUG OF AN UNKNOWN PLANET
CALLED 6ULCAN BUT WE NOW KNOW THAT 6ULCAN DOES NOT EXIST
4HE 'ERMAN PHYSICIST !LBERT %INSTEIN ¥ EXPLAINED
-ERCURYS ANOMALOUS MOTION IN BY INVENTING A NEW THEORY
OF GRAVITY IN WHICH THE 3UNS CURVATURE OF SPACE MAKES THE
PLANET MOVE IN A SLOWLY REVOLVING ELLIPSE
)FCFS%$VSUJT ¢ BUUIF-JDL0CTFSWBUPSZJO$BMJGPSOJB OPUJDFTBKFUPG

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'*( 3PACE CURVATURE ! MASSIVE OBJECT CREATES A CURVED INDENTATION UPON

THE hmATv SPACE DESCRIBED BY %UCLIDEAN GEOMETRY WHICH APPLIES IN A WORLD WITHOUT
SIGNIlCANT AMOUNTS OF MATTER .OTICE THAT THE AMOUNT OF SPACE CURVATURE IS GREATEST IN
THE REGIONS NEAR THE OBJECT WHILE FURTHER AWAY THE EFFECT IS LESSENED
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'*( %DGE ON VIEW OF OUR 'ALAXY !S SHOWN IN BY THE !MERICAN ASTRONO
MER (ARLOW 3HAPLEY ¥ THE GLOBULAR STAR CLUSTERS ARE DISTRIBUTED IN A
ROUGHLY SPHERICAL SYSTEM WHOSE CENTER COINCIDES WITH THE CORE OF OUR 'ALAXY 4HE 3UN
IS LOCATED IN THE GALACTIC DISK ABOUT LIGHT YEARS AWAY FROM THE CENTER OF OUR
'ALAXY 4HE GALACTIC DISK AND CENTRAL BULGE ARE SHOWN EDGE ON AS A NEGATIVE PRINT OF AN
INFRARED IMAGE TAKEN FROM THE )NFRA2ED !STRONOMICAL 3ATELLITE 4HE INFRARED OBSERVA
TIONS CAN PENETRATE THE OBSCURING VEIL OF INTERSTELLAR DUST THAT HIDES THE DISTANT -ILKY
7AY FROM OBSERVATION AT VISIBLE WAVELENGTHS )T IS THIS DUST THAT LIMITED ASTRONOMERS
VIEW OF THE SURROUNDING STARS TO A MUCH SMALLER +APTEYN 5NIVERSE CENTERED ON THE
3UN
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4!",% !STEROIDS n LARGEST A

-ASS 2OTATION 3EMI MAJOR
2ADIUS -ASSB $ENSITY 0ERIOD !XIS
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#ERES #
0ALLAS " D
6ESTA 6
A 4HESIZE IS IN UNITS OF KILOMETERS ABBREVIATED KM THE MASS IS IN UNITS OF KILOGRAMS ABBREVIATED KG AND THE
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B 4HE MASS DETERMINATIONS ARE FROM THE WORK OF % - 3TANDISH AT THE *ET 0ROPULSION ,ABORATORY WHERE HE
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C 0ALLAS IS NOT QUITE SPHERICAL ! TRI AXIAL ELLIPSOID lT TO OCCULTATION OBSERVATIONS HAS DIAMETERS OF KM
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PGEJTUBODF FRVBMUP"6

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WHOSE ORBITS ARE ACCURATELY KNOWN 4HE VAST MAJORITY OF THE ASTEROIDS ORBIT THE 3UN IN THE
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3CORPIUS 3CORPII 3CO 3CORPION
3CULPTOR 3CULPTORIS 3CI 3CULPTOR
3CUTUM 3CUTI 3CT 3HIELD
3ERPENS 3ERPENTIS 3ER 3ERPENT
3EXTANS 3EXTANTIS 3EX 3EXTANT
4AURUS 4AURI 4AU "ULL
4ELESCOPIUM 4ELESCOPII 4EL 4ELESCOPE
4RIANGULUM 4RIANGULI 4RI 4RIANGLE
4RIANGULUM 4RIANGULI 4R! 3OUTHERN
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4UCANA 4UCANAE 4UC 4OUCAN
5RSA -AJOR 5RSAE -AJORIS 5-A "IG "EAR
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6ELA 6ELORUM 6EL 3HIPS 3AILB
6IRGO 6IRGINIS 6IR -AIDEN
6IRGIN
6OLANS 6OLANTIS 6OL &LYING &ISH
6ULPECULA 6ULPECULAE 6UL ,ITTLE &OX
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,ARGEST %XTENT 4EMPERATURE %LECTRON $ENSITY
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PVU BMPOH PQFO NBHOFUJD êFME MJOFT UP GPSN UIF TPMBS XJOE *O UIF 4XFEJTI
BTUSPOPNFS #FOHU &EMÊO ¢ BOE UIF (FSNBO BTUSPOPNFS 8BMUFS (SP
USJBO ¢ TIPXFEUIBUFNJTTJPOMJOFTGSPNUIFTPMBSDPSPOBXFSFGPSCJEEFO
USBOTJUJPOTPGBUPNTUIBUBSFIJHIMZJPOJ[FEBUBOVOFYQFDUFEMZIJHI NJMMJPOEFHSFF
UFNQFSBUVSF*OUIF"NFSJDBOQIZTJDJTU&VHFOF/1BSLFS ¢ TIPXFE
UIBUUIFNJMMJPOEFHSFFFMFDUSPOTBOEQSPUPOTJOUIFDPSPOBXJMMPWFSDPNFUIF4VOT
HSBWJUZBOEBDDFMFSBUFUPTVQFSTPOJDTQFFET OBNJOHUIFSFTVMUBOUSBEJBMPVUëPXUIF
TPMBSXJOE&WFOOFBSUIF4VO UIFDPSPOBJTBIJHIMZSBSFêFE MPXEFOTJUZHBT XJUI
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FDMJQTFPGUIF4VO GPSBUNPTUNJOVUFTBUPUIFSUJNFTJUDBOCFPCTFSWFEJOWJT
JCMFXIJUFMJHIUCZVTJOHBTQFDJBMJOTUSVNFOUDBMMFEBDPSPOBHSBQIѮFWJTJCMFMJHIU
DPSPOBNBZCFEJWJEFEJOUPUIFJOOFS,PSFMFDUSPODPSPOB XJUIBDPOUJOVPVTTQFD
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TPMBSEJTLBU9SBZBOESBEJPXBWFMFOHUITѮFTIBQFPGUIFDPSPOBJTEFUFSNJOFECZ
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'*( #ORONAGRAPH 3UNLIGHT ENTERS FROM THE LEFT AND IS FOCUSED BY AN OBJECTIVE
LENS , ON AN OCCULTING DISK BLOCKING THE INTENSE GLARE OF THE PHOTOSPHERE ,IGHT
FROM THE CORONA WHICH IS OUTSIDE THE PHOTOSPHERE BYPASSES THIS OCCULTING DISK AND IS
FOCUSED BY A SECOND LENS , FORMING AN IMAGE OF THE CORONA /THER OPTICAL DEVICES ARE
PLACED ALONG THE LIGHT PATH TO DIVERT AND REMOVE EXCESS LIGHT
4FF DPSPOBHSBQI DPSPOBM IPMF DPSPOBM MPPQ DPSPOBM NBTT FKFDUJPO TPMBS BDUJWJUZ
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DPSPOBHSBQIT"MBSHFCPEZPGNBHOFUJDBMMZDPOêOFE DPSPOBMNBUFSJBMCFJOHSFMFBTFE
GSPN UIF DPSPOB " DPSPOBM NBTT FKFDUJPO DPOUBJOT CJMMJPO UP CJMMJPO UPOT PS
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2ADIATION PARAMETERS A B
0ARAMETER .AME 6ALUE

4 4CMB 4EMPERATURE +
NG 0HOTON DENSITY CM
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4 $IPOLE ANISOTROPY +
+
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6 6ELOCITY OF SOLAR MOTION TOWARD BACKGROUND KM S
2! $IRECTION OF SOLAR MOTION RIGHT ASCENSION H M 3 3
$EC $IRECTION OF SOLAR MOTION DECLINATION
M C $IRECTION OF SOLAR MOTION GALACTIC

$4 4 !NISOTROPY DIPOLE REMOVED
4 1RMS 1UADRUPOLE MOMENT +
#OSMOLOGICAL PARAMETERS B
.AME -EANING 6ALUE
( (UBBLE #ONSTANT #URRENT %XPANSION 2ATE
T !GE OF 5NIVERSE 4IME SINCE "IG "ANG
YEARS BILLION YEARS
TDEC $ECOUPLING 4IME 4IME 2ADIATION /RIGINATED
YEARS
!FTER "IG "ANG ALSO 2ECOMBINATION 4IME AND REDSHIFT
TR 2EIONIZATION 4IME &IRST 3TARS /RIGINATED MILLION YEARS
!FTER "IG "ANG
6TOT /MEGA -ATTER AND %NERGY $ENSITY
6, $ARK %NERGY !MOUNT OF $ARK %NERGY
6M 4OTAL -ATTER !MOUNT OF 4OTAL -ATTER
6B "ARYONIC -ATTER !MOUNT OF "ARYONS
6D $ARK -ATTER !MOUNT OF $ARK -ATTER
A !DAPTED FROM ,ANG +ENNETH 2 "TUSPQIZTJDBM'PSNVMBF** 4QBDF 5JNF.BUUFSBOE$PTNPMPHZ ѮJSE&EJUJPO
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B &ROM THE 7ILKINSON -ICROWAVE !NISOTROPY 0ROBE TOGETHER WITH OTHER ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS ADAPTED
FROM #HARLES , "ENNETT ET AL "TUSPQIZTJDBM+PVSOBM4VQQMFNFOU 4HE PARAMETER 7 IS THE RATIO
OF THE SPECIlED QUANTITY TO THE CRITICAL AMOUNT REQUIRED TO KEEP THE EXPANSION OF THE 5NIVERSE ON THE BRINK
OF CLOSURE !N 6 IS CONSISTENT WITH INmATION AND A 5NIVERSE THAT IS DESCRIBED BY %UCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
WITHOUT SPACE CURVATURE
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ATMOSPHEREA
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PARTICLES M
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ERGIES GREATER THAN BILLION E6 PER NUCLEON
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MAJOR AXIS B 4HE ECCENTRICITY OR ELONGATION OF THE PLANETARY ELLIPSE HAS
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A CIRCLE
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2! $EC VB $ISTANCE
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%TA #ARINAE .EBULA .'#
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.EBULA
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!LSO KNOWN AS .'# (ORSESHOE .EBULA AND 3WAN .EBULA
/RION .EBULA -
!LSO KNOWN AS .'# NORTHWESTERN PART IS - .'#
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2OSETTE .EBULA .'#
!LSO INCLUDES .'# SURROUNDS STAR CLUSTER .'#
4ARANTULA .EBULAC .'#
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4RIlD .EBULA -
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AT THE LEVEL WHERE THE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE IS ONE BAR
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7AVELENGTHA NANOMETERS &RAUNHOFER LETTER #OLOR B %LEMENT NAME SYMBOLC
+ )ONIZED CALCIUM #A ))
( EXTREME VIOLET )ONIZED CALCIUM #A ))
H (YDROGEN (D DELTA TRANSITION
G .EUTRAL CALCIUM #A )
' VIOLET #( MOLECULE
(YDROGEN (G GAMMA
TRANSITION
D .EUTRAL IRON &E )
& BLUE (YDROGEN (B BETA TRANSITION
B .EUTRAL MAGNESIUM -G )
% GREEN .EUTRAL IRON &E )
D $ YELLOW D .EUTRAL SODIUM .A )
$ YELLOW .EUTRAL SODIUM .A )
# RED (YDROGEN (A ALPHA TRANSITION
" RED -OLECULAR OXYGEN / IN OUR AIR
! EXTREME RED -OLECULAR OXYGEN / IN OUR AIR
A 4HE WAVELENGTHS ARE IN NANOMETER UNITS WHERE NANOMETER METERS !STRONOMERS HAVE OFTEN USED
THE ¯NGSTRÚM UNIT OF WAVELENGTH WHERE ¯NGSTRÚM ¯ NANOMETERS

B 4HE LETTERS WERE USED BY *OSEPH VON &RAUNHOFER AROUND TO DESIGNATE THE SPECTRAL LINES
BEFORE THEY WERE CHEMICALLY IDENTIlED &RAUNHOFER DID NOT RESOLVE THE NUMBERED COMPONENTS OF THE $ AND
B LINES 4HE LINES ! AND " ARE PRODUCED BY MOLECULAR OXYGEN IN THE TERRESTRIAL ATMOSPHERE
C ! 2OMAN NUMERAL ) AFTER AN ELEMENT SYMBOL DENOTES A NEUTRAL OR UN IONIZED ATOM WITH NO ELECTRONS MISS
ING WHEREAS THE 2OMAN NUMERAL )) DENOTES A SINGLY IONIZED ATOM WITH ONE ELECTRON MISSING
D 5N IONIZED HELIUM (E ) WAS DISCOVERED IN EMISSION DURING A SOLAR ECLIPSE IN AT A WAVELENGTH OF
NANOMETERS NEAR THE TWO SODIUM LINES 4HE HELIUM LINE IS SOMETIMES DESIGNATED AS $
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'*( )NTERFEROMETER 7HEN INCOMING RADIATION APPROACHES THE
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TELESCOPES AT SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT TIMES 4HIS DELAY IN ARRIVAL TIME IS THE
DISTANCE 8 DIVIDED BY THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT )F 8 IS AN EXACT MULTIPLE OF THE
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4HE ANGULAR RESOLUTION OF SUCH AN INTERFEROMETER OR INTERFERENCE METER IS
EQUAL TO THE WAVELENGTH DIVIDED BY THE EFFECTIVE BASELINE 7HEN THE OBJECT
BEING OBSERVED IS DIRECTLY OVERHEAD THE EFFECTIVE BASELINE IS EQUAL TO THE
DISTANCE BETWEEN THE TWO TELESCOPES
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)O EBTIFEMJOF IS INCLINED TO THE PLASMA TORUS
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4!",% -ARS n SATELLITESA

0HOBOS $EIMOS
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3IDEREAL PERIOD -ARTIAN DAYS C
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B 4HE RADIUS OF -ARS IS 2 KILOMETERS
-
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4!",% -ARS n OPPOSITIONSA

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4!",% .!3! AND %3! SPACE MISSIONS A

!POLLO -ISSIONS 3IX !POLLO SPACECRAFT TRANSPORTED TWELVE ASTRONAUTS TO THE -OON AND BACK
BETWEEN AND 4HEY RETURNED A TOTAL OF KILOGRAMS OF ROCKS THAT WERE USED TO
DECIPHER THE -OONS HISTORY AND PROVIDE CLUES TO ITS ORIGIN 4HE !POLLO ASTRONAUT .EIL !
!RMSTRONG n WAS THE lRST HUMAN TO STEP ON THE -OON FROM THE ,UNAR -ODULE %AGLE
ON *ULY
#ASSINI (UYGENS -ISSION .!3! LAUNCHED THE #ASSINI (UYGENS SPACECRAFT ON /CTOBER
)NSTRUMENTS ABOARD THE SPACECRAFT WHICH REACHED 3ATURN IN *ULY WILL IMPROVE
OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE PLANET 3ATURN ITS RINGS ITS MAGNETOSPHERE AND ITS SATELLITES .!3!S
#ASSINI /RBITERWILL ORBIT 3ATURN AND ITS MOONS FOR FOUR YEARS /N *ANUARY %3!S
(UYGENS 0ROBE DOVE INTO THE THICK HAZY ATMOSPHERE OF 3ATURNS MOON 4ITAN AND LANDED ON
ITS SURFACE DISCOVERING SIGNS OF mOWING LIQUID PROBABLY METHANE 4HE SPACECRAFT IS NAMED FOR
THE )TALIAN BORN &RENCH ASTRONOMER 'IAN 'IOVANNI $OMENICO *EAN $OMENIQUE #AS
SINI n WHO DISCOVERED #ASSINIS GAP IN 3ATURNS RINGS AND THE $UTCH ASTRONOMER
#HRISTIAAN (UYGENS n WHO DISCOVERED 4ITAN 3ATURNS LARGEST MOON
#HANDRA 8 RAY /BSERVATORY .!3! DEPLOYED THE #HANDRA 8 RAY /BSERVATORY ABBREVIATED
#8/ ON *ULY FROM THE 3PACE 3HUTTLE #OLUMBIA )T INVESTIGATES THE HIGH ENERGY
8 RAY REGIONS OF THE 5NIVERSE FROM COSMIC OBJECTS SUCH AS ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI BLACK HOLES
CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES DARK MATTER GALAXIES NEUTRON STARS PULSARS QUASARS SUPERNOVA REMNANTS
SUPERNOVAE AND WHITE DWARFS 4HE 8 RAY OBSERVATORY WAS NAMED AFTER THE )NDIAN BORN !MERI
CAN ASTROPHYSICIST AND .OBEL LAUREATE 3UBRAHMANYAN #HANDRASEKHAR ¥
#OMPTON 'AMMA 2AY /BSERVATORY .!3! LAUNCHED THE #OMPTON 'AMMA 2AY /BSERVA
TORY ABBREVIATED #'2/ ON !PRIL FROM THE 3PACE 3HUTTLE !TLANTIS AND IT RE ENTERED
THE %ARTHS ATMOSPHERE ON *UNE )T WAS THE SECOND OF .!3!S FOUR GREAT OBSERVATORIES
IN SPACE DESIGNED TO STUDY THE 5NIVERSE IN AN INVISIBLE HIGH ENERGY FORM OF RADIATION KNOWN
AS GAMMA RAYS )T DETECTED MORE THAN GAMMA RAY BURSTS AS WELL AS GAMMA RAYS FROM
BLACK HOLES PULSARS QUASARS AND SUPERNOVAE 4HE GAMMA RAY OBSERVATORY WAS NAMED AFTER THE
!MERICAN PHYSICIST !RTHUR #OMPTON n WHO IS REMEMBERED FOR DISCOVERING THE
#OMPTON EFFECT A PHENOMENON IN WHICH ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES SUCH AS 8 RAYS UNDERGO AN
INCREASE IN WAVELENGTH AFTER HAVING BEEN SCATTERED BY ELECTRONS
#/SMIC "ACKGROUND %XPLORER .!3! LAUNCHED THE#/SMIC "ACKGROUND %XPLORER ABBREVI

ATED #/"% ON .OVEMBER INSTRUMENT OPERATIONS WERE TERMINATED ON $ECEMBER
4HESE INSTRUMENTS MEASURED THE ANGULAR DISTRIBUTION AND SPECTRUM OF THE COSMIC MICRO
WAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION SHOWING THAT IT HAS A FAINT ANISOTROPY AND A BLACKBODY SPECTRUM
WITH A TEMPERATURE OF KELVIN
%INSTEIN /BSERVATORY .!3! LAUNCHED THE%INSTEIN /BSERVATORY THE lRST FULLY IMAGING 8 RAY
TELESCOPE PUT IN SPACE ON .OVEMBER WHERE IT ORBITED %ARTH AND OBTAINED DATA UNTIL
!PRIL )T PROVIDED THE lRST HIGH RESOLUTION 8 RAY STUDIES OF SUPERNOVA REMNANTS DISCOV
ERED UNEXPECTEDLY INTENSE CORONAL EMISSION FROM MAIN SEQUENCE STARS RESOLVED NUMEROUS
8 RAY SOURCES IN NEARBY GALAXIES AND DETECTED 8 RAY JETS FROM #ENTAURUS ! AND - ALIGNED
WITH RADIO JETS 4HE OBSERVATORY IS NAMED AFTER THE 'ERMAN BORN !MERICAN PHYSICIST !LBERT
%INSTEIN n WHO REVOLUTIONIZED OUR UNDERSTANDING OF SPACE MATTER AND TIME
'ALILEO -ISSION 4HE 'ALILEO SPACECRAFT WAS LAUNCHED BY .!3! ONBOARD THE 3PACE 3HUTTLE
!TLANTIS ON /CTOBER AND ARRIVED AT *UPITER ON $ECEMBER ORBITING THE GIANT
PLANET AND VASTLY INCREASING OUR UNDERSTANDING OF *UPITER AND THE FOUR 'ALILEAN SATELLITES )O
%UROPA 'ANYMEDE AND #ALLISTO 4HE MISSION IS NAMED AFTER THE )TALIAN ASTRONOMER 'ALILEO
'ALILEI n WHO DISCOVERED *UPITERS FOUR LARGEST MOONS NOW KNOWN AS THE 'ALILEAN
SATELLITES 4HE MISSION WAS TERMINATED ON 3EPTEMBER
CONTINUED
(MPTTBSZ/
4!",% .!3! AND %3! SPACE MISSIONS

'IOTTO -ISSION %3! LAUNCHED THE (JPUUP SPACECRAFT ON *ULY )T ENCOUNTERED #OMET
(ALLEY ON -ARCH OBTAINING IMAGES OF ITS DARK IRREGULAR JET SPEWING NUCLEUS AND
MEASURING THE AMOUNT OF WATER AND DUST EMITTED 4HE MISSION IS NAMED AFTER THE &LORENTINE
PAINTER 'IOTTO DI "ONDONE C nC
()GH 0RECISION 0!2ALLAX #/LLECTING 3ATELLITE %3! LAUNCHED ITS ()GH 0RECISION 0!2ALLAX
#/LLECTING 3ATELLITE ABBREVIATED ()00!2#/3 ON !UGUST AND OPERATED IT UNTIL !UGUST
)T WAS THE lRST SPACE MISSION DEDICATED TO ASTROMETRY MEASURING THE ACCURATE POSITIONS
DISTANCES MOTIONS BRIGHTNESS AND COLORS OF STARS ()00!2#/3 MEASURED THE PARALLAX AND PROPER
MOTIONS OF STARS WITH A PRECISION OF TO SECONDS OF ARC UP TO TIMES BETTER
THAN POSSIBLE FROM THE GROUND 4HE ACRONYM ALSO ALLUDES TO (IPPARCHUS OF .ICAEA C "#n
C "# WHO RECORDED ACCURATE STAR POSITIONS MORE THAN TWO MILLENNIA PREVIOUSLY
(UBBLE 3PACE 4ELESCOPE 4HE WORLDS lRST SPACE BASED OPTICAL OR VISIBLE LIGHT ASTRONOMI
CAL TELESCOPE THE (UBBLE 3PACE 4ELESCOPE WITH A METER INCH PRIMARY MIRROR WAS
LAUNCHED ON !PRIL FROM THE 3PACE 3HUTTLE $ISCOVERY WITH SERVICING MISSIONS BY
SHUTTLE ASTRONAUTS IN $ECEMBER &EBRUARY $ECEMBER AND &EBRUARY )T
HAS OBSERVED NEWLY FORMED GALAXIES WHEN THE 5NIVERSE WAS HALF ITS PRESENT AGE CONTRIBUTING TO
OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE AGE AND EVOLUTION OF THE #OSMOS WATCHED SUPER MASSIVE BLACK HOLES
CONSUMING THE MATERIAL AROUND THEM AND HELPED ASTRONOMERS DETERMINE HOW A MYSTERIOUS
hDARK ENERGYv HAS TAKEN OVER THE EXPANSION OF THE 5NIVERSE 4HE TELESCOPE WAS NAMED FOR THE
!MERICAN ASTRONOMER %DWIN (UBBLE n WHO DEMONSTRATED THAT SPIRAL NEBULAE ARE
GALAXIES LIKE OUR OWN -ILKY 7AY AND FOUND THE lRST EVIDENCE FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE 5NIVERSE
(UYGENS 0ROBE 4FF #ASSINI (UYGENS -ISSION
-AGELLAN -ISSION .!3! LAUNCHED ITS -AGELLAN SPACECRAFT TO 6ENUS ON -AY )T AR
RIVED AT THE PLANET ON !UGUST AND ORBITED THE PLANET FOR FOUR YEARS USING RADAR TO MAP
PERCENT OF THE PLANETS SURFACE WITH METER VERTICAL RESOLUTION AND KILOMETER SPATIAL
RESOLUTION 4HE -AGELLAN RADAR IMAGES REVEALED RUGGED HIGHLANDS PLAINS SMOOTHED OUT BY
GLOBAL LAVA mOWS UBIQUITOUS VOLCANOES AND SPARSE PRISTINE IMPACT CRATERS )T IS NAMED FOR THE
0ORTUGUESE EXPLORER &ERDINAND -AGELLAN n WHOSE SHIP 6ICTORIA COMPLETED THE
lRST CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE %ARTH IN
-ARS %XPLORATION 2OVER -ISSIONS .!3!S TWIN ROVERS 3PIRIT AND /PPORTUNITY LAUNCHED ON
*UNE AND *ULY RESPECTIVELY 3PIRIT LANDED IN 'USEV #RATER ON *ANUARY AND
/PPORTUNITY LANDED IN -ERIDIANI 0LANUM ON *ANUARY OBTAINING EVIDENCE THAT LIQUID
WATER ONCE mOWED ACROSS -ARS
-ARS 'LOBAL 3URVEYOR .!3! LAUNCHED ITS -ARS 'LOBAL 3URVEYOR ON .OVEMBER PLACING
IT INTO ORBIT AROUND THE RED PLANET ON 3EPTEMBER (IGH RESOLUTION IMAGES BEGINNING ON
!PRIL OBTAINED ABUNDANT EVIDENCE FOR PAST AND RECENT WATER mOW DUST STORMS AND VOLCANIC
ACTIVITY 4HE GLOBAL TOPOGRAPHY WAS DETERMINED WITH A LASER ALTIMETER AND A MAGNETOMETER DETER
MINED THE GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF REMNANT MAGNETIC lELDS PRESERVED IN THE ANCIENT HIGHLAND CRUST
-ARS /DYSSEY .!3! LAUNCHED ITS -ARS /DYSSEY SPACECRAFT ON !PRIL
PLACING IT INTO ORBIT AROUND THE RED PLANET ON /CTOBER )T HAS MAPPED THE AMOUNT AND
DISTRIBUTION OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS AND MINERALS ON THE -ARTIAN SURFACE AND PROVIDED EVIDENCE
FOR SUBSTANTIAL SUBSURFACE WATER ICE
.EAR %ARTH !STEROID 2ENDEZVOUS 3HOEMAKER -ISSION .!3! LAUNCHED ITS .EAR %ARTH
!STEROID 2ENDEZVOUT ABBREVIATED .%!2 MISSION ON &EBRUARY AND IT ARRIVED AT THE
NEAR %ARTH ASTEROID %ROS ON 6ALENTINES DAY &EBRUARY )T WAS RENAMED .%!2
3HOEMAKER AFTER LAUNCH IN HONOR OF THE ASTRONOMER GEOLOGIST %UGENE - 3HOEMAKER
n A PIONEERING EXPERT ON ASTEROID AND COMET IMPACT .%!2 3HOEMAKER CIRCLED THE
ASTEROID %ROS FOR A YEAR DETERMINING ITS DETAILED SIZE SHAPE MASS AND MASS DENSITY AND
SHOWING THAT IT HAS A BATTERED HOMOGENEOUS STRUCTURE
CONTINUED

2ÚNTGEN MISSION !N 8 RAY OBSERVATORY DEVELOPED THROUGH A COOPERATIVE PROGRAM AMONG
'ERMANY THE 5NITED 3TATES AND THE 5NITED +INGDOM LAUNCHED BY .!3! ON *UNE
AND ENDING ALMOST NINE YEARS LATER ON &EBRUARY 4HE SPACECRAFT ABBREVIATED 2/3!4
FOR 2/NTGEN 3!4ELLITE CARRIED OUT AN ALL SKY SURVEY OF COSMIC 8 RAYS AND OBTAINED DETAILED
INFORMATION ABOUT THE 8 RAY EMISSION FROM COMETS 4 4AURI STARS GLOBULAR CLUSTERS NEU
TRON STARS SUPERNOVA REMNANTS PLANETARY NEBULAE NEARBY NORMAL GALAXIES ACTIVE GALACTIC
NUCLEI AND CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES 4HE MISSION WAS NAMED AFTER 7ILHELM +ONRAD 2ÚNTGEN
THE 'ERMAN PHYSICIST WHO DISCOVERED 8 RAYS IN
3/LAR AND (ELIOSPHERIC /BSERVATORY .!3! LAUNCHED THE 3/LAR AND (ELIOSPHERIC /BSERVA
TORY ABBREVIATED 3/(/ ON $ECEMBER WITH OPERATIONS CONTINUING INTO )T IS A
COOPERATIVE PROJECT BETWEEN %3! AND .!3! TO STUDY THE 3UN FROM ITS DEEP CORE THROUGH ITS
OUTER ATMOSPHERE AND THE SOLAR WIND OUT TO A DISTANCE TEN TIMES BEYOND THE %ARTHS ORBIT )T HAS
OBTAINED IMPORTANT NEW INFORMATION ABOUT THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE SOLAR INTERIOR THE
HEATING MECHANISM OF THE 3UNS MILLION DEGREE OUTER ATMOSPHERE THE SOLAR CORONA AND THE
ORIGIN AND ACCELERATION OF THE SOLAR WIND
3PITZER 3PACE 4ELESCOPE .!3! LAUNCHED THE 3PITZER 3PACE 4ELESCOPE ABBREVIATED 334 ON
!UGUST WITH AN EXPECTED MINIMUM YEAR MISSION LIFETIME )T IS AN INFRARED TELE
SCOPE WITH AN METER INCH PRIMARY MIRROR OBTAINING IMAGES AND SPECTRA OF THE IN
FRARED ENERGY OR HEAT RADIATED BY COSMIC OBJECTS AT WAVELENGTHS BETWEEN AND MICRONS
WHERE MICRON IS ONE MILLIONTH OF A METER AND PROVIDING INFORMATION ON THE FORMATION
COMPOSITION AND EVOLUTION OF PLANETS STARS AND GALAXIES 4HE MISSION WAS INITIALLY DESIGNATED
THE 3PACE )NFRA 2ED 4ELESCOPE &ACILITY OR 3)24& FOR SHORT AND RENAMED FOR THE !MERICAN
ASTROPHYSICIST ,YMAN 3PITZER *R
5HURU -ISSION 4HE 5HURU SATELLITEWAS LAUNCHED FROM +ENYA ON $ECEMBER ON THE
SEVENTH ANNIVERSARY OF +ENYAN INDEPENDENCE WHEN IT WAS NAMED 5HURU THE 3WAHILI WORD
FOR hFREEDOMv )T PROVIDED A COMPREHENSIVE ALL SKY SURVEY OF COSMIC 8 RAY SOURCES INCLUD
ING BLACK HOLES AND NEUTRON STARS IN BINARY STELLAR SYSTEMS SUPERNOVA REMNANTS 3EYFERT GALAX
IES AND CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES )T DISCOVERED 8 RAY EMISSION FROM BLACK HOLES AND PULSARS AND
THE DIFFUSE 8 RAY EMISSION FROM CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES WHICH ACCOUNTS FOR SOME OF THE SO CALLED
DARK MATTER IN THE 5NIVERSE 4HE MISSION ENDED IN -ARCH
5LYSSES -ISSION 4HE 5LYSSESSPACECRAFT WAS A JOINT UNDERTAKING OF %3! AND .!3! LAUNCHED
BY THE 3PACE 3HUTTLE $ISCOVERY ON /CTOBER $URING AN ENCOUNTER WITH *UPITER ON
&EBRUARY THE GIANT PLANETS GRAVITATIONAL lELD WAS USED TO ACCELERATE THE SPACECRAFT
AND HURL IT ABOVE THE 3UNS POLES BUT NEVER AT A DISTANCE CLOSER TO THE 3UN THAN THE %ARTH IS
5LYSSES PASSED OVER THE SOLAR SOUTH POLE IN 3EPTEMBER AND THE NORTH POLE IN *ULY
AND THEN AGAIN OVER THE SOUTH POLE IN .OVEMBER AND THE NORTH POLE IN $ECEMBER
#OMPARISONS OF 6MZTTFT OBSERVATIONS WITH THOSE FROM OTHER SPACECRAFT SUCH AS 9OHKOH AND
3/(/ SHOWED THAT MUCH IF NOT ALL OF THE HIGH SPEED SOLAR WIND COMES FROM OPEN MAG
NETIC lELDS IN POLAR CORONAL HOLES AT LEAST DURING THE MINIMUM OF THE 3UNS YEAR CYCLE OF
MAGNETIC ACTIVITY
6IKING -ISSION .!3!S 6IKING -ISSION TO -ARS WAS COMPOSED OF TWO SPACECRAFT 6IKING
AND 6IKING EACH CONSISTING OF AN ORBITER AND A LANDER 4HE ORBITERS IMAGED THE ENTIRE
SURFACE OF -ARS AT A RESOLUTION OF TO METERS SHOWING VOLCANOES LAVA PLAINS IMMENSE
CANYONS CRATERED AREAS WIND FORMED FEATURES AND EVIDENCE FOR CATASTROPHIC mOODS OF WATER
ACROSS THE -ARTIAN SURFACE IN THE PAST 4HE LANDERS FOUND NO DETECTABLE ORGANIC MOLECULES ON
THE -ARTIAN SURFACE WHICH MEANS THAT THIS PART OF THE SURFACE NOW CONTAINS NO CELLS LIVING
DORMANT OR DEAD
CONTINUED
(MPTTBSZ/

7ILKINSON -ICROWAVE !NISOTROPY 0ROBE .!3! LAUNCHED ITS 7ILKINSON -ICROWAVE
!NISOTROPY 0ROBE ABBREVIATED 7-!0 ON *UNE PUBLISHING DElNITIVE FULL SKY MAPS
OF THE FAINT ANISOTROPY OR TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS OF THE COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIA
TION IN EARLY 7HEN COMBINED WITH THE RESULTS OF OTHER DIVERSE COSMIC MEASUREMENTS
THE 8."1 DATA SUGGEST THAT THE 5NIVERSE IS BILLION YEARS OLD THAT THE lRST STARS BEGAN
TO SHINE ABOUT MILLION YEARS AFTER THE "IG "ANG THAT THE RADIATION IN THE 8."1 IMAGES
ORIGINATED AT THE DECOUPLING TIME YEARS AFTER THE "IG "ANG THAT THE (UBBLE CONSTANT
HAS A VALUE OF KILOMETERS PER SECOND PER -EGAPARSEC AND THAT THE 5NIVERSE IS COMPOSED OF
PERCENT ATOMS PERCENT COLD DARK MATTER AND PERCENT DARK ENERGY 4HE PROBE IS NAMED
IN HONOR OF $AVID 4 7ILKINSON n OF 0RINCETON 5NIVERSITY A PIONEER IN COSMIC
MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RESEARCH AND THE ."1 INSTRUMENT SCIENTIST
9OHKOH -ISSION 4HE *APANESE )NSTITUTE OF 3PACE AND !STRONAUTICAL 3CIENCE ABBREVIATED
)3!3 LAUNCHED ITS 3OLAR ! SPACECRAFT ON !UGUST RENAMING IT 9OHKOH WHICH MEANS
hSUNBEAMv IN %NGLISH 9OHKOH COLLECTED HIGH ENERGY RADIATION FROM THE 3UN AT SOFT 8 RAY AND
HARD 8 RAY WAVELENGTHS WITH HIGH ANGULAR AND SPECTRAL RESOLUTION FOR MORE THAN A DECADE
PROVIDING NEW INSIGHTS TO THE MECHANISMS OF SOLAR mARE ENERGY RELEASE AND THE HEATING OF THE
MILLION DEGREE SOLAR CORONA )T WAS A COLLABORATIVE EFFORT OF *APAN THE 5NITED 3TATES AND THE
5NITED +INGDOM
A 4HISABBREVIATED LIST DOES NOT INCLUDE ALL .!3! OR %3! -ISSIONS BUT THESE PAST CURRENT AND FUTURE
SPACECRAFT ARE LISTED ALPHABETICALLY IN OUR (MPTTBSZ
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A %MILIO 3EGRÒ n &OR THEIR DISCOVERY OF THE ANTIPROTON
)TALIAN BORN !MERICAN PHYSICIST
/WEN #HAMBERLAIN n
!MERICAN PHYSICIST
A 2UDOLF -ÚSSBAUER n &OR HIS RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE RESONANCE
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COVERY IN THIS CONNECTION OF THE EFFECT WHICH
BEARS HIS NAME
A #HARLES ( 4OWNES n &OR FUNDAMENTAL WORK IN THE lELD OF QUAN
!MERICAN PHYSICIST TUM ELECTRONICS WHICH HAS LED TO THE CON
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!LEKSANDR 0ROKHOROV ON THE MASER LASER PRINCIPLE
2USSIAN SCIENTISTS
A (ANS "ETHE n &OR HIS CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE THEORY OF NUCLEAR
!MERICAN PHYSICIST REACTIONS ESPECIALLY HIS DISCOVERIES CONCERN
ING THE ENERGY PRODUCTION IN STARS
A (ANNES !LFVÏN n &OR FUNDAMENTAL WORK AND DISCOVERIES IN
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PHYSICS
CONTINUED

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THE DISCOVERY OF PULSARS
A !RNO ! 0ENZIAS &OR THEIR DISCOVERY OF THE COSMIC MICROWAVE
!MERICAN RADIO ENGINEER BACKGROUND RADIATION
2OBERT 7 7ILSON n
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A 3UBRAMANYAN &OR HIS THEORETICAL STUDIES OF THE PHYSICAL
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FORMATION OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS IN THE
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A .ORMAN & 2AMSEY n &OR THE INVENTION OF THE SEPARATED OSCILLATORY
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MASER AND OTHER ATOMIC CLOCKS
A 2USSELL ! (ULSE n &OR THEIR DISCOVERY OF A NEW TYPE OF PULSAR A
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!MERICAN RADIO ASTRONOMERS TIES FOR THE STUDY OF GRAVITATION
A &REDERICK 2EINES n &OR THE DETECTION OF THE NEUTRINO

!MERICAN PHYSICIST
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YEARS SWEEPING OUT A CONE WITH AN ANGULAR RADIUS OF ABOUT DEGREES 4HE 'REEK
ASTRONOMER (IPPARCHUS LIVED C
"# DISCOVERED THIS PRECESSION IN THE
ND CENTURY "# 4HE NORTH CELESTIAL
POLE NOW LIES NEAR THE BRIGHT STAR
0OLARIS BUT AS THE RESULT OF PRECESSION
THE ROTATIONAL AXIS WILL POINT TOWARDS
ANOTHER BRIGHT NORTH STAR 6EGA IN
ROUGHLY YEARS 4HIS MOTION
OF THE %ARTHS ROTATIONAL AXIS ALSO
CAUSES A PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES
AND THEREFORE A SLOW CHANGE IN THE

CELESTIAL COORDINATES OF ANY COSMIC
OBJECT 4HE 6ERNAL %QUINOX WILL MOVE
THROUGH ALL THE SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC IN
ABOUT YEARS
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lELD WHOSE AXIS INTERSECTS THE NORTH AND SOUTH MAGNETIC POLES 4HE ROTAT
ING lELDS GENERATE STRONG ELECTRIC CURRENTS AND ACCELERATE ELECTRONS WHICH
EMIT AN INTENSE NARROW BEAM OF RADIO RADIATION FROM EACH MAGNETIC POLE
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AXIS THESE BEAMS WHEEL AROUND THE SKY AS THE NEUTRON STAR ROTATES ONCE
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OF RADIO EMISSION CALLED A PULSAR IS OBSERVED ONCE PER ROTATION OF THE
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4!",% 3OLAR ECLIPSES n TOTAL A

-AXIMUM
$URATION
$ATE MINUTES 0ATH OF TOTALITY
*UNE !TLANTIC /CEAN !NGOLA :AMBIA :IMBABWE -OZAMBIQUE
-ADAGASCAR
$ECEMBER !NGOLA "OTSWANA :AMBIA :IMBABWE 3OUTH !FRICA -O
ZAMBIQUE SOUTH )NDIAN /CEAN SOUTHERN !USTRALIA
.OVEMBER !NTARCTICA
!PRIL %ASTERN 0ACIlC /CEAN
-ARCH %ASTERN "RAZIL !TLANTIC /CEAN 'HANA 4OGO "ENIN .IGE
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!UGUST .ORTHERN #ANADA 'REENLAND !RCTIC /CEAN 2USSIA -ON
GOLIA #HINA
*ULY )NDIA .EPAL "HUTAN "URMA #HINA 0ACIlC /CEAN
*ULY 3OUTH 0ACIlC /CEAN %ASTER )SLAND #HILE !RGENTINA
.OVEMBER .ORTHERN !USTRALIA SOUTH 0ACIlC /CEAN
.OVEMBER !TLANTIC /CEAN 'ABON #ONGO :AIRE 5GANDA +ENYA
-ARCH .ORTH !TLANTIC /CEAN &AEROE )SLANDS !RCTIC /CEANS
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CONTINUED
4!",% 3OLAR ECLIPSES n TOTAL A

-AXIMUM
$URATION
$ATE MINUTES 0ATH OF TOTALITY
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0ARAMETER -EAN 6ALUE
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4EMPERATURE 4 + PROTONS TO + ELECTRONS
0ARTICLE 4HERMAL %NERGY K4 * E6
0ROTON +INETIC %NERGY MP6 * E6 KE6
4HERMAL %NERGY $ENSITY .K4 * M
0ROTON %NERGY $ENSITY . MP 6 * M
-AGNETIC &IELD 3TRENGTH " 4 N4 '
A -EAN VALUES OF SOLAR WIND PARAMETERS AT THE MEAN DISTANCE OF THE %ARTH FROM THE 3UN OR AT ONE ASTRONOMI
CAL UNIT !5 WHERE !5 M THE 3UNS RADIUS 2b IS 2b M "OLTZMANNS
CONSTANT K * + RELATES TEMPERATURE AND THERMAL ENERGY 4HE PROTON MASS MP
KG
UIFXJOUFSTPMTUJDF PDDVSSJOHBSPVOE%FDFNCFS UIF4VOJTGBSUIFTUTPVUIBOEUIF

EBZMJHIUIPVSTJOUIFOPSUIFSOIFNJTQIFSFBSFTIPSUFTU4FFEFDMJOBUJPOBOETFBTPO
4PNCSFSP(BMBYZ ѮFTQJSBMHBMBYZBCPVUNJMMJPOMJHIUZFBSTBXBZJOUIFEJSFDUJPO
PGUIFDPOTUFMMBUJPO7JSHP EFTJHOBUFE.BOE/($ TFFOOFBSMZFEHFPOXJUI
BEBSLCBOEPGJOUFSTUFMMBSEVTUDSPTTJOHUIFDFOUFSPGJUTMBSHFDFOUSBMCVMHF
4PVOETQFFE 4FFWFMPDJUZPGTPVOE
4PVOEXBWFT 4FFBDPVTUJDXBWFT
4PVUIFSODSPTT 1PQVMBSOBNFGPSUIFTPVUIFSOIFNJTQIFSFDPOTUFMMBUJPO$SVY4FF
"DSVY BOE$SVY
4QBDF *OGSB3FE 5FMFTDPQF 'BDJMJUZ "CCSFWJBUFE 4*35' BOE SFOBNFE UIF 4QJU[FS
4QBDF5FMFTDPQF4FF4QJU[FS4QBDF5FMFTDPQF
4QBDF *OUFSGFSPNFUSZ .JTTJPO /"4"T 4QBDF *OUFSGFSPNFUFSZ .JTTJPO BCCSFWJ
BUFE4*. JTJOEFWFMPQNFOU XJUIBMBVODITDIFEVMFEGPS*UXJMMVTFBTQBDF
JOUFSGFSPNFUFSUPQSPCFOFBSCZTUBSTGPS&BSUITJ[FEQMBOFUTBOEUPNFBTVSFUIFQPTJ
UJPOT BOE EJTUBODFT PG TUBST IVOESFET PG UJNFT NPSF BDDVSBUFMZ UIBO BOZ QSFWJPVT
QSPHSBN
4QBDF5FMFTDPQF4DJFODF*OTUJUVUF ѮF4QBDF5FMFTDPQF4DJFODF*OTUJUVUF BCCSFWJBUFE
454D* JTUIFBTUSPOPNJDBMSFTFBSDIDFOUFSSFTQPOTJCMFGPSPQFSBUJOHUIF)VCCMF4QBDF
5FMFTDPQFBTBOJOUFSOBUJPOBMPCTFSWBUPSZѮF454D*JTMPDBUFEBUUIF)PNFXPPEDBN
QVTPG+PIOT)PQLJOT6OJWFSTJUZ
4QBDFUJNF "GPVSEJNFOTJPOBMEFTDSJQUJPOXJUIUISFFEJNFOTJPOTPGTQBDFBOEPOF
PGUJNF FNQMPZFEJOUIF4QFDJBMBOE(FOFSBMѮFPSZPG3FMBUJWJUZ4FF4QFDJBMѮFPSZPG
3FMBUJWJUZBOE(FOFSBMѮFPSZPG3FMBUJWJUZ
4QBDFXFBUIFS 7BSZJOHDPOEJUJPOTJOJOUFSQMBOFUBSZTQBDFBOEUIF&BSUITNBHOFUP
TQIFSFDPOUSPMMFECZUIFWBSJBCMFTPMBSXJOE
4QFDJBM5IFPSZPG3FMBUJWJUZ &YQMBOBUJPOPGUIFQSPQFSUJFTPGPCKFDUTNPWJOHBUIJHI
TQFFET BQQSPBDIJOHUIFWFMPDJUZPGMJHIU QSPQPTFEJOCZUIF(FSNBOQIZTJDJTU
"MCFSU&JOTUFJO ¢ ѮFIJHITQFFEPCKFDUTFYIJCJUBOJODSFBTFJONBTT B
-PSFOU[DPOUSBDUJPOPGMFOHUI BOEBTMPXJOHPGUJNF PSUJNFEJMBUJPO XIFODPNQBSFE
UPOPONPWJOHPCKFDUTBUSFTUѮF4QFDJBMѮFPSZPG3FMBUJWJUZSFTUTVQPOUIFQPTUVMBUFT
ѮF 1SJODJQMF PG 3FMBUJWJUZ XIJDI TUBUFT UIBU UIF MBXT PG OBUVSF BOE UIF SFTVMUT PG
FYQFSJNFOUTQFSGPSNFEJOBOJOFSUJBMGSBNFBSFJOEFQFOEFOUPGUIFVOJGPSNWFMPDJUZPG
UIFTZTUFNѮFSFFYJTUTJOOBUVSFBMJNJUJOH JOWBSJBOUTQFFE UIFTQFFEPGMJHIU BVOJ
WFSTBM DPOTUBOU 4FF -PSFOU[ DPOUSBDUJPO .JDIFMTPO.PSMFZ FYQFSJNFOU .JOLPXTLJ
NFUSJD UJNFEJMBUJPO BOEWFMPDJUZPGMJHIU
4QFDUSBMDMBTTJmDBUJPO 4FFTUFMMBSDMBTTJêDBUJPO
4QFDUSBMMJOF "GFBUVSFPCTFSWFEJOUIFTQFDUSBPGTUBSTBOEPUIFSMVNJOPVTPCKFDUTBUB
TQFDJêDGSFRVFODZPSXBWFMFOHUI FJUIFSJOCSJHIUFNJTTJPOPSJOEBSLBCTPSQUJPO"TQFD
USBMMJOFMPPLTMJLFBMJOFJOBEJTQMBZPGSBEJBUJPOJOUFOTJUZBTBGVODUJPOPGXBWFMFOHUIPS
GSFRVFODZ"UPNTQSPEVDFUIJTTQFDUSBMGFBUVSFBTUIFZBCTPSCPSFNJUMJHIU BOEJUDBOCF
VTFEUPEFUFSNJOFUIFDIFNJDBMJOHSFEJFOUTPGUIFSBEJBUJOHTPVSDF4QFDUSBMMJOFTBSFBMTP
VTFEUPJOGFSUIFSBEJBMWFMPDJUZBOENBHOFUJDêFMEPGUIFSBEJBUPS4FFBCTPSQUJPOMJOF
%PQQMFSFĒFDU FNJTTJPOMJOF SBEJBMWFMPDJUZ TQFDUSVN BOE;FFNBOFĒFDU
4QFDUSBMUZQF 4FFTQFDUSBMDMBTTJêDBUJPO
4QFDUSPHSBQI "MTPLOPXOBTBTQFDUSPNFUFS BTQFDUSPHSBQITQSFBETMJHIUPSPUIFS

FMFDUSPNBHOFUJD SBEJBUJPO JOUP JUT DPNQPOFOU XBWFMFOHUIT DPMMFDUJWFMZ LOPXO BT B
TQFDUSVN BOESFDPSETUIFSFTVMUFMFDUSPOJDBMMZPSQIPUPHSBQIJDBMMZ4QFDUSBBSFOPX
PѫFOSFDPSEFEXJUI$IBSHF$PVQMFE%FWJDFT PS$$%T GSPNXIJDIBDPNQVUFSDBO
BOBMZ[FJOGPSNBUJPOJOEJHJUBMGPSN)JHIEJTQFSTJPOJOTUSVNFOUTTQSFBEUIFTQFDUSBM
MJOFTXJEFMZTPUIBUBQBSUJDVMBSXBWFMFOHUIDBOCFTUVEJFEJOEFUBJM"OFYBNQMFPG
TVDI B IJHIEJTQFSTJPO EFWJDF JT UIF TQFDUSPIFMJPHSBQI 4FF $IBSHF $PVQMFE %FWJDF
BOETQFDUSPIFMJPHSBQI
4QFDUSPIFMJPHSBQI "UZQFPGTQFDUSPHSBQIVTFEUPJNBHFUIF4VOJOUIFMJHIUPGPOF
QBSUJDVMBSXBWFMFOHUIPOMZ JOWFOUFEJOEFQFOEFOUMZJOCZUIF'SFODIBTUSPOPNFS
)FOSJ%FTMBOESFT ¢ BOECZUIF"NFSJDBOBTUSPOPNFS(FPSHF&MMFSZ)BMF
¢
4QFDUSPNFUFS 4FFTQFDUSPHSBQI
4QFDUSPTDPQF "OJOTUSVNFOUUIBUTQSFBETFMFDUSPNBHOFUJDSBEJBUJPOJOUPJUTWBSJPVT
XBWFMFOHUIT FTQFDJBMMZUIFDPNQPOFOUDPMPSTPGWJTJCMFMJHIUѮFEJTQMBZ LOPXOBTB
TQFDUSVN DBOCFVTFEUPEFUFSNJOFUIFJOHSFEJFOUT NBHOFUJDêFMETBOENPUJPOTPGUIF
DPTNJDTPVSDFPGUIFSBEJBUJPO4FFTQFDUSBMMJOF
4QFDUSPTDPQJDCJOBSZ "EPVCMFTUBSXIPTFUXPDPNQPOFOUTBSFJOGFSSFEGSPNUIFQFSJ
PEJD%PQQMFSTIJѫTPGUIFBCTPSQUJPOMJOFTJOUIFJSDPNCJOFETQFDUSVNѮF(FSNBO
(MPTTBSZ4

'*( 3PECTROHELIOGRAPH ! SMALL SECTION OF THE IMAGE AT THE FOCAL

PLANE OF A TELESCOPE IS SELECTED WITH A NARROW ENTRY SLIT 3 AND LIGHT
PASSES TO A DIFFRACTION GRATING PRODUCING A SPECTRUM ! SECOND SLIT
3 AT THE FOCAL PLANE SELECTS A SPECIlC WAVELENGTH FROM THE SPECTRUM
)F THE PLATE CONTAINING THE TWO SLITS IS MOVED HORIZONTALLY THEN THE
ENTRANCE SLIT PASSES ADJACENT STRIPS OF THE IMAGE 4HE LIGHT LEAVING THE
MOVING EXIT SLIT THEN BUILDS UP AN IMAGE OF THE 3UN AT A SPECIlC WAVE
LENGTH
BTUSPOPNFS)FSNBOO$BSM7PHFM ¢ EJTDPWFSFETQFDUSPTDPQJDCJOBSZTUBST

XIFOTUVEZJOHUIFQFSJPEJDEJTQMBDFNFOUTPGUIFTQFDUSBMMJOFTPGUIFFDMJQTJOHCJOBSZ
TUBST"MHPMBOE4QJDB4FF"MHPMBOE%PQQMFSFĒFDU
4QFDUSPTDPQJD QBSBMMBY ѮFEFUFSNJOBUJPOPGBTUBSTQBSBMMBY PSEJTUBODF GSPNJUT
TQFDUSBMUZQFBOEBQQBSFOUMVNJOPTJUZѮFBCTPMVUFMVNJOPTJUZDBOCFJOGFSSFEGSPN
UIFTQFDUSBMUZQF BOEJUGBMMTPĒBTUIFJOWFSTFTRVBSFPGUIFEJTUBODFUPHJWFUIFBQQBS
FOUMVNJOPTJUZ4FFBCTPMVUFMVNJOPTJUZ BQQBSFOUMVNJOPTJUZ JOWFSTFTRVBSFMBX QBSBM
MBY BOETUFMMBSDMBTTJêDBUJPO
4QFDUSPTDPQZ ѮFNFBTVSFNFOUBOETUVEZPGBTQFDUSVN JODMVEJOHUIFXBWFMFOHUI
BOEJOUFOTJUZPGFNJTTJPOBOEBCTPSQUJPOMJOFT UPEFUFSNJOFUIFDIFNJDBMDPNQPTJUJPO
NPUJPOPSNBHOFUJDêFMEPGUIFSBEJBUJOHTPVSDF4FFTQFDUSVN
4QFDUSVN ѮFEJTUSJCVUJPOPGUIFJOUFOTJUZPGFMFDUSPNBHOFUJDSBEJBUJPOXJUIXBWF
MFOHUI&MFDUSPNBHOFUJDSBEJBUJPO BSSBOHFEJOPSEFSPGXBWFMFOHUIGSPNMPOHXBWF
MFOHUI MPX GSFRVFODZ SBEJP FNJTTJPOT UP TIPSU XBWFMFOHUI IJHI GSFRVFODZ HBNNB
SBZTBMTP BOBSSPXFSCBOEPGXBWFMFOHUIT DBMMFEUIFWJTJCMFTQFDUSVN BTXIFOTVO
MJHIUJTEJTQFSTFECZBQSJTNPSSBJOCPXJOUPJUTDPNQPOFOUDPMPST"DPOUJOVPVTTQFD
USVNJTBOVOCSPLFOEJTUSJCVUJPOPGSBEJBUJPOPWFSBCSPBESBOHFPGXBWFMFOHUIT TVDI
BTUIFTFQBSBUJPOPGXIJUFMJHIUJOUPJUTDPNQPOFOUDPMPSTGSPNSFEUPWJPMFU$POUJOV
PVTTQFDUSBBSFPѫFOQVODUVBUFEXJUIFNJTTJPOPSBCTPSQUJPOMJOFT DBMMFEMJOFTQFD
USB XIJDIDBOCFFYBNJOFEUPSFWFBMUIFDPNQPTJUJPO NPUJPOBOENBHOFUJDêFMEPG
UIFSBEJBUJOHTPVSDF4FFBCTPSQUJPOMJOF %PQQMFSFĒFDU %PQQMFSTIJѫ FNJTTJPOMJOF
'SBVOIPGFSMJOFT TQFDUSBMMJOF TQFDUSPIFMJPHSBQI BOE;FFNBOFĒFDU
4QFFEPGMJHIU 4FFWFMPDJUZPGMJHIU
4QFFEPGTPVOE 4FFWFMPDJUZPGTPVOE
4QJDB "CMVFXIJUFNBJOTFRVFODF PSEXBSG TUBSPGTQFDUSBMUZQF#BOEBQQBSFOU

WJTVBMNBHOJUVEF BMTPLOPXOBT"MQIB7JSHJOJT"UBEJTUBODFPGMJHIUZFBST
JUIBTBQBSBMMBYPGTFDPOETPGBSD BOBCTPMVUFNBHOJUVEFPGmBOEBOJOUSJOTJD
MVNJOPTJUZBCPVUUJNFTUIBUPGUIF4VO4QJDBBMTPIBTBDPNQBOJPOEXBSGTUBS
PGTQFDUSBMUZQF#UIBUJTMFTTUIBOQFSDFOUBTMVNJOPVTBT4QJDB BOETFQBSBUFEGSPN
4QJDBCZPOMZ"6PSTPMBSSBEJJѮFOBNFNFBOTiUIF4QJLFuPSi&BSPG8IFBUu
XIJDIUIF7JSHJO.BSZIPMETJOBODJFOUQPSUSBZBMTPGUIFDPOTUFMMBUJPO7JSHJOJT
4QJDVMF /BSSPX QSFEPNJOBOUMZSBEJBM TQJLFMJLFTUSVDUVSFTFYUFOEJOHGSPNUIFTPMBS
DISPNPTQIFSFJOUPUIFDPSPOB PCTFSWFEJOIZESPHFOBMQIBMJOFTBOEDPODFOUSBUFEBU
UIFDFMMCPVOEBSJFTPGUIFTVQFSHSBOVMBUJPO"TQJDVMFMBTUTCFUXFFOêWFUPêѫFFONJO
VUFTBOEIBTBWFMPDJUZPGBCPVULJMPNFUFSTQFSTFDPOEѮFZBSFBCPVULJMPNFUFS
UIJDLBOENPSFUIBO LJMPNFUFSTMPOH4FFDISPNPTQIFSF IZESPHFOBMQIBMJOF
BOETVQFSHSBOVMBUJPO
4QJSBM BSNT " QJOXIFFM TUSVDUVSF DPNQPTFE PG EVTU HBT BOE ZPVOH TUBST XIJDI
XJOETJUTXBZPVUGSPNUIFDFOUFSPGBTQJSBMHBMBYZ
4QJSBMHBMBYZ "HBMBYZDPOUBJOJOHTQJSBMBSNTDPJMJOHBOEXJOEJOHPVUGSPNBDFO
USBMCVMHFPSOVDMFVT GPSNJOHBëBUUFOFE EJTLTIBQFESFHJPO"UZQJDBMTQJSBMHBMBYZ
IBTBTQIFSJDBMDFOUSBMCVMHFPGPMEFSTUBSTTVSSPVOEFECZBëBUUFOFEHBMBDUJDEJTLUIBU
DPOUBJOTBTQJSBMQBUUFSOPGZPVOHTUBST BTXFMMBTJOUFSTUFMMBSHBTBOEEVTU0VS.JMLZ
8BZ(BMBYZBOEUIF"OESPNFEBHBMBYZ . BSFTQJSBMHBMBYJFT BTBSFUIF1JOXIFFM
BOE4PNCSFSPHBMBYJFT
4QJSBM OFCVMB )JTUPSJDBM OBNF GPS B UZQF PG PCKFDU UIBU CFDBNF LOPXO BT B TQJSBM
HBMBYZ4FFTQJSBMHBMBYZ
4QJSJU 4FF.BST&YQMPSBUJPO3PWFS.JTTJPO
4QJU[FS 4QBDF 5FMFTDPQF /"4" MBVODIFE UIF4QJU[FS4QBDF5FMFTDPQF BCCSFWJBUFE

445 PO"VHVTU XJUIBOFYQFDUFEZFBSNJTTJPOMJGFUJNF*UJTBOJOGSBSFE
UFMFTDPQFXJUIBONFUFS JODI QSJNBSZNJSSPS PCUBJOJOHJNBHFTBOETQFDUSB
(MPTTBSZ4
PGUIFJOGSBSFEFOFSHZ PSIFBU SBEJBUFECZDPTNJDPCKFDUTBUXBWFMFOHUITCFUXFFO

BOENJDSPOT XIFSFNJDSPOJTPOFNJMMJPOUIPGBNFUFSѮF4QJU[FS4QBDF5FMF
TDPQFQSPWJEFTJOGPSNBUJPOPOUIFGPSNBUJPO DPNQPTJUJPOBOEFWPMVUJPOPGQMBOFUT
TUBSTBOEHBMBYJFTѮFNJTTJPOXBTJOJUJBMMZEFTJHOBUFEUIF4QBDF*OGSB3FE5FMFTDPQF
'BDJMJUZ PS4*35'GPSTIPSU BOESFOBNFEBѫFSUIF"NFSJDBOBTUSPQIZTJDJTU-ZNBO
4QJU[FS +S ¢
4QÚSFSNJOJNVN "QFSJPEPGMPXTVOTQPUBDUJWJUZJOUIFêѫFFOUIDFOUVSZ BCPVU"%
m OBNFEBѫFSUIF(FSNBOBTUSPOPNFS(VTUBW'SJFESJDI8JMIFMN4QÕSFS
¢ XIPBMTPDBMMFEBUUFOUJPOUPUIF.BVOEFSNJOJNVNBTFBSMZBT4FF
.BVOEFSNJOJNVN
4QÚSFSTMBX ѮFBQQFBSBODFPGTVOTQPUTBUMPXFSTPMBSMBUJUVEFTPWFSUIFDPVSTFPG
UIFZFBSTPMBSBDUJWJUZDZDMF ESJѫJOHGSPNNJEMBUJUVEFTPGUPEFHSFFTOPSUI
BOETPVUIUPXBSETUIFFRVBUPSBTUIFDZDMFQSPHSFTTFTѮFTVOTQPUNJHSBUJPOUPMPXFS
BWFSBHF MBUJUVEFT XBT êSTU EJTDPWFSFE JO CZ UIF &OHMJTI BTUSPOPNFS 3JDIBSE
$BSSJOHUPO ¢ PWFS BO JODPNQMFUF QBSU PG POF TPMBS DZDMF BOE JOWFTUJ
HBUFEJOHSFBUFSEFUBJMCZUIF(FSNBOBTUSPOPNFS(VTUBW'SJFESJDI8JMIFMN4QÕSFS
¢ 4FFTPMBSBDUJWJUZDZDMF TVOTQPU BOETVOTQPUDZDMF
44 "OFNJTTJPOMJOFTUBSUIBUFYIJCJUTWBSZJOHXBWFMFOHUITDIBOHFT XJUITJNVMUB
OFPVTSFETIJѫTBOECMVFTIJѫT EJTDPWFSFECZUIF"NFSJDBOBTUSPOPNFS#SVDF.BSHPO
¢ BOEIJTDPMMFBHVFTJO*GUIFXBWFMFOHUIDIBOHFTBSFBUUSJCVUFEUPUIF
%PQQMFSFĒFDUPGTPVSDFNPUJPO UIFOUIFTUBSTFFNFEUPCFCPUIDPNJOHBOEHPJOH
XJUITQFFETPGVQUPUIPVTBOELJMPNFUFSTQFSTFDPOE#VUUIFTUBSJUTFMGJTOUNPWJOH
NBUUFSJTJOTUFBECFJOHFKFDUFEJOUXPOBSSPX DPMMJNBUFEKFUTPGNBUUFSGSPNBDFOUSBM
OFVUSPOTUBS"CSJHIUNBTTJWFDPNQBOJPOTUBS XJUIBNBTTPGUPTPMBSNBTTFT JT
MPTJOHJUTPVUFSMBZFSTJOBTUFMMBSXJOEUIBUëPXTEPXOUPXBSEUIFOFVUSPOTUBS PWFS
MPBEJOHBOBDDSFUJPOEJTLUIBUDBOOPUEJHFTUBMMPGUIFJOGBMMJOHNBUUFSBOEIVSMTTPNF
PGJUPVUJOPQQPTJUFEJSFDUJPOTBMPOHUIFUJHIUMZDPMMJNBUFEKFUT
445 "DSPOZNGPS4QJU[FS4QBDF5FMFTDPQF4FF4QJU[FS4QBDF5FMFTDPQF
4UBS " TFMGMVNJOPVT CBMM PG HBT MJLF UIF 4VO XIPTF SBEJBOU FOFSHZ JT QSPEVDFE CZ
OVDMFBSGVTJPOSFBDUJPOTJOUIFTUFMMBSDPSF PSBOBTUSPOPNJDBMPCKFDUUIBUPODFSBEJ
BUFEUIJTXBZ TVDIBTBXIJUFEXBSGPSOFVUSPOTUBS.PTUTUBSTBSFGPVOEPOUIFNBJO
TFRVFODFPGUIF)FSU[TQSVOH3VTTFMMEJBHSBNUIFZTIJOFCZUIFDPOWFSTJPOPGIZESPHFO
OVDMFJJOUPIFMJVNOVDMFJJOFJUIFSUIFDBSCPOOJUSPHFOPYZHFO DZDMFPSUIFQSPUPO
QSPUPODIBJO8IFOUIFDPSFIZESPHFOJTEFQMFUFE BNBJOTFRVFODFTUBSFWPMWFTJOUP
BHJBOUTUBS PCUBJOJOHJUTSBEJBOUFOFSHZCZUIFOVDMFBSCVSOJOHPGIFMJVNPSIFBWJFS
FMFNFOUT ѮF UFNQFSBUVSF BOE MVNJOPTJUZ PG B TUBS JT EFUFSNJOFE CZ JUT NBTT ѮF
NPTU NBTTJWF TUBST BSF BCPVU TPMBS NBTTFT PS POF IVOESFE UJNFT IFBWJFS UIBO
UIF4VOѮFNJOJNVNTUFMMBSNBTTJTBCPVUTPMBSNBTTFT PSBCPVUUJNFTUIF
NBTTPG+VQJUFSMFTTNBTTJWFTUBSTEPOPUIBWFFOPVHINBTTBOETVēDJFOUQSFTTVSFBOE
UFNQFSBUVSF UP JOJUJBUF OVDMFBS SFBDUJPOT JO UIFJS DPSFT 4FF DBSCPOOJUSPHFOPYZHFO
DZDMF GVTJPO HJBOUTUBS )FSU[TQSVOH3VTTFMMEJBHSBN NBJOTFRVFODF NBTTMVNJOPTJUZ
SFMBUJPO BOEQSPUPOQSPUPODIBJO
'*( 33 4HE BIZARRE AND UNIQUE OBJECT 33 CONSISTS OF A NEUTRON STAR AND A
MASSIVE VISIBLE LIGHT STAR IN ORBIT ABOUT EACH OTHER WITH A DAY PERIOD 4HE MASSIVE STAR IS
LOSING GAS IN A STELLAR WIND AND THE NEUTRON STAR PULLS SOME OF THIS MATERIAL INTO AN ACCRETION
DISK THAT EMITS 8 RAYS (OWEVER THE IN FALLING MATTER CANNOT BE ACCRETED FAST ENOUGH AND
THE EXCESS MATERIAL IS SHOT OUT FROM THE CENTER OF THE ACCRETION DISK IN TWO OPPOSITELY DIRECTED
JETS "ULLET LIKE CONCENTRATIONS OF GAS SPEW OUT ALONG THE JETS MOVING AT A QUARTER THE SPEED
OF LIGHT 4HE SPECTRAL LINES OF 33 COME FROM THE TWIN HIGH SPEED JETS OF GAS WHICH CREATE
SIMULTANEOUS RED AND BLUE WAVELENGTH SHIFTS AND MAKE THE STAR LOOK LIKE IT IS COMING AND
GOING AT THE SAME TIME 4HE ACCRETION DISK IS TIPPED SLIGHTLY AND PRECESSES LIKE A TOP MAKING
THE JETS SWING STEADILY AROUND A CONE EVERY DAYS 4HE COMPONENT OF VELOCITY DIRECTED
ALONG AN OBSERVERS LINE OF SIGHT VARIES WITH THE SAME PERIOD SO THE OBSERVER SEES BOTH A
REDSHIFTED AND A BLUESHIFTED LINE WITH WAVELENGTHS THAT CHANGE WITH TIME
4UBSCVSTUHBMBYZ "HBMBYZVOEFSHPJOHBOFYDFQUJPOBMMZIJHISBUFPGTUBSGPSNBUJPO
%JTDPWFSFE JO XJUI JOTUSVNFOUT BCPBSE UIF *OGSB3FE "TUSPOPNJDBM 4BUFMMJUF
BCCSFWJBUFE*3"4 TUBSCVSTUHBMBYJFTBSFNVDICSJHIUFSBUJOGSBSFEXBWFMFOHUIT XIFO
DPNQBSFEUPUIFJSWJTJCMFMJHIUPVUQVU UIBOPUIFSHBMBYJFT
4UBS DMVTUFS (SBWJUBUJPOBMMZ CPVOE BHHSFHBUJPO PG TUBST NVDI TNBMMFS BOE NVDI
MFTTNBTTJWFUIBOBHBMBYZ4UBSDMVTUFSTBSFPGUXPUZQFTUIFPQFODMVTUFST DPOUBJOJOH
IVOESFETPG1PQVMBUJPOT*TUBST BOEUIFNPSFNBTTJWFHMPCVMBSDMVTUFSTDPOTJTUJOHPG
CFUXFFOUFOUIPVTBOEBOEUFONJMMJPOPMEFS1PQVMBUJPOT**TUBSTXJUIJOBWPMVNFUIBU
JTBCPVUMJHIUZFBSTBDSPTT0QFODMVTUFSTBSFGPVOEJOUIFEJTLPGPVS(BMBYZBOE
HMPCVMBSDMVTUFSTJOUIFHBMBDUJDIBMP4FFHMPCVMBSDMVTUFSBOEPQFODMVTUFS
4UBSEVTU /"4"MBVODIFEUIF4UBSEVTUTQBDFDSBѫPO'FCSVBSZ"ѫFSOFBSMZ
GPVSZFBSTPGTQBDFUSBWFM JUFODPVOUFSFE$PNFU8JME PO+BOVBSZ XIFSFJU
PCUBJOFEDMPTFVQJNBHFTPGUIFDPNFUOVDMFVTBOEDPMMFDUFEEVTUBOEDBSCPOCBTFE
TBNQMFTVTJOHBTVCTUBODFDBMMFEBFSPHFMѮFDBSHPXBTQBSBDIVUFEJOBSFFOUSZDBQTVMF
UPUIF&BSUITTVSGBDFPO+BOVBSZ

4!",% 3TARS n BRIGHTESTA

3PECTRAL 6ISUALD !BSOLUTE
2! $EC 'REEK #LASSC -AGNITUDE -AGNITUDE
$B ,ETTER
3TAR H M S LYR .AME ! " ! " ! "
3IRIUS !LPHA #-A ! 6 WD
#ANOPUS !LPHA #AR & ))
!RCTURUS !LPHA "OO + )))
2IGIL +ENTAURUS !LPHA #EN ' 6 + 6
6EGA !LPHA ,YR ! 6
#APELLA E !LPHA !UR ' ))) ')))
(MPTTBSZ4
2IGEL "ETA /RI " )A "
0ROCYON !LPHA #-I & )6 WD
!CHERNAR !LPHA %RI " 6
"ETELGEUSE !LPHA /RI - )A V

4!",% 3TARS n BRIGHTESTA

3PECTRAL 6ISUALD !BSOLUTE

2! $EC 'REEK #LASSC -AGNITUDE -AGNITUDE
$B ,ETTER
3TAR H M S LYR .AME ! " ! " ! "
(ADAR "ETA #EN " )))
!LTAIR !LPHA !QL ! )6 6
!LDEBARAN !LPHA 4AU + ))) -6
!NTARES !LPHA 3CO - )B " 6
3PICA !LPHA 6IR " 6
0OLLUX "ETA 'EM + )))
&OMALHAUT !LPHA 0S! ! 6 + 6
$ENEB !LPHA #YG ! )A
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Companion To Astronomy and Astrophysics

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Companion To Astronomy and Astrophysics

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