Lab Manual.

ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP LAB MANUAL
EXPERIMENT 1
FAMILARISATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF PASSIVE AND ACTIVE `

COMPONENTS
Aim:
To familiarise and identify various types of passive and active components.
Theory:
Passive components are the devices which do not require any external source for the
operation and are capable of storing energy in the form of voltage or current in the circuit.
Active components are the elements or devices which are capable of providing or delivering
energy to the circuit. Active components and passive components are classified into different
types.
III) RESISTORS
Resistance is the fundamental property of a conductor to oppose the flow of current

through it. Unit of resistance is Ω. Resistors are the components which exhibit the property of
resistance. They are manufactured to offer a specific value of resistance to control current in
a circuit or to control current in a circuit or to develop a voltage across it. Resistors are the
characterized by its resistance value, power handling capacity, stability, tolerance, maximum
operating temperature etc.
The symbol of a resistor is
A resistor has four important parts
1) Base 2) Resistive material 3) Leads 4) Protective means
The chasis on which the resistive material is mounted, placed or deposited is the base. Glass,
plastic, ceramic and combination of such insulating materials are usually used as the base
material. Metal alloys, carbon, graphite, nickel, chromium etc. are the resistive material.
Leads are used to make electrical connections to the resistive material. Cover on the resistor
provides mechanical, electrical and environmental protection. Cement mixed with organic
binder, vitreous enamel or mica are widely used as protective means. Values of resistors
general y available in the market range from 1 Ω to 20M Ω with tolerances of 5%, 10% and
20%. Resistors with power rating of 1/8W, 1/4W, 1/2W,2W and 10W are available.
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 1

Types of resistors
Resistors can be classified mainly into two types
1. Fixed resistors
2. Variable resistors
Fixed resistors
Fixed resistor is one whose value does not change. Fixed resistors are of following types
1. Carbon Composition resistors

2. Wire wound resistors
3. Metal film resistors
4. Carbon film resistors
Carbon composition resistors
The resistors are constructed by mixing carbon powder and insulating binders to produce the
desired value of resistance. A carbon rod of about 5mm length is covered with an insulating
material for insulation and mechanical strength. Its two ends are joined to metal caps with
leads of tinned wire. These types of resistors are very popular due to their small size,
ruggedness, and low cost. The available resistance value are 1Ω to 10MΩ with power rating
1/8 W, 1/4 W, 1/2W, 1W and 2W. Their demerits are low stability, more noise and high
temperature coefficient.
Fig. 1-1.1 Carbon composition resistors

Wire wound resistors
There are two types of wire wound resistors.

1. Power wire wound resistors and 2. Precision wire wound resistors
Power wire wound resistors are manufactured by winding resistance wire such a Nichrome
on a ceramic film. The wire then coated with an insulating material to protect from moisture
and breakage. They have excellent electrical properties such as low noise and overload
characteristics.Wire wound resistors are reliable and stable. Their disadvantages are large
size, high cost, and poor high frequency performance.
Precision wire wound resistors are manufactured by winding a multilayer coil on an epoxy
bobbin or a former. At high frequencies the coil inductance creates problems. This is
minimised by winding the first half in one direction and the other half in the opposite
direction. Precision resistors are available up to 5 W rating with tolerance better than 0.5%.
Fig. Wire wound resistor
Metal film Resistor
Metal film resistors are of two types, thin film and thick film. Thin film resistors are
made by depositing a metal film of thickness 1 millionth of an inch on a suitable ceramic
base. The thin film resistors are available from 10 Ω to 1K Ω with typical 5W power rating.
In the latter type, the thickness of the metal film is more than that of thin film type. These
resistors have low temperature coefficient and very good stability. Therefore, they are also
considered as precision resistors. Thick film resistors are of the following types
1. Tin oxide 2. Metal gaze

3. Cermet 4. Bulk film
Tin oxide is deposited on a ceramic base under high temperature. Tin oxide thick film
resistors are available from a few ohms to 2.2 kΩ. Metal glaze resistors are manufactured by

depositing powdered lass and fine metal particles on a ceramic base. It is heated to a high
o
temperature of 800 C. These kinds of resistors are available from a few ohms to 3.3kΩ.
The name cremet is derived from ceramic + metal. It is manufactured by depositing metal
dissolved in an organic solvent onto a ceramic substrate by micro-screen printing. The
o
substrate is heated at 1000 C. Organic particles evaporates off and the metal fuses to
ceramic substrate. Cremet resistors are available in the range from 10Ω to 10MΩ in the
wattage range of 3 W.
Bulk film resistances are made by etching a metal film on glass substrate. These are available
from 33Ω to 1MΩ with wattage rating of 1W.
Fig. Metal film resistors
Carbon film resistors
They are made of high grade ceramic core or rod on which a thin resistive film of carbon is
deposited and is available in the range from 10Ω to 10MΩ values with power rating up to
2W. They have the advantages of better stability against temperature and humidity. But they
are fragile and expensive.
Fig. Carbon film resistors

Variable resistances
Variable resistors are usually used in electronic circuits to adjust values of currents and
voltages. Few of the variable resistors are mentioned below. Potentiometers, preset and
rheostat are the examples of variable resistors. The symbol of variable resistance is
Rheostat
Rheostats are variable resistors used in high-power applications. They are constructed by
winding a former with a Nickel-Copper wire in oxidation form. Former is usually 15cm to
30cm long, round shaped, made of ceramic and coated with a vitreous enamel. A movable
contact can be slided through an iron rod. Threading type terminals are provided for external
connections.
Fig Rheostat
Potentiometers
It is a three terminal variable resistor used in applications like volume control, brightness
control, contrast control etc. in radio and TV receivers. In some potentiometers the basic
resistive element is a coil wound over a circular shaped core of bakelite or ceramic. In other
types of potentiometers, the basic element is a carbon track. A rotating shaft at the centre of
the core moves a contact point from one end of the core to other end. Out of the three
terminals coming out of the potentiometer, two are from the endpoints of the resistive
element and one from the contact point. Potentiometer is also known as a pot. There are two
types of potentiometers, linear and logarithmic. The resistance is varying linearly in the
former and exponentially in the latter. Logarithmic pots are used in volume control
applications because the human ears‟ response is logarithmic. These are available in the
following values: 470 Ω, 1k, 2.2k, 4.7k, 10k, 22k, 47k and 100k. Power rating of carbon
track pots is up to 2W. For high power applications, wire wound post are used.
Fig 1-1.6 Potentiometer

Presets
Presets are used in applications where variation of resistance is not done frequently. Once the
setting is made, it may be undisturbed. A typical application is presetting the line frequency
and frame frequency in a TV receiver. Preset is a kind of potentiometer having a metallic
wiper that can be moved with a screwdriver.
Fig 1-1.7 A Preset
Resistance colour code
The Resistor Colour Code system is all well and good but we need to understand how to
apply it in order to get the correct value of the resistor. The “left-hand” or the most
significant coloured band is the band which is nearest to a connecting lead with the colour
coded bands being read from left-to-right as follows;
colour
Digit, Digit, Multiplier = Colour, Colour x 10 in Ohm‟s (Ω‟s)
Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1
Brown 1 10 ± 1%
Red 2 100 ± 2%
Orange 3 1,000
Yellow 4 10,000
Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%
Blue 6 1,000,000 ± 0.25%
Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%
Grey 8 ± 0.05%
White 9
Gold 0.1 ± 5%
Silver 0.01 ± 10%
No colour ± 20%

IV) CAPACITORS
A capacitor consists of two metal plates kept apart by an insulating material between
the plates. It is used to store and release charge when desired. When a battery is connected
across the capacitor, capacitor gets charged. If the battery is removed, it discharges. Due to
this property, capacitors are used to couple ac signal from one circuit to another and to block
dc. Capacitors are widely used in signal generation, tuning, filtering etc.
Symbols associated with capacitors are as follows
Types of capacitor
Capacitors are generally classified as fixed and variable. Capacitors are also called
condensers. According to dielectric material used in the construction of the capacitors, they
are named as:
1. Paper capacitor 4. Electrolytic capacitor
2. Mica capacitor 5. Tantalum capacitor
3. Ceramic capacitor 6. Plastic capacitor
Paper capacitor
This type of capacitor is made by using a paper rolled between two metal foils. By this
arrangement, a large plate area can be concentrated in a plastic or oil. Paper capacitors range
from 0.0005μF to several micro Farads with a typical dc voltage rating of 500V. The leakage
resistance is of the order 100MΩ. Paper capacitors are cheaper compared to other capacitors.
Another variety of paper capacitor is metalized paper capacitor.

Fig . A paper capacitor

Mica capacitor
This type of capacitor consists of a number of flat strips of metal foil separated by similarly
shaped mica strips. Mica acts as the dielectric. Alternate plates are connected together. Thus
two sets are formed. Each set of plates is attached to a lead wire. Entire unit is encapsulated
using an insulated case. Available capacitance range is from picofarads to two or three thousand
picofarads. Mica capacitors are usually are rated up to 500V. Its leakage current is small. They
are mainly used as coupling capacitors in radio frequency circuits because of the inductance and
low power factor.
Fig.Mica capacitors

Ceramic capacitor
Ceramic capacitors are made in different shapes and sizes. Such capacitors have disc or
hollow tubular shaped dielectric made of a ceramic material. Basically, construction of this
type of capacitor consists of a ceramic disc with silver or copper plating deposited on
opposite faces of the ceramic. Leads are attached to these plates. The entire unit is coated
with plastic and its capacitance value is marked on it. Capacitance of this type ranges from 5
pF to 0.1µF.
Fig. Ceramic capacitors
Electrolytic capacitor
Electrolytic capacitors consist of Aluminium foil electrodes with an Aluminum oxide film
covering one side. Aluminium plates serve as electrodes and oxide as dielectric. The oxide is
in contact with a paper or gauze saturated with an electrolyte. The electrolyte forms the
second plate of the capacitor. Another layer of Aluminium without oxide coating is also
provided for making electrical contact between one of the terminals and electrolyte. This
capacitor has large capacitance in small volume. The capacitance ranges from 1 µF to several
thousand µF. Voltage ranges from 1 V to 500 V or more. These capacitors are used

where large capacitance is required. It has reasonably low cost. The disadvantages of
electrolytic capacitors are high power factor, variation in capacitance and high leakage
current. When an electrolytic capacitor is connected in a circuit, extreme care must be taken
to connect with correct polarity. Usually the polarity will be marked on the capacitor.
Fig.Aluminium capacitors
Tantalum
Ordinary Aluminium electrolytic capacitors are rather large for many uses. In the applications
where size is of importance tantalum capacitors are used. They are much smaller than the
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors and instead of using a film of oxide on Aluminum they use
a film of oxide on Tantalum. They do not normally have high working voltages, 35 V is
normally the maximum, and some even have values of only a volt or so.
Fig Tantalum capacitors
Plastic capacitor
There is a number of different types of plastic film capacitors. Polycarbonate, polyester,

polystyrene, polypropylene etc. Each has its own properties, allowing them to be used in
specific applications. Their values range from several picofarads to a few micro farads.
Normally they are non-polar. In general they are good general-purpose capacitors that may
be used for a variety of purposes, although their high frequency performance is not usually as

good as that of the ceramic types. Some of the more common types include:
Polyester capacitor
It consists of two metal foils separated by a strip of polyester material such as Mylar. The
outside layer of polyester is applied to act as an insulating jacket. Each metal foil is
connected to a lead which extends either axially or radially from the capacitor. These
capacitors are usually encased in glass or ceramic containers.
Fig Polyester capacitor
Polystyrene (styroflex) capacitor
Polystyrene capacitors are made by rolling polystyrene film with Aluminium foil. The leads
are taken from the ends. The entire assembly is heat treated and encapsulated.
Fig .Polystyrene capacitor
Variable capacitor
The capacitance of variable capacitor is varied by adjusting some parameter. Some of the
commonly used variable capacitors are Gang capacitor, Trimmer and Padder.
Gang capacitor

As its name implies, gang capacitor is a group of capacitors ganged together. It is a

rotor-stator type variable capacitor which consists of two sets of metal plates. The fixed
plates are connected together to form the stator. The movable plates are connected together
on a shaft to form the rotor. Capacitance is varied by rotating the shaft. Gang capacitors are
used in radio receivers to tune to radio frequencies.
Fig .Gang capacitor
Trimmer
In some electronic circuits once the settings are made, it must be kept undisturbed. In such
applications where tuning is not very frequent, trimmer capacitors are more suitable. The
dielectric may be mica or ceramic. A screw is mounted so that by tuning it, the capacitance
can be varied. Trimmers are very low value capacitors of the order of pF. These are used in
TV, Radio and other broadcast receivers.
Fig. Trimmer
Padder
It is a trimmer with comparatively high value capacitance with air as dielectric. It consists of
two tiny Aluminium cups, mounted concentrically. By tuning the screw, the gap between the

two cups can be varied to vary the capacitance. The capacitance of the padder can be varied
from 5pF to 600 pF.
Coding for capacitors
1. Numerical coding
In a small value capacitors like mica capacitors, value of capacitor will be written in a coded
form.
1. If the number written on the capacitor is greater than one, the value will be in pF.
Otherwise it wil be in μF. For example, 10 means 10pF and 0.1 means 0.1μF
2. If there are three digits in the number, the third number indicates the number of zeros to be
put after the first two digits and the value will be in pF. 104 means 10000 pF or 0.1 μF.
3. If the letter k follows the digits, the value will be in kpF (kilo Pico farad). 10 k means
10kpF or 0.01 μF.
4. If the letter „n‟ or „M‟ the value wil be that much nano farads or micro farads
respectively, 47n means 47nF and 47M means 47 μF.
5. If the letter n, M or k is between two numerals, the value of the capacitor can be obtained
by putting a decimal in place of the letter and multiplying by the factor nF, μF or kpF
respectively. 4K7 means 4.7 kpF and 2M2 means 2 μF.
6. If the letters k or M follows the three digit number, it implies the tolerance value 10% and
20% respectively.
2. Colour coding
Different colour coding methods are used for representing capacitance values. Five colour
band system is very popular. It is given in the table below. The first band gives the first
significant digit, second band gives second significant digit, third band gives the multiplier,
fourth gives the tolerance in percentage and fifth gives the working voltage.

Third
Colour First and Fourth Fifth colour
colour
second colour colour band band
band
bands (multiplier ) ( tolerance) (Voltage
rating)
Black 0 1 ±20%
Brown 1 10 100 V
Red 2 100 250 V
Orange 3 1,000
Yellow 4 10,000 400 V
Green 5 100,000 ±5%
Blue 6 1,000,000
Violet 7 10,000,000
Grey 8 0.01
White 9 0.1 ±10%
Table. Colour code for ceramic capacitors
Inductors
Inductance is the property of inductors by which it opposes any change in the current flowing
through it. When a current flows through a coiled wire, an electromotive force will be
generated in such a way that it opposes the flow of current. Inductors are generally specified
by its inductance value and current capacity. Fixed value inductors re available in plastic
capsules which are very handy. Usually the values of such inductors will be written on it.
Some manufacturers encode the value of inductors in colour dots. The decoding is done in
the same way for resistors. For example, if the colour dots marked on the inductor are green,
blue and orange, its value will be 56000µH = 56mH (color dots are noted in order, keeping
the leads down).

Based on the type of core used, inductors can be classified as air core inductor, iron core
inductor, ferrite core inductor and powder core inductor.
Air core inductor
This type of inductor is made of thin copper wire wound over a former made of thick card-
board. It has low value of inductance. These are suitable for radio-frequency applications.
Iron core inductor
This type of inductor is made of copper wire wound on a laminated iron core. Laminated core
is used to avoid eddy current losses. Laminated core consists of thin iron sheets pressed
together and insulated from each other. Iron core inductors are very stable for audio
frequency applications.
Ferrite core inductor
In this type, a coil of wire is wound on a solid core made of ferromagnetic material called
ferrite. In variable type ferrite core inductors, the ferrite core is made movable in and out of
the coil. Variable inductors are used in frequency tuning applications.
Powder core inductor
These are used in high frequency applications. They have low core losses at any given
frequency and low permeability.
Variable inductors
Variable inductors can be classified according to their applications. Decade inductance boxes
provide the inductance usually in mH, in multiples of 10.
Chokes
The ability of a coil to oppose any change of current can be used to smooth out varying or
pulsating currents. The inductors used for this purpose is known as chokes.
Filter chokes
They are used in filter circuits. Their range of inductance is normally a few Henry. These are
usually fixed value inductors.

Radio frequency choke

This is variable type inductor used in high frequency applications. It has a shaft attached to its
core so that the inductance can be varied by tuning it. The value of inductance is between
0.25µH and 250 mH. They use powdered iron core or air core. Their size is smaller than AF
chokes.
Audio frequency choke
AF choke is an inductor used to provide high impedance to audio frequencies. Since the
frequency of application is low, it is bulkier than high frequency chokes.
Fig 1-3.1 Symbols of an inductor

Air core inductor Ferrite core inductor Choke
Fig .Different types of inductors
Transformers
Transformer is a device consisting of two or more coils used to transfer electrical energy form
one circuit to another at different voltages without changing the frequency. It works on the
principle of mutual induction. Basically a transformer consists of two inductors having some
core. It has two windings called primary winding and secondary winding. When there is a
change in current in the primary winding, a magnetic flux is induced in the core. Since the core is
common for the secondary winding also, this magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary
winding. Transformers are used in rectifiers, audio applications and amplifiers. Transformers are
available in different shapes and sizes. Some of the common transformers are power
transformers, AF transformers and high frequency transformers.

Step up transformer Step down transformer
Fig Symbols of a transformer
Power transformer
They are used to step up or step down the supply voltage and current. According to their function
these transformers are known as step up or step down transformers. In step up transformers
number of turns in primary winding is less than that in secondary winding. The transformation of
power is same from input to output because the product of current and voltage will be same at
input and output. The AC voltage fed across the primary gets boosted up and is available across
the secondary winding. The current of the input AC signal is diminished at the output side. Due
to this, the wire used for primary winding is thicker than
the wire used for secondary winding. Both wires and the core are well insulated with varnish.
The primary-secondary turns ratio is determined by the input-output voltage ratio.
In step down transformers number of turns in the secondary winding is less than that of
primary winding. It converts high voltage to low voltage. Since the current in the secondary coil
is more than that in the primary coil, former is made of thick copper coil. Many tapping can be
taken form the secondary winding. This facility helps the user to obtain a wide range of voltages,
Step down transformers are extensively used in DC power supplies. Transformers are
characterized by the following specifications.
1. Voltage rating: It is the rated primary and secondary voltage of the transformer. Voltage
rating of the transformer depends upon the turns ratio and is expressed in volts.
2. Current rating: It is the maximum current that the transformer winding can carry and is
expressed in amperes.
3. Power rating: It is the maximum power which can be continuously delivered by the
transformer. It is expressed in volt-amperes (VA).
4. Frequency range: It is the range of frequencies in which transformer operates without

failure.
5. Regulation: It is the measure of the ability of a transformer to maintain its rated output

voltage under load. It is expressed in percentage.
Fig. transformer
Intermediate frequency transformer (IFT)
The design of high frequency circuits is comparatively difficult. So, in radio receivers, radio
frequencies are reduced to lower frequency called intermediate frequency (IF). Intermediate
frequency transformer (IFT) is a device that is tunable to IF. The standard IF in radio reception is
455 kHz. IFT is designed to respond to this frequency only. Tuning is achieved by using parallel
capacitors across primary and secondary windings. The assembly of IFT enclosed in an
Aluminium can, includes a capacitance of 40 pF and and inductance of 3 mH.
Fig.IFT
Audio frequency transformer

As the name implies these transformers are used in Af application for voltage, current
and impedance transformation. Input and output transformers are the popular name for the AF
transformers in market. Input transformers are used to couple a low impedance source such as
microphone, transmission line and transducers with a high impedance circuit like amplifiers.
Output transformers are used in Public Addressing (PA) system, radio receivers etc., to match
the high output impedance of an amplifier with loud speaker having low impedance.
Pulse transformer
These are specially designed ferrite core transformers to handle pulse signals. Pulse
transformers are widely used in power circuits.
Nonlinear resistors
When the current through a resistor is not proportional to the voltage applied across it,
that resistor is said to be nonlinear one. Some of the active and passive nonlinear resistors are
described below.
Thermistor
It is a temperature dependent resistor with either negative or positive temperature

coefficient of resistance. The resistance of an NTC thermistor decreases with rise in surrounding
temperature. Thermistors are fabricated by mixing the powdered Manganese, Nickel, Copper,
Iron and Uranium oxide. The Mixture is heated and moulded into different shapes and sizes.
Thermistors are used for the measurement and control of temperature, temperature compensation
etc.
Light dependent resistor (LDRs)
As its name implies the resistance of LDR is sensitive to light radiation. It is fabricated by
depositing a layer of photosensitive semiconductor material like Cadmium sulfide or Cadmium
Selenide on a nonconducting substrate. The incident light releases charge carries in the
conductive layer to cause conduction and thus the reduction of reduction of resistance.
Voltage dependent resistors (VDRs)

The resistance of these components varies with the voltage applied across them.
VDRs also called varistors. They are of two types. Symmetric and asymmetric. Resistance
of symmetric VDRs depend on the magnitude of the voltage applied while the resistance of
the asymmetric VDRs depend on the magnitude and polarity of the applied voltage.
VDRs works as a protective device against voltage surges in such a way that the
resistance of the device falls steeply with increasing voltage.
Fig LDR, Thermistor and VDR
I. Semiconductor diodes:
The name semiconductor is derived from the fact that its conductivity lies between that of
insulators and conductors. Silicon and germanium are the most popular semiconductors.
They have common feature that the outermost shell of the atom contains 4 electrons. In other
words these atoms are tetravalent atoms. P-type N-type semiconductors are made by adding
trivalent and pentavalent atoms to the pure semiconductor respectively. This process is called
doing. N-type semiconductors contain more number of electrons and its counterpart contains
more number of holes (hole means absence of electron).
Semiconductor diode is also called pn junction. Diode is fabricated by joining together a P-

type and an N-type semiconductor. It conducts current in one direction only. This property is
utilized in rectifiers. The following types of diodes are available.
The PN junction is encapsulated in plastic, taking two leads out for circuit connections. The
lead attached to P-type is called anode and the lead attached to N-type is called cathode. The
polarities of the leads are indicated on the diodes. The diodes are operated in two modes viz.;
forward bias and reverse bias. The diode is said to be forward biased when a positive voltage
is applied at the anode with respect to the cathode. When a negative voltage is applied at
anode the diode becomes reverse biased. BY 126, BY 127, OA 79, IN4001 to IN4007 etc. are
popular diodes available in market. The symbol of the diode is shown in figure below. The
arrow head indicates the direction of the conventional current flow when the diode is forward
biased.
The diodes are specified by the type, peak inverse voltage and current rating. For example;
silicon, 1200V, 1A. The leads of the diodes can be identified form symbol of the diode
marked on its body. BY126 and BY127 are examples. In some diodes like IN4001 a white
band is marked on the body near the cathode.

Fig. Rectifier diode
Following list gives some of the types of diodes available.
1. Power diode 6. Point contact diode

2. Signal diode 7. Tunnel diode
3. Zener diode 8. Avalanche diode
4. Light emitting diode (LED) 9. Gunn diode
5. Photo diode 10. Laser diode
Power Diode
Power diodes are used in high power applications. In this, forward current is of the order of
30 A or more. They are used in high power applications.
Signal Diode
These diodes are used in low voltage and low power applications. The maximum forward
current ranges from 40 mA to 250 mA. OA79 is an example of signal diode. Electrodes are
visible through the transparent cover. The electrode with a plate like structure is cathode and
the other is the anode. A red or black ring is marked on its body to indicate the cathode.
Fig. 1N4148 signal diode

Zener Diode
Zener diodes make use of zener break down phenomena. In the forward biased mode, it
functions as an ordinary diode. In the reve4se biased mode, it conducts at a particular voltage
and the voltage across the zener diode remains constant. This is achieved by doping heavily
during manufacturing. Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators. They are similar in
appearance to PN diodes. Zener diodes are available in different voltage specifications. A
black ring is marked near the cathode of the zener diode for identification. 3.9V, 5.6 V, 6.2
V, 8.2 V, 9.1 V and 12 V zener diodes are available. The values of voltage are usually
marked on the zener diode. For example; 5V6 means 5.6 V. In some cases the power rating
are also marked. For example; 3Z12 means 3 W, 12 V. They are available in plastic or glass
packing.
Fig. Zener diode and its symbol
Light Emitting Diode
When a PN junction diode is forward biased, electron-hole recombination takes place.

Energy is released when this recombination occurs. In silicon or germanium diode, the
energy is released in the form of heat. The frequency of the released energy is outside the
visible light spectrum. The colour of the emitted light depends on the frequency of light. The
colour of the light emitted can be varied by doping with different impurities. Light Emitting
Diodes (LED) which emit light with different colours are available. Red, Green, blue and
yellow colour LED are very popular. Transparent plastic is used to encapsulate the LED. The
colour of the plastic cover is made same as that of the emitted light to enhance the colour of
the emitted light. The wider and thicker electrode which could be seen through the plastic
cover is called cathode, and the other electrode is called anode. Some LEDs emit one
particular colour when current flows in one direction and another colour when current flows
in the opposite direction. This is achieved by encapsulating two LEDs in a single module and
connecting them in an opposite and parallel fashion. An array of seven LEDs are employed in
seven segment LED displays which are widely used in electronic displays.

Fig. LED and its symbol
Photo Diode
This is type of junction diode which conducts current only when it is energized with
light. The junction of the photo diode is exposed to light by using a transparent plastic
covering over the diode. Light is focused on the junction of the diode. The principle of
operation is that the junction barrier of the diode is overcome when the photons are injected
to the junction. These diodes are used to detect the presence of light. It is widely used in
automatic lighting application, receivers of optical communication, burglar alarms etc.
Fig. Photo diode and its symbol
Point-contact diode
This device is the same as the pn junction diode. It is constructed by making a sharp point
contact by a group-3 metal on an n-type semiconductor. Some of the metal migrates into the
semiconductor to make a small region of p-type semiconductor near the contact. IN34 and
OA79 are point contact devices. Because the junction has small area of contact, junction
capacitance is very small and this suites well for high frequency applications.

II. TRANSISTORS
1. Bipolar junction transistors
It is basically a silicon or germanium crystal containing three separate layers. It can
also be considered as two diodes connected back to back. Transistors are of two types: NPN
and PNP. It has three layers; emitter, base and collector. The middle layer is called base and
the others are emitter and collector. In transistors, the collector layer is made larger than the
emitter layer since more heat is dissipated in collector layer while the transistor is in
operation. Emitter is heavily doped and the base is lightly doped and is very thin. The
junction formed by the emitter and base is called emitter junction and the junction formed by
the collector and base is called collector junction. These are also called bipolar junction
transistors (BJT), since the currents in it are established by negative and positive charge
carries. Three leads are taken out for the circuit connections. Transistors are widely used for
purposes like amplification and oscillation. Transistors are classified as per the range of
frequency they are used namely low frequency and high frequency transistors. Transistors are
also classified as per the power rating as low power and high power transistors. They are
specified by its type, power and frequency. BC107 is a very popular NPN silicon, low power
frequency transistor. It has a metal cover with a small projection tab to identify the terminals.
AC128 is a PNP transistor which as a dot marked on its cover near the collector for
identification. A table of a few more commonly used transistors is given below.
Name Type Application

BC107 Si, NPN AF Driver
2N2222 Si, NPN AF Driver
BC 148 Si, NPN AF Driver
BF 194 Si, NPN AM/FM
BF 195 Si, NPN AM/FM
SL 100 Si, NPN General purpose
SK 100 Si, PNP General purpose
2N3055 Si, NPN AF/Power
AC 127 G, NPN Audio output
AF 114 Ge, PNP IF/RF
AF 115 Ge, NPN IF/RF

Fig 1-5.1 Different types of bipolar junction transistors
Fig. Symbols for bipolar junction transistors
Specifications of a BJT
Type number: The type number of the device is a unique identifier given to each type of
transistor. There are three international schemes that are widely used: European Pro-Electron
scheme; US JEDEC (numbers start with 2N for transistors); and the Japanese system
(numbers start with 2S)
Case: There is a wide variety of case styles. They often start with TOxx for leaded devices or
SOTxxx for surface mount devices.
Polarity: There are two types of transistor: NPN and PNP. It is important to choose the
correct type otherwise all the circuit polarities will be wrong.
Material: The two main types of material used for transistors are germanium and silicon.
Other materials are used, but in very specialised transistors. A knowledge of the type of
material used is important because it affects many properties, e.g. forward bias for the base
emitter junction is 0.2 - 0.3 V for germanium and ~0.6 V for silicon.

2. JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS((JFET)
It is a unipolar device. Conduction of current takes place either due to holes or electrons. The drain
current is controlled by the gate voltage. It has four terminals namely, Source (S), Drain (D), Gate
(G) and Shield or Substrate (S), FETs are of two types. n-channel and p-channel. The input
impedance of JFETs is very high compared to that of BJTs. This makes it ideal for the input stage
for instrumentation applications. BFW 10 and BFW 10 and BFW 11 are very popular n-channel
JFETs.
Fig. Schematic symbol of a JFET
Result
Familiarised different types of passive and active components.

EXPERIMENT 2-1
BIS/ IEEE SYMBOLS OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Aim
To study different BIS/IEEE symbols associated with active and passive electronic
components, power supplies, meters, logic gates and miscellaneous components.
Symbol Component name Meaning
Wire Symbols
Electrical Wire Conductor of electrical current
Connected Wires Connected crossing
Not Connected Wires Wires are not connected
Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols
SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open
SPDT Toggle Switch Selects between two connections
Pushbutton Switch (N.O) Momentary switch - normally open
Pushbutton Switch (N.C) Momentary switch - normally closed
DIP Switch DIP switch is used for onboard configuration

SPST Relay
Relay open / close connection by an electromagnet
SPDT Relay
Jumper Close connection by jumper insertion on pins.
Solder Bridge Solder to close connection
Ground Symbols
Used for zero potential reference and electrical shock

Earth Ground
protection.
Chassis Ground Connected to the chassis of the circuit
Digital / Common Ground
Resistor Symbols
Resistor (IEEE) Resistor reduces the current flow.
Potentiometer (IEEE) Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.
Variable Resistor /
Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals.
Rheostat (IEEE)
Trimmer Resistor Preset resistor
Thermal resistor - change resistance when

Thermistor
temperature changes

Photoresistor / Light dependent Photo-resistor - change resistance with light intensity

resistor (LDR) change
Capacitor Symbols
Capacitor
Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as
short circuit with AC and open circuit with DC.
Capacitor
Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor
Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor
Variable Capacitor Adjustable capacitance
Inductor / Coil Symbols
Inductor Coil / solenoid that generates magnetic field
Iron Core Inductor Includes iron
Variable Inductor
Power Supply Symbols
Voltage Source Generates constant voltage
Current Source Generates constant current.

AC Voltage Source AC voltage source
Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical rotation

Generator
of the generator
Battery Cell Generates constant voltage
Battery Generates constant voltage
Generates voltage as a function of voltage or current

Controlled Voltage Source
of other circuit element.
Generates current as a function of voltage or current

Controlled Current Source
of other circuit element.
Meter Symbols
Measures voltage. Has very high resistance.

Voltmeter
Connected in parallel.
Measures electric current. Has near zero resistance.

Ammeter
Connected serially.
Ohmmeter Measures resistance
Wattmeter Measures electric power
Lamp / Light Bulb Symbols
Lamp / light bulb Generates light when current flows through

Lamp / light bulb
Lamp / light bulb
Diode / LED Symbols
Diode allows current flow in one direction only - left

Diode
(anode) to right (cathode).
Allows current flow in one direction, but also can

Zener Diode flow in the reverse direction when above breakdown
voltage
Schottky Diode Schottky diode is a diode with low voltage drop
Varactor / Varicap Diode Variable capacitance diode
Tunnel Diode
Light Emitting Diode (LED) LED emits light when current flows through
Photodiode Photodiode allows current flow when exposed to light
Transistor Symbols
Allows current flow when high potential at base

NPN Bipolar Transistor
(middle)
Allows current flow when low potential at base

PNP Bipolar Transistor
(middle)
Made from 2 bipolar transistors. Has total gain of the

Darlington Transistor
product of each gain.

JFET-N Transistor N-channel field effect transistor
JFET-P Transistor P-channel field effect transistor
NMOS Transistor N-channel MOSFET transistor
PMOS Transistor P-channel MOSFET transistor
Misc. Symbols
Motor Electric motor
Transformer Change AC voltage from high to low or low to high.
Electric bell Rings when activated
Buzzer Produce buzzing sound
Fuse
The fuse disconnects when current above threshold.
Used to protect circuit from high currents.
Fuse
Loudspeaker Converts electrical signal to sound waves
Microphone Converts sound waves to electrical signal
Operational Amplifier Amplify input signal

Schmitt Trigger Operates with hysteresis to reduce noise.
Analog-to-digital converter
Converts analog signal to digital numbers
(ADC)
Digital-to-Analog converter
Converts digital numbers to analog signal
(DAC)
Crystal Oscillator Used to generate precise frequency clock signal
Antenna Symbols
Antenna / aerial
Transmits & receives radio waves
Antenna / aerial
Dipole Antenna Two wires simple antenna
Logic Gates Symbols
NOT Gate (Inverter) Outputs 1 when input is 0
AND Gate Outputs 1 when both inputs are 1.
NAND Gate Outputs 0 when both inputs are 1. (NOT + AND)
OR Gate Outputs 1 when any input is 1.
NOR Gate Outputs 0 when any input is 1. (NOT + OR)

XOR Gate Outputs 1 when inputs are different. (Exclusive OR)
Result
Studied different BIS/IEEE symbols associated with active and passive electronic components,
power supplies, meters, logic gates and miscellaneous components.

EXPERIMENT 2-2
STUDY OF EDA TOOLS
Aim
Study of Electronic Design Automation tool with OrCAD PSpice as an example.
Theory
Electronic design automation (EDA or ECAD) is a category of software tools for designing
electronic systems such as printed circuit boards and integrated circuits. The tools work together
in a design flow that chip designers use to design and analyze entire semiconductor chips.
OrCAD is a suite of products for EDA, and includes a schematic editor (Capture), a circuit
simulator (PSpice) and a PCB designer. It is a proprietary software tool suite used primarily for
electronic design automation (EDA). The software is used mainly by electronic design engineers
and electronic technicians to create electronic schematics and electronic prints for manufacturing
printed circuit boards.
OrCAD Capture
OrCAD Capture is a schematic capture application, and part of the OrCAD circuit design suite.
Capture includes a component information system (CIS), that links component package footprint
data or simulation behavior data, with the circuit symbol in the schematic. The OrCAD Capture
Marketplace enables customers to share and sell add-ons and design resources. Such add-ons can
customize the design environment and add features and capabilities. Capture can interface with
any database which complies with Microsoft's standard etc.
OrCAD EE PSpice
OrCAD EE PSpice is a SPICE circuit simulator application for simulation and verification of
analog and mixed-signal circuits. OrCAD EE typically runs simulations for circuits defined in
OrCAD Capture, and can optionally integrated with MATLAB/Simulink, using the Simulink to
PSpice Interface (SLPS). PSpice is an acronym for Personal Simulation Program with Integrated
Circuit Emphasis a circuit to be analyzed using PSpice is described by a circuit description file,
which is processed by PSpice and executed as a simulation. PSpice creates an output file to store
the simulation results, and such results are also graphically displayed within the OrCAD EE
interface. OrCAD EE is an upgraded version of the PSpice simulator, and includes automatic
circuit optimization and support for waveform recording, viewing, analysis, curve-fitting, and
post-processing. OrCAD EE contains an extensive library of models for physical components,
including around 30,000 analog and mixed-signal devices and mathematical functions. OrCAD
EE also includes a model editor, support for parameterized models, auto-convergence and
checkpoint restart, several internal solvers and a magnetic part editor. The type of simulation
performed by PSpice depends on the source specifications and control statements. PSpice
supports the following types of analyses:
DC Analysis for circuits with time–invariant sources (e.g. steady-state DC sources). It calculates
all nodal voltages and branch currents over a range of values. Supported types include linear
sweep, Logarithmic sweep, and Sweep over list of values.
Transient Analysis for circuits with time variant sources (e.g., sinusoidal sources/switched DC
sources). It calculates all nodes voltages and branch currents over a time interval and their
instantaneous values are the outputs.
AC Analysis for small signal analysis of circuits with sources of varying frequencies. It
calculates the magnitudes and phase angles of all nodal voltages and branch currents over a
range of frequencies.
Result
Studied of Electronic Design Automation tool and its application with OrCAD PSpice as an
example.

EXPERIMENT 3-1
FAMILIARIZATION OF A MULTIMETER
Aim: To familiarize multimeters and study how to operate them.
Components required: Digital multimeter, Analog multimeter
Theory
Multimeter is a very popular electronic measuring device. It is an essential equipment to

troubleshoot an electronic circuit.
Multimeter is used to measure various electrical quantities such as voltage, current and
resistance. It works in different modes namely ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter. The mode can
be set using a selector switch provided in the multimeter.
Both AC and DC voltages and current can be measured using multivibrator. They are available
in two types analog and digital. Analog multimeter have a needle moving over a calibrated scale
while the digital multimeter give the digital display of the measured quantities.
Fig 3-1.1 Block diagram of a multimeter

A digital multimeter is made from the basic digital voltmeter. For the measurement of current,
the voltage drop across a precision resistance is measured. DVM can be converted to an
ohmmeter by using an accurate current source. It measures the voltage drop across the resistance
being measured.
Fig 3-1.2 Analog and digital multimeter
DC and AC voltage measurement using multimeter
1. Connect positive test lead to the terminal marked for measurement of voltage & negative
test lead to COM terminal.
2. Set the range selector switch to DCV/ACV range and connect the test leads across voltage
under measurement. If the voltage under measurement is unknown, set the range selector
switch to the highest range and work down to lower ranges.
DC and AC current measurement using multimeter
1. Connect the negative test lead to the COM terminal and positive test lead to the terminal
marked for measurement up to 2A. For the measurement of larger current up to 20 A,
connect the positive lead terminal marked 20A.
2. Set the selector switch to the DC A or AC A accordingly, and connect the test leads in.
series with the load under measurement.

Continuity checking
After setting up the electronic circuits, it is a good practice to verify the short and open circuits in
the circuit. For this, set the selector switch to the position marked with a symbol of beep sound.
If there is continuity (short) between the lead tips, a beep sound will be produced.
Result
Familiarized a multimeter and also studied its operation.

EXPERIMENT 3-2
FUNCTION GENERATOR
Aim
To familiarize function generators used in electronic laboratories and to study how to operate
them.
Components required
Function generator
Theory
Many of the laboratory experiments need sine waves and square waves. Signal or function
generators provide various signals with the provision to vary the parameters of the signal such as
amplitude, frequency, dc level, duty cycle etc.
In almost all of the signal generators three types of waveforms are available; sine, square and
triangular. The frequency range of the signal generators 0 to 2 or 3 MHz.
A knob named „offset‟ is provided to add positive or negative DC voltage to the generated
signal. If the operator does not need any DC shift, turn this knob off.
Attenuation knobs (-20dB, -40dB or -60 dB) are provided to obtain the signals in the mV range.
Fig 3-2.1 A function generator
Result
Familiarized a function generator and studied its operation.

EXPERIMENT 3-3
DC POWER SUPPLY
Aim
Familiarisation of a DC power sources used in electronic laboratories and to study how to

operate them
Components required
Single power supply, Dual power supply
Theory
Almost all electronic circuits need a bias voltage. DC power sources are mainly classified into;
fixed and variable power sources.
Some DC sources provide only positive voltages while some others provide both positive and
negative. DC sources which provide positive and negative voltages are called dual power
sources. Certain integrated circuits and discrete circuits need dual power sources. The operator
can vary the DC voltage output from the variable DC sources using „coarse‟ and „fine‟ knobs
are provided. Most of the dc power sources are either 0 to 30 V variable or ±15V fixed.
Fig 3-3-1 A DC power supply

Result
Familiarized a power supply and studied its operation.

EXPERIMENT 3-4
FAMILIARISATION OF CRO
Aim
To familiarize the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) and to study its functions
Components and equipments required
CRO, function generator
Theory
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is used for the display of electrical signals. It is one of the
most versatile tools used for the research and study of electronic circuits and systems. It displays
on the screen in X and Y axes as in conventional graph construction. X-axis represents the time
and Y-axis the amplitude of the signal. Oscilloscopes are capable of displaying voltage
variations which take place over a period of microseconds and nanoseconds.
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) is the heart is a CRO. It is a vacuum tube which generates a narrow
electron beam which is made to fall on a fluorescent screen at one end of the tube. The electron
beam is deflected horizontally and vertically by horizontal and vertical deflection plates
respectively. The waveform to be observed is fed across the vertical deflection plates while the
horizontal deflection plates elongate the waveform along the time axis.
The controls and sockets in the front panel of a typical CRO are explained below.
Power On/Off Turns power on. A pilot LED indicates whether it is on or off.
INTENS The intensity of the displayed waveform can be varied using this knob.
FOCUS Using this, the beam can be made sharply defined.
Y-POS Position knob controls the vertical shifting of the trace.
VOLTS/DIV Enlarges the signal in vertical direction. Knob can be set from
2mV/div to 10div/div.
ON/OFF Turns the channel on or off.
AC/DC/GND This switc h selects AC,DC or ground modes. In AC mode, DC
component of the signal input is blocked by a blocking capacitor. In
DC mode, signal is directly coupled to the CRO input. In ground
mode no signal is displayed.
X-POS X-position knob controls the horizontal shifting of the trace.

LEVEL Helps the trace to remain still.

In combination with TIME/DIV switch selects the time
s/ms coefficients.
MAGNxN Allows magnification of the horizontal deflection by a factor n.

TIME/DIV Varies the length of the signal in X direction.
X via A Input to X-X plate of CRT is fed through channel A.
CAL Knob should be turned to CAL position to take readings.
INT/EXT Toggle switch selects either internal or external triggering signal.
NORM/TV In NORM position, normal triggering is obtained. In TV position, TV
line or TV frame synchronization is obtained.
CH I Select channel 1
CH II Select channel 2
Mono Only a single channel is seen based on the channel we select
Dual Both the channel can be seen on the screem
Procedure
To measure the amplitude of a signal
1. Switch on the CRO. Obtain a sharply defined trace of a horizontal line on the screen
adjusting INTENS and FOCUS knobs.
2. Adjust the Y-position knob so as to make the trace coincide with the centre line on the
screen by keeping the AC-DC switch in GND position.
3. Connect the function generator output to CRO using a test probe. Switch on the function
generator. (Test probe is a coaxial chord with BNC at its both ends).
4. Count the number of divisions spanned by the signal from peak to peak. Multiply this scale
by the scale indicated by the VOLT/DIV knob. This gives the peak-to peak amplitude
of the signal. Half of this will give the maximum (peak) value of the voltage
5. Repeat the above steps for various settings of VOLT/DIV knob.
To measure the frequency of a signal
1. Obtain a sharply defined trace of horizontal line on the screen by adjusting INTENS and
FOCUS knobs. Feed the signal whose frequency is to be measured, to either of the

Channels using a probe and observe the signal on CRO.
2. Adjust the TIME/DIV knob so as to see two or three cycles of the waveform. Multiply this
by this time-base setting. This gives the period of the signal.
3. Reciprocal of the period will give the frequency of the signal.
4. Repeat the above step for various settings of TIME/DIV knob.
Fig 3-4.1 A typical CRO front panel
Result
Familiarized a CRO and studied its operation.

EXPERIMENT 3-5
TOOLS USED FOR SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING
Aim
To familiarize various tools associated with soldering and desoldering such as soldering iron,
soldering station hot air soldering, desoldering pump, and desoldering station.
Theory
Soldering is the process of joining two or more metals using an alloy metal having low melting
point to establish electrical connection. The process of removing solder from already soldered
material is called desoldering.
Various tools used for soldering and desoldering processes are
Soldering iron
It is a tool used to melt the solder and apply joints in the circuit. It operates in 230V mains
supply. The normal power ratings of the soldering iron are 10W, 25W, 35W, 65W and 125W.
10W and 25W soldering irons are sufficient for light duty works. The iron bit at the tip of it gets
heated up within a few minutes. Tips of bits are either pointed very accurate and small circuits. It
needs a very little amount of solder. In laboratory tapered bits are usually used.
Soldering iron stand is used to place the soldering iron safely when it is not in use.
Soldering station
Soldering station is an equipment which provides an iron and a control console that controls the
temperature. The tip of the temperature is maintained by a feedback loop. Soldering station has
the provision for setting and displaying the temperature
Hot air soldering station
Hot air soldering is used for reworks of already soldered items, mainly surface mount
components. Hot sir soldering station may have a hot air gun, vacuum pick up tool and soldering

head.
Desoldering pump
It is a vacuum pump used to remove the solder when melted by the soldering iron while
desoldering the connections. When the solder melts, a trigger on the desolder pump should be
activated to create a vacuum. This vacuum pulls the solder into the tube.
Desoldering station
A desoldering station will have a desoldering head with a vacuum pump and temperature
adjustment circuit , control and sensor circuit with in its cabin.
Fig 3-5.1 Soldering Iron Fig 3-5.2 Soldering Iron

Fig 3-5.3 Soldering iron stand
Fig 3-5.5 De-soldering pump Fig 3-5.6 De-soldering station

EXPERIMENT 3-6
STUDY OF COMMON TOOLS
Aim
To familiarize various tools used in lab such as pliers, cutters, wire strippers, screwdrivers,
tweezers and crimping tool.
Materials required
Pliers, Cutters, Wire strippers, Screwdrivers, Tweezers and crimping tool
Theory
Pliers
Pliers are a hand tool used to hold objects firmly, for cutting, bending, or physical compression.
Generally, pliers consist of a pair of metal first-class levers joined at a fulcrum positioned closer
to one end of the levers, creating short jaws on one side of the fulcrum, and longer handles on the
other side. This arrangement creates a mechanical advantage, allowing the force of the hand's
grip to be amplified and focused on an object with precision. The jaws can also be used to
manipulate objects too small or unwieldy to be manipulated with the fingers.
There are many kinds of pliers made for various general and specific purposes.
The basic design of pliers has changed little since their origins, with the pair of handles,
the pivot (often formed by a rivet), and the head section with the gripping jaws or cutting edges
forming the three elements. In distinction to a pair of scissors or shears, the plier's jaws always
meet each other at one pivot angle. The materials used to make pliers consist mainly of steel
alloys with additives such as vanadium or chromium, to improve strength and prevent corrosion.
Often pliers have insulated grips to ensure better handling and prevent electrical conductivity. In
some lines of fine work(such as jewellery or musical instrument repair), some specialized pliers
feature a layer of comparatively soft metal (such as brass) over the two plates of the head of the
pliers to reduce pressure placed on some fine tools or materials. Making entire pliers out of softer
metals would be impractical, reducing the force required to bend or break them.

Fig 3-6.1 Different types of pliers
Cutters
Diagonal pliers (or wire cutters or diagonal cutting pliers) are pliers intended for the cutting of
wire (they are generally not used to grab or turn anything). They are sometimes called side
cutting pliers or side cutters, although these terms are shared by other pliers designs, such as
lineman's pliers, and may lead to confusion. The plane defined by the cutting edges of the jaws
intersects the joint rivet at an angle or "on a diagonal", hence the name. Instead of using a
shearing action as with scissors, they cut by indenting and wedging the wire apart. The jaw
edges are ground to a symmetrical "V" shape; thus the two jaws can be visualized to form the
letter "X", as seen end-on when fully occluded. The pliers are made of tempered steel and
inductive heating and quenching.
Fig 3-6.2 Cutter

Wire strippers
A wire stripper is a small, hand-held device used to strip the insulation from electric wires.
A simple manual wire stripper is a pair of opposing blades much like scissors or wire cutters.
The addition of a center notch makes it easier to cut the insulation without cutting the wire. This

type of wire stripper is used by rotating it around the insulation while applying pressure in order
to make a cut around the insulation. Since the insulation is not bonded to the wire, it then pulls
easily off the end. This is the most versatile type of wire stripper.
Another type of manual wire stripper is very similar to the simple design previously mentioned,
except this type has several notches of varying size. This allows the user to match the notch size
to the wire size, thereby eliminating the need for twisting. Once the device clamped on, the
remainder of the wire can simply be pulled out, leaving the insulation behind.
Fig 3-6.3 A wire stripper

Screwdrivers
A screwdriver is a tool for driving screws and rotating other machine elements with the mating
drive system. The screwdriver is made up of a head or tip, which engages with a screw, a mechanism
to apply torque by rotating the tip, and some way to position and support the screwdriver. A typical
hand screwdriver comprises an approximately cylindrical handle of a size and shape to be held by a
human hand, and an axial shaft fixed to the handle, the tip of which is shaped to fit a particular type
of screw. The handle and shaft allow the screwdriver to be positioned and supported and, when
rotated, to apply torque. Screwdrivers are made in a variety of shapes, and the tip can be rotated
manually or by an electric motor or other motor.
A screw has a head with a contour such that an appropriate screwdriver tip can be engaged in it
in such a way that the application of sufficient torque to the screwdriver will cause the screw to
rotate.

Fig 3-6.4 Screwdriver

Tweezers
Tweezers are tools used for picking up objects too small to be easily handled with the human
hands. They are probably derived from tongs, pincers, or scissors-like pliers used to grab or hold
hot objects since the dawn of recorded history. In a scientific or medical context they are
normally referred to as forceps.
Tweezers make use of two third-class levers connected at one fixed end (the fulcrum point of
each lever), with the pincers at the others. Tweezers can be used whenever small objects have to
be manipulated, including for example small, particularly surface-mount, electronic parts, and
small mechanical parts for models and precision mechanisms.
Tweezers come in a variety of tip shapes and sizes. Blunt tip tweezers have a rounded end which
can be used when a pointed object may get entangled, when manipulating cotton swabs, for
example. Flat tip tweezers, pictured at right, have an angled tip which may be used for removing
splinters. Some tweezers have a long needle-like tip which may be useful for reaching into small
crevices. Triangular tip tweezers have larger, wider tips useful for gripping larger objects.
Tweezers with curved tips also exist, sometimes called bent forceps. Micro tweezers have an
extremely small, pointed tip used for manipulating tiny electronic components and the like.
Fig 3-6.5 Tweezers

Crimping tool
A crimping tool is a device used to conjoin two pieces of metal by deforming one or both of
them in a way that causes them to hold each other. The result of the tool's work is called a
crimp. A good example of crimping is the process of affixing a connector to the end of a cable.
For instance, network cables and phone cables are created using a crimping tool (shown below)
to join the RJ-45 and RJ-11 connectors to the both ends of either phone or CAT5 cable.
To use this crimping tool, each wire is first placed into the connector. Once all the wires are in
the jack, the connectors with wires are placed into the crimping tool, and the handles are
squeezed together. Crimping punctures the plastic connectors and holds each of the wires,
allowing for data to be transmitted through the connector.
Fig 3-6.6 Crimping tool
Result
Studied the most commonly used tools in electronic laboratory.

EXPERIMENT 4
TESTING OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS USING MULTIMETER
Aim
To study the testing and identification of the leads of various passive and active devices.
Components and instruments required
Resistors, Capacitors, diodes, transistor, UJT, JFET and multimeter.
Theory
The electronic components may become faulty due to many reasons such as ageing, surrounding
temperature, voltages, currents more than rated value etc. Before wiring up the circuit
connections, all the electronic components should be tested necessarily. The conventional
methods used for measuring passive and active components are described below.
Testing of resistors
The most common problem in resistors is that it may be open usually due to burning. It can be
tested using a multimeter keeping it in ohmmeter mode. If the resistor is open, meter will read
infinite resistance (OL). Care must be taken to select the proper range in multimeter.
For instance, if a good resistor of 20MΩ is measured keeping in the multimeter in 1 MΩ range,
meter may read infinity interpreting falsely that the resistor is bad.
Procedure
1. Keep the DMM knob in high value resistor position. Connect the resistor terminals to the
multimeter terminals.
2. If the DMM shows over range, turn the knob to lower scale and note the digital readout.
3. Measure the resistance using colour code. Compare this with that obtained from DMM.

Testing of capacitors
Testing of diodes
The forward bias resistance of the diode is low and the reverse bias resistance is high. This
property is utilized to test diodes. The steps 1 through 3 are use to test the condition of the diode.
If the leads are unknown, same steps can be used to identify the anode and cathode of the diode.
Procedure
1. Set the digital multimeter in resistance measurement mode and connect the positive test
lead of the multimeter to the anode of the diode and the negative test lead to the cathode.
The meter will indicate a small resistance.
2. Reverse the leads of the diode. Now the multimeter will indicate a high resistance value.
3. If the meter shows either high or low in both the connections, the diode might be a
damaged one.
4. To know whether the diode is made of silicon or germanium, keep the multimeter in diode
test mode. If the reading is between 0.1V to 0.3V, it is a germanium diode. If it is 0.7V, it is a
silicon diode.
Testing of a transistor
Transistors can be tested in the same way that the diodes are tested. Transistor is equivalent to
two diodes back to back. Emitter and base terminals are considered as two terminals of a
diode and collector and base terminals are considered as two terminals of another diode. These
two diodes must tested separately. The type of the transistor (NPN or PNP) can be identified by
testing the diode sections separately.
Procedure
1. To identify the base of an NPN transistor, connect the positive test lead of the meter to any
transistor lead and negative test lead of the meter to other transistor leads one by one. If the
meter shows low reading in both cases, transistor lead connected to the positive test lead of
the meter will be the base. In the case of PNP transistor, meter terminals have to be reversed.

2. To identify the type of a transistor, connect the positive test lead of the multimeter to the
base and the negative test lead to the emitter or collector. If the meter shows low reading
transistor is an NPN type. It is a PNP transistor if the meter reads low when the negative
test lead is at the base and positive test lead is at the emitter or collector.
3. To test the condition of an NPN transistor, connect the positive test lead of the meter to the
base and negative test lead to emitter. Shift the negative test lead to the collector. Again a low
reading should be observed. Reverse the polarity and a high resistance reading should be
observed if the transistor is good. A high resistance can be observed across emitter and
collector in both directions.
4. To test a PNP transistor, use step number 4 reversing the polarity of the meter.
Result
Familiarized testing of electronic components using Multimeter and studied its operation.

EXPERIMENT 5-1
FAMILIARIZATION OF A BREADBOARD
Aim
To familiarize a breadboard and study its connections
Component required
Breadboard
Theory
Breadboard is used to wire up electronic circuits without soldering the component terminals.
This helps us to reuse the components again and again, since they are not cut and soldered.
Breadboard is shown in figure 5-1.1. It contains a number of metal clips aligned beneath the
array of holes so that when the leads of the components are inserted into the hole, the clip grips
the lead tightly. The connections beneath the breadboard is shown in figure 5-1.2.
Commonly available breadboards have approximately 17cm x 6.5 cm dimension. It consists of

two terminal strips and two bus strips are usually used for giving power supply connections and
terminal strips are for the connections of components. Each bus strips are for the connections of
components. Each bus strip has rows of contacts often broken in the middle. The two sections of
terminal strips, each contains 56-60 rows and 5 columns.
Bus strip Terminal strip
Fig 5-1.1 A breadboard

Fig 5-1.2 The connections beneath the breadboard

Result
Familiarized a Breadboard and studied its connections.

EXPERIMENT 5-2
WIRE WRAPPING
Aim
To understand wire wrapping method and tools used for wire wrapping.
Theory
Wire wrapping is a process for connecting stripped (un-insulated) copper wire to a terminal to
complete an electrical circuit.
Fig 5-2.1 Wire wrapping
There are two types of wire-wrapped connections: regular and modified. In a “regular”
connection, only un-insulated wire is wrapped around the terminal. A“modified” wrap, which
requires a modified bit, coils about 1 1/2 turns of insulated wire around the terminal in addition
to the bare wire. This method greatly improves a connection's mechanical stability, such as
resistance to vibration, in cases where the wire diameter is small and its mechanical strength is
low. The most important element to consider when choosing either wrap method, then, is the size
wire being used . A standard wrap is generally used for 26 AWG and larger diameter wires; a
modified wrap, on the other hand, is used almost exclusively for 28 and 30 AWG wires. In either
case, the wrap style affects only the connection's mechanical stability; they both provide
identical electrical characteristics, yielding a resistance of normally less than 3 ohms.

Fig 5-2.1 Types of wire-wrapped connections
Working
The wires are tightly coiled around the terminal through the motion of a rotating element, called
a bit. The bit is fabricated from solid steel rods and has a large central hole machined along its
axis for slipping the tool over the terminal; the terminal will remain inside this cavity as the bit
rotates. The top surface of the bit has a wire slot, a groove that is machined axially along the
outer diameter, which accepts the length of stripped wire that is to be wrapped. The front or face
of the bit, where the wire first makes contact prior to being coiled around the terminal, is shaped
to apply the proper tension to the wire during the wrap. This contour also guides the wire into a
helix that is tightly spaced and uniform. Each bit is designed to handle a specific combination of
wire gauge, wire insulation diameter and terminal post geometry. While in operation, the bit is
surrounded by a stationary metal tube called a sleeve. The sleeve retains the bit in the collet of a
wire-wrapping tool, which drives the bit as it spins. It also keeps the wire in the slot during the
wrapping process and protects the worker from the rotating bit.
Wire wrapping tools
1. Hand wrapping tool
The simplest and lowest in cost are the hand wrapping and unwrapping tools, which have the
basic construction style of a screwdriver and are twisted by hand to perform wrap or unwrap
operations. With the hand tools, the bit and sleeve are integral to the handle and each tool is
dedicated to a specific wire gauge size or range of sizes. These tools are especially useful for
repair work and prototyping, but are not efficient when performing more than 50-100 wrap
operations per day.`

Fig 5-2.2 Hand wrapping tool
2. Manual squeeze tool
One step above the simple hand tool is the manual „squeeze‟ tool, which is powered by
squeezing a trigger with four fingers of the hand. The manual tools feature a bit holder or
„collet‟ which al ows them to accept bits and sleeves that are designed for the various
application parameters. Manual tools are often used in applications of roughly 50-200 wraps per
day, but are not recommended beyond that volume as this can lead to operator fatigue and
repetitive stress.
Fig 5-2.3 Manual squeeze tool
3. Battery or electrically powered wire wrapping tool
Battery- and electric-powered tools are widely used in higher volume applications, which can
include factory production or telecom equipment connection. These tools employ the same bits
and sleeves that are used in conjunction with the manual tools. They are generally more
expensive than hand or manual tools but provide a much greater level of efficiency and operator
protection from the risk of repetitive stress injuries, particularly when wrapping or unwrapping
several hundred times or more in a given day.

Fig 5-2.4 Electrically powered wire wrapping tool
Result
Studied the process of wire wrapping and different tools used for wire wrapping.

Lab Manual.

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ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP LAB MANUAL

FAMILARISATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF PASSIVE AND ACTIVE `

Resistance is the fundamental property of a conductor to oppose the flow of current

A resistor has four important parts

1) Base 2) Resistive material 3) Leads 4) Protective means

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 1

Resistors can be classified mainly into two types

1. Carbon Composition resistors

Carbon composition resistors

Fig. 1-1.1 Carbon composition resistors

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 2

Wire wound resistors

There are two types of wire wound resistors.

Fig. Wire wound resistor

Metal film Resistor

1. Tin oxide 2. Metal gaze

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 3

Fig. Metal film resistors

Carbon film resistors

Fig. Carbon film resistors

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Fig 1-1.6 Potentiometer

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Fig 1-1.7 A Preset

Resistance colour code

Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 6

Symbols associated with capacitors are as follows

1. Paper capacitor 4. Electrolytic capacitor

2. Mica capacitor 5. Tantalum capacitor

3. Ceramic capacitor 6. Plastic capacitor

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 7

Fig . A paper capacitor

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Fig. Ceramic capacitors

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Fig Tantalum capacitors

There is a number of different types of plastic film capacitors. Polycarbonate, polyester,

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 10

Fig Polyester capacitor

Polystyrene (styroflex) capacitor

Fig .Polystyrene capacitor

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 11

As its name implies, gang capacitor is a group of capacitors ganged together. It is a

Fig .Gang capacitor

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 12

Coding for capacitors

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 13

Table. Colour code for ceramic capacitors

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 14

Air core inductor

Iron core inductor

Powder core inductor

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 15

Radio frequency choke

Audio frequency choke

Fig 1-3.1 Symbols of an inductor

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Air core inductor Ferrite core inductor Choke

Fig .Different types of inductors

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT PUNNAPRA Page 17

Step up transformer Step down transformer

Fig Symbols of a transformer