Basic Concepts of Philosophy and Ethics

● Pythagoras (580-500 B.C)

- Greek mathematician and philosopher
- coined "love of wisdom"
- founder of Pythagorean school known as metempsychosis meaning "the soul of
man imprisoned in his body could be purified through self - examination and
strict discipline"
● sophos meaning "a wise man"
● Gorgias (orator) and Protagoras (Greek mathematician)
- both were sophists in Greece and the forerunners of the Aristotelian logic and
Socratic dialect
- first to systematize the laws of thought
● Philosophy was given literal meaning by Herodotus (Greek historian — Father of
History) and Gorgias (Greek orator / sophist), who refer to philosophy as theoretical
knowledge.

Real Definition of Philosophy

1. Encyclopedia Americana, 2003

- a rational critical thinking of more or less systematic kind about life, nature, and
justification of belief

2. New Webster's Dictionary of the English Language, 1995

- Philosophy is love or pursuit of wisdom; search for basic principles

3. Ariola, 1989
- the sum of all man's beliefs and views that guides his action
4. Piñon, 1995
- science of the things by the ultimate principles and causes (natural reason)

5. Gualdo, 2000
- human search for meaning; goes beyond the concrete knowledge (question after
question)

6. Bauzon, 2002
- never-ending search for meaning; look for answers (wonder - awe)

7. Melchert, 1999
- sees human existence and place in a systematic way

8. Christensen, 1999
- Philosophy is systematic, reflective, critical, primary reason-bound inquiring and
guides beliefs to make sense of life.

9. Bresman & Gould, 1977

- process in which men ponder about the existence of something

10. Kolak and Martin, 1990

- the art of questioning everything

11. Earle, 1992

- focuses on conceptual clarity and understanding (ignorance to understanding)

12. Barry, 1983

- Asking the right questions to initiate philosophical thinking and direction (to get
your desired answer)

13. Minton and Shipka, 1982

- quest (search/seek) for wisdom to provide a systematic and clear vision of the
world
 Branch of Philosophy

Metaphysics (physical aspects)

- study of existence; questions of reality — (WHY AM I HERE?)

Epistemology (mental and spiritual)

- study of knowledge — (HOW DO I KNOW THAT I KNOW?)

Logic
- study of reasoning and argument — (WHY IS IT VALID?)

Ethic / Moral Philosophy

- study of action — (HOW SHOULD YOU ACT?)

Aesthetics / Axiology (social, moral, and emotional)

- study of art and beauty — ( WHAT IS BEAUTY?)

SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

Ancient and Medieval Schools of Philosophy

● Aristotelianism
- excessive use of discursive reason in proving scheme of things

● Atomism
- Greek word "atoma" (cannot be divided)
- rational explanation of general aspects of phenomena
● Eleaticism
- deals with existence (thoughts and expression)

● Epicureanism (taught by Epicurus)

- or Hedonism meaning "that happiness is the chief good"

● Platonism (teaching of Plato)

- deals with doctrines of forms and numbers

● Pythagorianism (Pythagoras)
- deals with the metaphysics of numbers and reality

● Realism
- objects and things exist outside and independent of mind

● Monasticism
- moral and physical disciplines based on worldly renunciations

● Scholasticism
- intellectual disciplines that shows the doctrines of church are constant with
reason

● Skepticism ("skeptikos" - inquiries)

- raising doubts about any knowledge

● Sophism
- deals on whole series of question to seek ample solutions

● Stoicism
- deals on the conduct of man
Modern Schools of Philosophy

● Analytical and Linguistic

- concerned with close and careful examination of concepts

● Developmentalism
- child center POV (careful study of child)

● Disciplinism
- education of whole man through appropriate discipline

● Empiricism ("emperia" - experience)

- what is true or real are confirmed through experience

● Existentialism
- interpretation of human existence

● Humanism
- stresses personal culture, freedom, and development on the best way to rich
lives

● Idealism
- reality as spirits / consciousness
- abstraction and laws are fundamental in reality, not sensory things

● Materialism
- world as material things that interact

● Naturalism
- natural goodness of man and the formation of society based on the recognition of
natural rights

● Phenomenology
- concerned with phenomena or events
 ● Positivism
- deals with knowledge of matter on positive data of experience; and is beyond
pure logic and mathematics

● Pragmatism
- what is true and real are useful / practical

● Rationalism
- deals with reason as source of knowledge

● Realism
- concerned with the activities of life and understanding of individual in the society

● Utilitarianism
- philosophy that an action is right if it provides happiness to others; wrong if not

Sub-field of Philosophy

Philosophy of Art - art and aesthetic value

Philosophy of Education - application of philosophical method in the study of educational

issues

Philosophy of History - description of events or action of man's past happenings

Philosophy of Language - language, meanings, and how to use and manage the language

Philosophy of Law - formulation of theories / concepts to help man / nature of law / role in
society
Philosophy of Logic - laws of thoughts, rules of right reasoning, and is truth-based

Philosophy of Mathematics - critical examination of basic mathematical entities

Philosophy of Mind - nature of mind, desire, pleasure, and pain / explanation of human action

Philosophy of Nature - deals with issues regarding actual features of nature as reality

Philosophy of Politics - question of origin of the state and authority / law of the land

Philosophy of Psychology - actual theories and research efforts of contemporary

psychologists

Philosophy of Reading - deals on how reading should be taught based on research

Philosophy of Religion - deals on situations relating to religion and methodology

Philosophy of Science - provides accurate explanation about a certain phenomena

Philosophy of Society - deals with questions about personal morality in relation to man's
existence as member of society

Moral Philosophy

A branch of philosophy that contemplates what is right and wrong and how people should live in
relation to others.
 Branches of Moral Philosophy

META-ETHICS (What is truth? Justice? Is there truth?)

- concerning theoretical meanings, reference of moral propositions, how values are
determined

NORMATIVE ETHICS (What we ought to do?)

- practical means of determining moral actions

APPLIED ETHICS (Should we lie to help a friend or co-worker?)

- what a person is obligated (permitted) to do in a situation

Ethics

- or moral philosophy
- it involves systematizing, defending, and recommending the concepts of right and wrong
- Greek word "ethikos" — from "ethos" that means habit or custom

Importance of Ethics

1. It satisfies basic human needs

2. Creates credibility
3. Unites people and leaders
4. Improves decision-making
5. It brings long-term gains
6. It secures the society
.
Employee Ethics
- employees use ethics to guide their behavior adhere to employee policies and rules
while striving to meet the goals of organization
Ethical Organization Culture
- leaders of business organizations can create an ethical culture by exhibiting behavior
that they want to see on their employees

Benefits of Ethics to Organization

May increase productivity and employee retention. According to Roslyn Frenz (2017), ethics
helps people make good choices.

Why Should We Study Ethics?

According to Christopher Panza and Adam Potthast:

1. Ethics allows you to live an authentic and meaningful life.

2. It makes you more successful.
3. It allows you to cultivate inner peace.
4. It provides for a stable society.
5. It may help in the afterlife.

How to Study Ethics?

David C. Clowney (1992):

1. Identify different kinds of moral values and distinguish them from other sorts of values.
2. Notice what moral values are at stake.
3. Clarify the reasons behind moral judgements.
4. Make some sense out of many changing and conflicting values.
5. Decide where you will stand on difficult ethical choices.
6. Understand why we are concerned on ethical matters.
 Meaning and Importance of Rules

RULES:
1. Instruction that tells you what to do
(example: raise your hand if you have questions)

2. A statement telling people what to do to achieve success.

(example: eat healthy foods to maintain healthy life)

3. Statement that describes how things usually happen in a particular situation.

(example: adjectives generally precedes the noun they modify)

4. It tells you normal states of affair.

(example: policeman's duty is to maintain peace)

5. Influence or restrict actions that are not good.

(example: unauthorized person is not allowed)

6. It tells you something that is true / should happen then authority will officially decide if it
is true.
(example: the court decided that the respondent is liable for civil damages)

7. Principles and regulations governing conduct, action, or procedure.

(example: knock before you enter)

Importance of Rules

1. If laws become elastic, the boundaries become dysfunctional.

2. Laws organize lives.
3. Rules help us get along together and show respect.
 4. We are governed by rules to avoid accidents.
5. It organizes the relations between individuals and societies.
6. It makes the world a peaceful place to live.
7. It serves as a balance between laws and rights.

● order & stability, safety, consistency, ethical & moral guidelines, social harmony, and
accountability

Morals and Non-Moral Standards

Moral
- the moral quality (rightness or wrongness) / (goodness or badness) is present (either right or
wrong)
- what is morally right or good
- IMMORAL, that is — wrong is morally bad

Moral Standards
- those moral actions which are within the moral sphere / object of moral judgements

Non-Moral Standards
- actions devoid (wala) of moral quality / excluded from the scope of moral judgement

● instinctive action - an individual feels himself impelled (forced) without knowing the to
be accomplished
(example: actions of animals / young children — these are not morally wrong because
they are not moral actions)
 Foundational Definitions and Distinctions

Foundational Definitions
- definitions of concepts or principles

Foundational Distinctions
- differences between concepts and principles

ETHICS MORALITY

broader field of values, conduct, and moral specific values and beliefs
principles

Descriptive and Prescriptive

Descriptive Language
- describes and analyzes ethical phenomena without any moral claims

Prescriptive Language
- seeks to establish normative principles and provide guide of what is morally right and
wrong

Moral Responsibility and Freedom of Actions

Moral Responsibility
 - believes that an individual is blame-worthy for violating standards
(example: nakakita ka ug aksidente then wala ka nitabang)

Freedom of Action
- things that prevent a willed action upon being realized (evil actions / limited) — free lang
when you do what is right

Morally Permissible, Obligatory, and Supererogatory

MORALLY PERMISSIBLE MORALLY OBLIGATORY MORALLY

SUPEREROGATORY

morally activities that are morally right acts that are morally right activities that are
allowed but not required required, one ought to do, especially praiseworthy and
and moral duties heroic
(example: mag-study)
(example: volunteer)

MORES - standard in a society

BELIEFS - personal standard

 Moral Dilemma

Moral - own standards of what is right and wrong

Dilemma - a situation in which a difficult choice has to be made

Moral Dilemma- when you are presented with two or more actions
- there are moral reasons for you to choose
- you cannot perform all actions

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

Individual Moral Dilemma Organizational Moral Systemic Type of Dilemma

Dilemma

experienced by an individual administrative decisions as occur in ordinary conditions

who is having a hard time to having routines and of life
choose that no matter what challenges
choice, there is someone who
will suffer

Moral Agents
- refers to individuals who make moral judgements and take intentional actions based in
their understanding of what is right or wrong

Cultural Relativism

A person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood and evaluated instead of
comparing it to others.
 Cultural Relativism

STRENGTHS PROBLEMS

It helps avoid moral dictatorship Tolerance and acceptance of social injustices

and inhumane activities

It respects the values / beliefs of different Rejection of higher universal or

cultures. common moral standards

It promotes unity and harmony Assumptions that knowledge of other culture

is impossible

Vulnerability to racial discrimination

Moral Character

The totality of a person's dispositions or how the person behaves. To have "moral character" is
to have / to lack certain virtues or vices of character.

● Greek word of character is "kharakter "

● "kharakter" means a stamping tool used to make coins (before)
● "kharakter" also means the collection of qualities that distinguish one person to another .
● Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics highlights the importance of moral virtue or excellence
of character
 Three Fundamental Needs and Values of One's Moral Character

Individuality and Autonomy Meaning

Personal Identity

personality means freedom to make decisions finding meaning in one's life /

possessing unique traits independently and act according actions
to one's own choices

● Moral development in children involves three (3) key aspects: EMOTIONS,

KNOWLEDGE, ACTION

Theories of Moral Development

1. Social Learning Theory

- children learn moral behaviors by observing and imitating, also known as
modeling

2. Cognitive Development Theory (Jean Piaget)

- how children arrive at judgements (right / wrong)

2 Stages of Moral Development (Piaget)

HETERONOMOUS MORALITY AUTONOMOUS MORALITY

children follow rules and obey children learn to critically evaluate

authority figures rules and apply them based in mutual
respect and cooperation
 3. Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
- person's personal behaviors are influenced by unconscious ideas and impulses
rooted in childhood conflicts
- ID (pleasure), EGO (reality), SUPEREGO (conscience)
- moral character develops through parental identification

Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg
- American psychologist known for his theory of "Stages of Moral Development"

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

1. PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY
- before age of 9
- LEVEL 1: obedience and punishment // behavior driven to avoid punishment
- LEVEL 2: individual interest

2. CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
- early adolescence (10-15 years old)
- LEVEL 3: interpersonal level (social approval)
- LEVEL 4: authority (obeying and conforming to norms)

3. POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY
- LEVEL 5: social contract (balance of social order)
- LEVEL 6: universal ethics (driven by internal moral principle)
 CONSCIENCE: Guide in Making Moral Decisions

- according to Thomas Aquinas, conscience is the natural faculty of human reason to

distinguish right from wrong
- two parts of conscience (Aquinas) : "synderesis" and "conscientia"

VIRTUE AS THE SOURCE OF MORAL STRENGTH

- (Aquinas) virtue is the means to perfect human activity

- virtue is a habit that helps one to live righteously

THREE MAIN CATEGORIES

Intellectual Virtues Moral Virtues Theological Virtues

helps perfect the discipline of habits that make one a good involves faith, hope, and
mind person charity

4 CARDINAL VALUES: Faith: helps see and

understand
prudence
justice Hope: helps one trust in
temperance goodness
fortitude
Charity: helps one to love
everybody

● (Aquinas) "the ultimate end is happiness in God"

● Aquinas believes that God is the "Summum Bonum" or "The Highest Good" and "Final
and Perfect Happiness"
 - believes that conscience, guided by the development of virtues, helps an
individual to make moral decisions and choose actions that lead to happiness in
their relationship with God

● UNIVERSAL VALUES
- same value / worth for all
- value things based on human needs

MORAL ACT

According to Guy Thwaits (2017):

1. According to the divine command theory that moral act is one which God says is
moral.
2. According to categorial imperative, moral act is one which would be universally
beneficial.
3. According to act utilitarianism, that a moral act is one which does the most good for the
most people (kasiyahan ng nakararami)

3 Integral Parts of Moral Act

1. OBJECT - what do we do?

2. INTENTION - why do we do that?
3. CIRCUMSTANCES - where, when, how, with whom the consequences

*anything that will burden humanity is moral and evil*

Significance of Feelings in Moral Behavior

1. Daily life and moral decisions.

2. Factors shaping moral decisions.
3. Influence of society and religion.
4. The Emotion VS Reason Debate
5. Scientific exploration of moral decision-making
6. Joshua Greene's Trolley Problem

Reason and Feelings in Ethics

1. Interplay of Emotion and Decision-Making

2. Limitations of Complete Objectivity
3. Mary Midgley's Perspective
4. The Role of Reason
5. The Role of Feelings
6. Scientific Support for Emotion-Driven Ethics

EMPATHY
- the foundation for moral conduct
- allows to identify with others and see them being deserving of respect

CONSCIENCE
- reflects the integration of moral sentiments and principles

REASON AND FEELINGS

- are intertwined in ethical decision-making
 IMPARTIALITY and PARTIALITY

Impartiality - being fair

Partiality - unfair (biased)

7 Steps in Moral Reasoning Model

Michael Davis (1999)

1. State the problem

2. Check the facts

3. Identify relevant factors

4. Develop a list of options

5. Test the options

6. Make a choice (based on 1-5)

7. Review steps (1-6)

● Emotions and Reasons

- no consensus about standard use of reason

● Principle in Moral Behavior

- based in golden rule
● Negative Golden Rule
- provides justifications for maintaining traditions (religious)
● Principles of Justice
- widely accepted (Aritotle)
- "Equals should treated equally and unequal unequally"
● Justice
- expression of mutual recognition of each other
 Different Kinds of Justice

DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
- institution ensure that benefits and burdens are distributed fairly

RETRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
- punishments are fair

COMPENSATORY JUSTICE
- people are fairly compensated