Chapter 8

GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Principles and Modern Applications TENTH EDITION
PETRUCCI HERRING MADURA BISSONNETTE
Chemical Bonding I:
Basic Concepts
Edited by: Dr. Nadeem Sadiq Sheikh
10
Department of Chemistry, College of Science
King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia
https://sites.google.com/site/140gcc
General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
Chemical Bonding I:
Basic Concepts

10-1 Lewis Theory: An Overview ‫🔴 ﻣﺻطﻠﺢ‬
Lewis theory:
1. Valence e- play a fundamental
role in chemical bonding.
2. e- transfer leads to
ionic bonds.
3. Sharing of e- leads to a covalent
bond.
4. e- are transferred or shared to
give each atom a noble gas
configuration, the octet. Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875-1946)
General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson

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Lewis Symbols and Lewis Structures
• A Lewis symbol consists of a chemical symbol
to represent the nucleus and core (inner-shell)
electrons of an atom, together with dots placed
around the symbol to represent the valence
(outer-shell) electrons.
Lewis
symbol •
• Si •
•

The position of the element determines the # of valence electrons
s-block= the group number
p-block= the group number - 10
Slide 5 of 48
Lewis structure
🔴
A Lewis structure is a combination of Lewis symbols that
represents either the transfer or the sharing of electrons in
a chemical bond.
‫راﺑطﺔ‬
‫اﯾوﻧﯾﺔ‬
‫راﺑطﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺳﺎھﻣﯾﺔ‬

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🔴
There are many types of chemical bonds and forces that bind
molecules together. The two most basic types of bonds are
characterized as either ionic or covalent.
• ionic bonding, atoms transfer electrons to each other. Ionic

bonds require at least one electron donor and one electron
acceptor.
• covalent bonds atoms with the same electronegativity share

electrons, because neither atom preferentially attracts or
repels the shared electrons.
‫ ﺗﺗطﻠب اﻟرواﺑط‬.‫ ﺗﻧﻘل اﻟذرات اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﺎت إﻟﻰ ﺑﻌﺿﮭﺎ اﻟﺑﻌض‬:‫اﻟراﺑطﺔ اﻻﯾوﻧﯾﺔ‬
‫اﻷﯾوﻧﯾﺔ ﻣﺎﻧﺣًﺎ إﻟﻛﺗروﻧﯾًﺎ واﺣدًا ﻋﻠﻰاﻷﻗل وﻣﺗﻘﺑﻼً إﻟﻛﺗروﻧﯾًﺎ واﺣدًا‬
، ‫ اﻟذرات اﻟﺗﻲ ﻟﮭﺎ ﻧﻔس اﻟﻘدرة اﻟﻛﮭرﺑﯾﺔ ﺗﺷﺗرك ﻓﻲ اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﺎت‬:‫اﻟرواﺑط اﻟﺗﺳﺎھﻣﯾﺔ‬
.‫ﻷن اﻟذرات ﻻ ﺗﺟذب أو ﺗﻧﻔر اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﺎت اﻟﻣﺷﺗرﻛﺔ ﺑﺷﻛل ﺗﻔﺿﯾﻠﻲ‬
Slide 7 of 48 General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson

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10-2 Covalent Bonding: An Introduction
Covalent bond= sharing of electrons

Coordinate Covalent Bonds
A covalent bond in which a single atom contributes both
of the electrons to a shared pair.
+
H H
•• -
H N H Cl H N H Cl
••
••
••
••
H H
FIGURE 10-2
Formation of the ammonium ion, NH4+

Multiple Covalent Bonds
When more than one pair of electrons are shared to
attain an octet (noble gas electron configuration).
• • • • • •
O• •O O C O
••
• C•
••
••
••
•• • •• •• • ••
• • • •• ••
O C O O C O
••
••
•• • •• •• ••

Multiple Covalent Bonds
• • • •
N• •N N N
••
••
••
••
• • • •
•
N N N N
••
••
••
••

Paramagnetism of Oxygen
The O2 molecule
must have unpaired
electrons.

10-3 Polar Covalent Bonds and Electrostatic
Potential Maps (EPM)
Electrostatic Potential Maps (EPM) describes distribution of e- charge in a molecule
FIGURE 10-4
The electrostatic potential map for ammonia

Polar covalent bond: A covalent bond in which electrons
are not shared equally between two atoms.
FIGURE 10-5
The electrostatic potential maps for sodium chloride, hydrogen chloride and chlorine

Electronegativity (EN) describes an atom s ability to compete
for electrons with other atoms to which it is bonded
EN
the lower its EN, the more metallic the element
FIGURE 10-6
is, and the higher the EN, the more nonmetallic it is
Electronegativities of the elements

EN α I ⎼ EA
EN= Electronegativity ‫كهروسالبيه‬
I= Ionization Energy ‫طاقة التأين‬
EA= Electron affinity‫تقارب اإللكترون‬
(I ⎼ EA) provides a measure of the ability of an atom to attract

electrons (or electron charge density) to itself relative to some
other atom. ‫سا لقدرة الذرة على جذب اإللكترونات (أو كثافة شحنة‬
ً ‫هو مقيا‬
.‫اإللكترون) إلى نفسها بالنسبة إلى ذرة أخرى‬
Slide 17 of 48 General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

ionic
covalent polar covalent
two nonmetal atoms The more metallic

and the more
nonmetallic
elements.
FIGURE 10-7
Percent ionic character of a chemical bond as a function of electronegativity difference

10-4 Writing Lewis Structures
• All the valence e- of atoms must appear.

• Usually, the e- are paired.
• Usually, each atom requires an octet.
• H only requires 2 e-.
• Multiple bonds may be needed.
• Readily formed by C, N, O, S, and P.

Skeletal Structure
Identify central and terminal atoms.
🔴
H H
H C C O H
H H
A central atom is bonded to two or more atoms.

A terminal atom is bonded to just one other atom.
‫ترتبط الذرة المركزية بذرتين أو أكثر‬.
‫ترتبط ذرة طرفية بذرة أخرى فقط‬.

Skeletal Structure
🔴
• Hydrogen atoms are always terminal atoms.
• Central atoms are generally those with the lowest
electronegativity.
• Carbon atoms are always central atoms.
• Generally structures are compact and symmetrical.

Examples: C2N2
NO2+
FIGURE 10-8
Summary scheme for drawing Lewis Structures

Formal Charge
Formal charges (FC) are apparent charges on certain atoms in
a Lewis structure that arise when atoms have not contributed
equal numbers of electrons to the covalent bonds joining them
1
FC = #valence e- - #lone pair e- - #bond pair e-
2
•• + ••
O=N=O
•• ••
1
FC(O) = 6 - 4 – (4) = 0
2
1
FC(N) = 5 - 0 – (8) = +1
2
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.
General Chemistry: Chapter 10
Formal Charge of an Alternative Lewis Structure
•• •• + + •• -
O—N—O O N O
••
••
••
••
•• •• ••
FC(O≡) = 6 - 2 – 1 (6) = +1
2
1
FC(N) = 5 - 0 – (8) = +1
2
1
FC(O—) = 6 - 6 – (2) = -1
2

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General Rules for Formal Charge
• Sum of FC is the overall charge.
• FC should be as small as possible.
• Negative FC usually on most electronegative elements
• positive formal charges, on the least
electronegative atoms.
• FC of same sign on adjacent atoms is unlikely.
+ + •• -
O≡N—O
••
••
••
 Solve example 10-8.

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10-5 Resonance
•• •• + •• - - •• ••+ ••
O O O O O O
••
••
•• •• •• ••
-½ •• ••+ •• -½
O
••
O O
••
The situation in which two or

more plausible Lewis structures
contribute to the correct
structure is called resonance
Electrostatic potential map of ozone
 Solve example 10-9

10-6 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Odd-Electron Species
If the number of valence electrons in a Lewis structure is
odd, there must be an unpaired electron somewhere in the
structure.
•• ••
N=O paramagnetic
•
••
Free radicals:
highly reactive molecular fragments with one or more
unpaired electrons
H
••
H—C—H O—H
•
••
•

Incomplete Octets
•• •• ••
••
••
F F F
••
••
••
•• - +
B B B
-
F F + F F F F
Incomplete Negative ionic structures

Octets on the most
EN atom F
The best representation is resonance hybrid of structures
Species with incomplete octet:

beryllium, boron, and aluminum compounds.
Expanded valence shells
• Lewis structures having 10 or even 12 valence electrons
around the central atom.
• It involves nonmetal atoms of the third period and beyond
that are bonded to highly electronegative atoms.
•• •• ••
F
••
••
Cl Cl
••
••
••
••
Cl F F
Cl
P P S
Cl Cl Cl Cl F F
F
••
••
••
 Octet P has 10 S has 12

electrons electrons
expanded valence shells
Expanded Valence Shells
• Reduces formal charges

• Experimentally approved

10-7 The Shapes of Molecules
Bond length – distance between

nuclei.
Bond angle – angle between
adjacent bonds.
d1= d2 = 95.8 pm and the bond angle is α= 104.45°

FIGURE 10-9
Geometric shape of a molecule

Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
Electron pairs repel each other whether they are in
chemical bonds (bond pairs) or unshared (lone pairs).
Electron pairs assume orientations about an atom to
minimize repulsions.
• In VSEPR theory, we focus on pairs of electrons in the
valence electron shell of a central atom in a structure.
– Which results in particular geometric shapes for
molecules

VSEPR theory focuses not just on electron
pairs but on electron groups.
• A group of electrons can be a pair, either a
lone pair or a bond pair, or it can be a single
unpaired electron on an atom with an
incomplete octet, as in NO.
Geometries
Molecular geometry Electron group geometry

distribution of nuclei. distribution of e- pairs.

Electron-
group
geometry
Methane, Ammonia and Water

‫ اﻟﮭﻧدﺳﺔ اﻟﺟزﯾﺋﯾﺔ ﻛداﻟﺔ ل ھﻧدﺳﺔ ﻣﺟﻣوﻋﺔ اﻹﻟﻛﺗرون‬1
Table 10.1 Molecular Geometry as a Function
of Electron Group Geometry

‫ﺟداً ﺟداً راح ﯾﺟﻲ ب اﻻﺧﺗﺑﺎر‬Octahedral
ً‫ ﺟداول ﺣﻔظ اﻟﺟدول ﻛﺎﻣل ﻣﮭم ﺟدا‬٦ ‫🔴ال‬
‫🔴 ﻣﺎ ﯾﺧﻠﻲ ﻣن اﻻﺧﺗﺑﺎر ﺣﻔظ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ﺧﻣس درﺟﺎت‬
‫ﯾﺟﻲ اﺳم اﻟﻌﻧﺻر او اﻟﻣﺟﻣوﻋﮫ‬

‫واﻧﺎ ارﺳم‬
Ideal Bond angles ‫وأﻛﺗب‬
Trigonal-planar
vsepr ‫واﻛﺗب ال‬
number of lone pairs ‫و اﻛﺗب‬
Electron - group geometry ‫واﻛﺗب‬
( ‫ ) ﺗﻛون ب اﻻطراف‬Number of electron groupsTrigonal
‫واﻛﺗب‬
bipyramidal
Tetrahedral
FIGURE 10-12
Several electron-group geometries illustrated

❇

🔴

🔴

🔴

🔴
Replace this part of table 10.1 this format is

not present in the text. Parent table is on page
425 and 426

Applying VSEPR Theory
1. Draw a plausible Lewis structure.
2. Determine the number of e- groups and identify
them as bond or lone pairs.
3. Establish the e- group geometry.

4. Determine the molecular geometry.
• The molecular geometry is the same as the
electron-group geometry only when all electron
groups are bond pairs.

• Structures with Multiple Covalent Bonds
•• •• + •• +
S S S
- -
O O O O O O
Electron groups= 3 (1 lone pair, 2 double covalent

bonds)
The electron-group geometry: trigonal-planar
The molecular shape: angular, or bent
 Solve 10-11

• Molecules with More Than One Central Atom
The geometric distribution of terminal atoms around each central atom
must be determined and the results then combined into a single
description of the molecular shape.
 See Example 10-12. (CH3NCO)
linear
trigonal planar

Molecular Shapes and Dipole Moments
H Cl HCl is a polar molecule
The extent of the charge displacement in a polar covalent bond

is given by the dipole moment (µ).
=(Columb.meter)=Debye
a partial charge distance

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Molecular Shapes and Dipole Moments
Electrical condenser (or capacitor)
FIGURE 10-14
Polar molecules in an electric field

µ=0
µ=1.04 D
FIGURE 10-15
Molecular shapes and dipole Moments

10-8 Bond Order and Bond Length
Bond Order: describes whether a covalent bond is:
Single bond, bond order = 1
Double bond, bond order = 2
Triple bond, bond order = 3
(The higher the bond order that is, the more electrons present the
more glue and the more tightly the atoms are held together).

10-8 Bond Order and Bond Length
✅ Bond Length
The distance between the centers of two atoms joined
by a covalent bond.
(The double bond between atoms is shorter than a single bond, and
a triple bond is shorter still)
the length of the covalent bond between two atoms can be approximated
as the sum of the covalent radii of the two atoms.

Average Bond Order
(1 + 1 + 2) bonds 4
Average bond order = = = 1⅓
(3) structures 3
The CO bond distance in the carbonate anion is 129 pm,
which is intermediate between a single bond
(143 pm) and a double bond (120 pm).
Summary
10-1 Lewis Theory: An Overview A Lewis symbol represents the valence electrons of an atom by using
dots placed around the chemical symbol. Each atom forms bonds to acquires an octet (Except
hydrogen) that is, there are eight electrons in the valence shell. ••
Ex: Nitrogen belongs to group 5 , it has 5 electrons on the valence shell • • N
•
In Lewis theory, chemical bonds are classified as ionic bonds (NaCl, MgO,…), which are formed by
electron transfer between atoms, or covalent bonds (H2 ; HCl ; H2O …..), which are formed by electrons
shared between atoms. Most bonds, however, have partial ionic and partial covalent characteristics.
N.B: Ionic bonds are formed between alkali (or alkaline earth metals) and elements of group 6A (O, S..)
and 7 A (F, Cl….)
10-2 Covalent Bonding: An Introduction In covalent bonds, pairs of electrons shared between two
atoms to form the bonds are called bond pairs, while pairs of electrons not shared in a chemical bond are
called lone pairs.
single covalent bond: H-H

Double Covalent bond: O2
Triple double bond: N2
Copyright © 2011 Pearson

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Summary
10-4 Writing Lewis Structures To draw the Lewis Structure :
1) Identify the central atom of the molecule
2) Count the number of valence electrons of all the atoms in the molecule
3) Draw a covalent bond between each tow atoms (each bond uses one pair of electrons)
4) Calculate the remaining electrons and distribute them in a way that all the atoms will have the octet
•• ••
O C O
•• ••
Formal charge FC: The formal charge on an atom in a Lewis structure is the number of valence e- in the
free atom minus the number of e- assigned to that atom in the Lewis structure.
1
FC = Nvalence e- - Nlone e- - N pair e-
2
10-7 Shapes of Molecules A powerful method for predicting the molecular geometry, or molecular
shape, of a species is the valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR).
To apply the VSEPR :
1) Identify the central atom of the molecule
2) Count N the total number of lone and bond pairs electrons on the central atom
N. B : If we have a double or triple bond We consider it as a simple bond
3) Attribute the molecular geometry to the molecule according to the follow
🔴
a) If N = 2 then the molecule is linear Ex : BeH2 ; CO2
b) If N = 3 then the molecular geometry is a triagonal planar Ex: BF3
c) If N = 4 then the molecuar geometry is a Tetrahedral Ex: CH4 ; NH3 ; H2O
d) If N = 5 then the molecular geometry is triagonl bipyramidal Ex: PCl5
e) If N = 6 then the molecular shape is octahedral. Ex : SF6 Copyright © 2011 Pearson
Canada Inc.
Summary
An important use of information about the shapes of molecules is in establishing whether bonds in a
molecule combine to produce a resultant dipole moment. Molecules with a resultant dipole moment are
polar molecules; those with no resultant dipole moment are nonpolar.
Ex : CO2 is non polar

CH4 is non polar
CH3Cl is polar
10-8 Bond Order and Bond Lengths Single, double, and triple covalent bonds are said to have a bond
order of 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Bond length is the distance between the centers of two atoms joined by
a covalent bond. The greater the bond order, the shorter the bond length
C—C is the longest bond among the three

C=C
C C
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Principles and Modern Applications TENTH EDITION

PETRUCCI HERRING MADURA BISSONNETTE

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson

• ionic bonding, atoms transfer electrons to each other. Ionic

• covalent bonds atoms with the same electronegativity share

Slide 7 of 48 General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

(I ⎼ EA) provides a measure of the ability of an atom to attract

Slide 17 of 48 General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

covalent polar covalent

two nonmetal atoms The more metallic

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

• All the valence e- of atoms must appear.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

A central atom is bonded to two or more atoms.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson

 Solve example 10-8.

The situation in which two or

 Solve example 10-9

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Incomplete Negative ionic structures

The best representation is resonance hybrid of structures

Species with incomplete octet:

 Octet P has 10 S has 12

• Reduces formal charges

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Bond length – distance between

d1= d2 = 95.8 pm and the bond angle is α= 104.45°

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Molecular geometry Electron group geometry

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Methane, Ammonia and Water

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

‫ﯾﺟﻲ اﺳم اﻟﻌﻧﺻر او اﻟﻣﺟﻣوﻋﮫ‬

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Replace this part of table 10.1 this format is

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Slide 45 of 48 General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

Electron groups= 3 (1 lone pair, 2 double covalent

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

General Chemistry: Chapter 10 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

H Cl HCl is a polar molecule

The extent of the charge displacement in a polar covalent bond