BIOLOGY

Animal Transport
Systems

彭志維老師
北醫生物學工程學系
 Overview：Trading Places
• Every organism must exchange materials with its
environment
• Exchanges ultimately occur at the cellular level by crossing
the plasma membrane
• In unicellular organisms, these exchanges occur directly with the
environment
• For most cells making up multicellular organisms, direct exchange with
the environment is not possible
• Internal transport and gas exchange are functionally related in most
animals
• Gills (鰓) are an example of a specialized exchange system in animals
• O2 diffuses from the water into blood vessels
• CO2 diffuses from blood into the water 2
 Section I： Circulatory systems link
exchange surfaces with cells
throughout the body
• In small and/or thin animals, cells can exchange materials
directly by diffusion (擴散) with the surrounding medium
• Diffusion time is proportional to the square of the distance
• Diffusion is only efficient over small distances
• In most animals, cells exchange materials with the
environment via a fluid-filled circulatory system
3
 Gastrovascular Cavities
• Some animals lack a circulatory system
• Some cnidarians (刺胞動物), such as jellies, have
elaborate gastrovascular cavities (消化循環腔)
• A gastrovascular cavity functions in both digestion and
distribution of substances throughout the body
• The body wall that encloses the gastro-
vascular cavity is only two cells thick
• Flatworms have a gastrovascular
cavity and a large surface area to
volume ratio
4
 Evolutionary Variation in
Circulatory Systems
• A circulatory system minimizes the diffusion distance in
animals with many cell layers.
• A circulatory system has
• A circulatory fluid (循環液體)
• A set of interconnecting vessels
• A muscular pump (唧筒), the heart
• The system connects the fluid that surrounds cells with the organs
that exchange gases, absorb nutrients, and dispose of wastes.
• Circulatory systems can be open or closed, and vary in the number of
circuits in the body.
5
 Open and Closed
Circulatory Systems
• In insects, other arthropods(節肢動物), and most
molluscs ( 軟 體 動 物 ), blood bathes the organs
directly in an open circulatory system
• In an open circulatory system, there is no
distinction between blood and
Interstitial fluid, and this general
body fluid is called
hemolymph (血淋巴).
6
• In a closed circulatory system, blood is confined to
vessels and distinct from the interstitial fluid
• Closed systems are more efficient at transporting
circulatory fluids to tissues and cells
• Annelids (環節動物), cephalopods (頭足動物), and
vertebrates have closed circulatory systems
Organization of Vertebrate Circulatory Systems
• Humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory
system called the cardiovascular system (心血管系統)
• The three main types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and
capillaries
• Blood flow is one way in these vessels
7
• Arteries (動脈) branch into arterioles (小動脈) and
carry blood away from heart to capillaries (微血管).
• Networks of capillaries called capillary beds (微血
管網), are the sites of chemical exchange
between the blood and interstitial fluid
• Venules (小靜脈) converge into veins (靜脈), and return blood
from capillaries to the heart
• Arteries and veins are distinguished by the direction of blood
flow, not by O2 content
• Vertebrate hearts contain two or more chambers
• Blood enters through an atrium (心房) and is pumped out
through a ventricle (心室). 8
Single Circulation (單循環)
• Bony fishes(硬骨魚), rays (魟), and sharks have
single circulation with a two-chambered heart
• In single circulation, blood leaving
the heart passes through two
capillary beds before returning

9
Double Circulation (雙循環)
• Amphibian (兩棲類), reptiles (爬蟲類), and mammals
have double circulation
• Oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood are pumped
separately from the right and left sides of the heart
• In reptiles and mammals, oxygen-poor blood flows through the
pulmonary circuit (肺循環) to pick up oxygen through the lungs
• In amphibians, oxygen-poor blood flows through a
pulmocutaneous circuit (肺皮循環) to pick up oxygen through
the lungs and skin
• Oxygen-rich blood delivers oxygen through the systemic circuit
(體循環)
10
 Evolutionary Variation in
Double Circulatory
• Hearts vary in different vertebrate groups
• Double circulation maintains
higher blood pressure in
organs than does single
circulation
• Amphibians and many reptiles
may pass long periods without
gas exchange or relying on
gas exchange from another
tissue, usually the skin. 11
肺皮循環
Amphibians
• Frogs and other amphibians have a
three-chambered heart：two atria and
one ventricle
• The ventricle pumps blood into a
forked artery that splits the ventricle’s
output into the pulmocutaneous circuit
and the systemic circuit
體循環 • When underwater, blood flow to the
lungs is nearly shut off 12
Reptiles (Except Birds)

(肺循環)
• Turtles, snakes, and lizards (蜥蜴) have
a three-chambered heart：two atria
and one ventricle
• In alligators(鱷) septum divides the
ventricle
• Reptiles have double circulation, with
a pulmonary circuit (lungs) and a
(體循環)
systemic circuit
13
Mammals and Birds
• Have four-chambered heart with
two atria and two ventricles
• Left side of heart pumps and
receives only oxygen-rich blood,
while the right side receives and
pumps only oxygen-poor blood
• Mammals and birds are
endotherms(內溫動物)
and require more O2 than
ectotherms(外溫動物)
14
 Section (II)：
Mammalian Circulation
• The mammalian cardiovascular system meets the body’s
continuous demand for O2
• Blood begins its flow with the right ventricle pumping blood to lungs
• In the lungs, the blood loads O2 and unloads CO2
• Oxygen-rich blood from lungs enters the heart at the left atrium and is
pumped through the aorta (主動脈) to body tissues by the left ventricle
• The aorta provides blood to heart through coronary arteries (冠狀動脈)
• Blood returns to the heart through the superior vena cava上腔大靜脈
(blood from head, neck, and forelimbs) and inferior vena cava下腔大靜
脈(blood from trunk and hind limbs)
• The superior vena cava and inferior vena cava flow into the right atrium
15
循環起始點

16
 The Mammalian Heart：
A Closer Look
• A closer look at the mammalian heart provides a
better understanding of double circulation

半月辦

房室辦
17
• The heart rate, also called the pulse, is the
number of beats per minute
• The stroke volume (心搏量) is the amount of blood
pumped in a single contraction
• The cardiac output (心輸出量) is the volume of blood
pumped into the systemic circulation per minute and
depends on both the heart rate and stroke volume
• Four valves prevent backflow of blood in the heart
• The atrioventricular (AV) valves (房室辦) separate each
atrium and ventricle
• The semilunar valves (半月辦) control blood flow to the
aorta and the pulmonary artery
18
 心房收縮期/心室舒張期
• The heart contracts and
relaxes in a rhythmic
cycle called cardiac
心房/心室舒張期
cycle(心週期)
• The contraction, or pumping,
phase is called systole(心縮期)
• The relaxation, or filling, phase is
called diastole(心舒期)
• The “lub-dup” sound of a heart
beat is caused by the recoil of
blood against the AV valves (lub)
then against the semilunar (dup)
valves
• Backflow of blood through a
defective valve causes a heart
心室收縮期/心房舒張期
murmur(心雜音) 19
 Maintaining the Heart’s
Rhythmic Beat
• Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable, meaning they
contract without any signal from the nervous system
• The sinoatrial (SA) node (竇房結), or pacemaker (節律點), sets the rate
and timing at which cardiac muscle cells contract
• Impulses from the SA node travel to the atrioventricular (AV) node
(房室結)
• At the AV node, the impulses are delayed and then travel to the
Purkinje fibers (浦金氏纖維) that make the ventricles contract
• Impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle can be recorded as an
electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) (心電圖)
20
• The pacemaker is regulated by two portions of the
nervous system: sympathetic (交感) and
parasympathetic (副交感) divisions
• The sympathetic division speeds up the pacemaker
• The parasympathetic division slows down the pacemaker
• The pacemaker is also regulated by hormones and temperature

竇房節 特化
房室結 浦金氏纖維
心肌纖維
21
Section (III): Blood Vessel Structure and
Function
• A vessel’s cavity is called central lumen (中央內腔).
• The epithelial layer that lines blood vessels is
called the endothelium(內皮)
• The endothelium is smooth and minimizes resistance
• Capillaries have thin walls, the endothelium plus its basal
lamina (基底膜), to facilitate the exchange of materials
• Arteries and veins have an endothelium, smooth muscle, and
connective tissue
• Arteries have thicker walls than veins to accommodate the high
pressure of blood pumped from the heart
• In the thinner-walled veins, blood flows back to the heart
mainly as a result of muscle action 22
23
 Blood Flow
Velocity
• Physical laws governing movement of
fluids through pipes affect blood flow
and blood pressure
• Velocity of blood flow is slowest in
the capillary beds, as a result of the
high resistance and large total cross-
sectional area (總橫截面積)
• Blood flow in capillaries is necessarily
slow for exchange of materials
24
 Blood Pressure
• Blood flows from areas of higher pressure to areas of
lower pressure
• Blood pressure is the pressure that blood exerts
against the wall of a vessel
• In rigid vessels blood pressure is maintained; less rigid
vessels deform and blood pressure is lost
Changes in Blood Pressure During the Cardiac Cycle
• Systolic pressure(收縮壓) is the pressure in the arteries during
ventricular systole; it is the highest pressure in the arteries
• Diastolic pressure (舒張壓) is the pressure in the arteries during
diastole; it is lower than systolic pressure
• A pulse(脈搏) is the rhythmic bulging of artery walls with each
heartbeat 25
Blood pressure reading: 120/70

26
 Regulation of Blood Pressure
• Blood pressure is determined by cardiac output
(心輸出量) and peripheral resistance (周邊阻力)
due to constriction of arterioles
• Vasoconstriction (血管 收縮) is the contraction of smooth
muscle in arteriole walls; it increases blood pressure
• Vasodilation (血管舒張) is the relaxation of smooth muscles in
the arterioles; it causes blood pressure to fall
• Vasoconstriction and vasodilation help maintain adequate
blood flow as the body’s demands change
• Nitric oxide (一氧化氮) is a major inducer of vasodilation
• The peptide endothelin(內皮素) is an important inducer of
vasoconstriction 27
 Blood Pressure and Gravity
• Blood pressure is generally measured for an artery in
the arm at the same height as the heart
• Blood pressure for a healthy 20 year old at rest is 120
mm Hg at systole and 70 mm Hg at diastole
• Fainting (昏暈) is caused by inadequate blood flow to the head
• Animals with longer necks require a higher
systolicpressure to pump blood a greater
distance against gravity
• Blood is moved through veins by smooth
muscle contraction, skeletal muscle
contraction, and expansion of the vena
cava with inhalation
• One-way valves (瓣膜) in veins prevent
backflow of blood 28
 Capillary Function
• Blood flows through only 510% of the body’s
capillaries at a time.
• Blood supply varies in many other sites.
• Capillaries in major organs are usually filled to capacity
• Two mechanisms regulate distribution of blood in capillary beds
 Contraction of the smooth muscle layer in the wall of an
arteriole constricts the vessel
 Precapillary sphincters (微血管前括約肌) control flow of
blood between arterioles and venules
• Blood flow is regulated by nerve impulses, hormones, and other
chemicals
29
30
• The exchange of substances between the blood
and interstitial fluid takes place across the thin
endothelial walls of capillaries
• The difference between blood pressure (血壓)
and osmotic pressure (滲透壓) drives fluids out of
capillaries at the arteriole end and into
capillaries at the venule end
• Most blood proteins and all
blood cells are too large to
pass through the endothelium
31
Fluid Return by the Lymphatic
System
• The lymphatic system (淋巴系統) returns fluid that
leaks out from the capillary beds
• Fluid, called lymph(淋巴) , reenters the circulation directly
at the venous end of the capillary bed and indirectly
through the lymphatic system
• The lymphatic system drains into veins in the neck
• Valves in lymph vessels prevent the backflow of fluid
• Lymph nodes (淋巴結) are organs that filter lymph and
play an important role in the body’s defense
• Edema (水腫) is swelling caused by disruptions in the flow
of lymph
32
33
 Section (IV):
Blood Composition and Function
• Blood consists of several kinds of cells suspended in a
liquid matrix called plasma (血漿) (55%); The cellular elements
occupy about 45% of the volume of blood
• Blood plasma is about 90% water
• Among its solutes are inorganic salts in the form of dissolved
ions, sometimes called electrolytes(電解質), and the plasma
proteins ( 血 漿 蛋 白 ), which influence blood pH, osmotic
pressure, and viscosity
• Various plasma proteins function in lipid transport, immunity,
and blood clotting 34
35
 Cellular Elements
• Suspended in blood plasma are two types of cells
 Red blood cells(紅血球;erythrocytes) transport oxygen O2
 White blood cells (白血球;leukocytes) function in defense
• Platelets(血小板) , a third cellular element, are fragments of
cells that are involved in clotting

Erythrocytes
• Red blood cells are by far the most numerous blood cells
• They contain hemoglobin(血紅素), the iron-containing protein that
transports O2
• Each molecule of hemoglobin binds up to four molecules of O2
• In mammal, mature erythrocytes lack nuclei and mitochondria
36
• Sickle-cell disease(鎌刀型貧血症) is caused by abnormal
hemoglobin proteins that form aggregates
• The aggregates can deform an erythrocyte into a sickle
shape
• Sickled cells can rupture, or block blood vessels
Leukocytes
• There are five major types of white blood cells: monocytes (單
核球),neutrophils(嗜中性球), basophils(嗜鹼性球),
eosinophils(嗜酸性球), and lymphocytes(淋巴球)
• They function in defense by phagocytizing bacteria and debris
or by producing antibodies
• They are found both in and outside of the circulatory system
37
38
 Platelets (血小板)
• Platelets are fragments of cells and function in
blood clotting
• Coagulation is the formation of a solid clot from liquid
blood
• A cascade of complex reactions converts inactive
fibrinogen (血纖蛋白原) to fibrin (血纖蛋白), forming a clot
• A blood clot formed within a blood vessel is called a
thrombus and can block blood flow
39
40
 Stem Cells and the Replacement
of Cellular Elements
• The cellular elements of blood wear out
and are being replaced constantly
• Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets 骨髓
all develop from a common source of
stem cells (幹細胞) in the red marrow of
淋巴前驅細胞 骨髓前驅細胞
bones, especially ribs, vertebrae,
sternum, and pelvis
• The hormone erythropoietin (紅血球生成
素；EPO) stimulates erythrocyte
production when O2 delivery is low 41
 Cardiovascular Disease
(心血管疾病)
• Cardiovascular diseases are disorders of the heart and
the blood vessels
• Cardiovascular diseases account for more than half the deaths
in the United States
• Cholesterol (膽固醇), a steroid, helps maintain membrane
fluidity
• Low-density lipoprotein (LDL; 低密度脂蛋白) delivers
cholesterol to cells for membrane production
• High-density lipoprotein (HDL; 高密度脂蛋白) scavenges
cholesterol for return to the liver
• Risk for heart disease increases with a high LDL to HDL ratio
• Inflammation is also a factor in cardiovascular disease
42
Atherosclerosis, Heart Attacks,
and Stroke
• One type of
cardiovascular disease,
atherosclerosis(粥狀動脈
硬化), is caused by the
buildup of plaque
deposits within arteries

43
44
• A heart attack, or myocardial infarction (心肌梗塞),
is the death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting
from blockage of one or more coronary arteries
• Coronary arteries(冠狀動脈)supply oxygen-rich blood to the
heart muscle
• A stroke (中風) is the death of nervous tissue in the brain,
usually resulting from rupture or blockage of arteries in the
head
• Angina pectoris(心絞痛) is caused by partial blockage of
the coronary arteries and results in chest pains
45
 Risk Factors and Treatment of
Cardiovascular Disease
• A high LDL to HDL ratio increases the risk of cardiovascular
disease
• The proportion of LDL relative to HDL can be decreased by exercise,
not smoking, and avoiding foods with trans fats (反式脂肪)
• Drugs called statins (降膽固醇類藥物) reduce LDL levels and risk of
heart attacks
• Inflammation plays a role in atherosclerosis and thrombus
formation. Aspirin inhibits inflammation and reduces the risk of
heart attacks and stroke
• Hypertension ( 高 血 壓 ), or high blood pressure, promotes
atherosclerosis and increases the risk of heart attack and stroke
• Hypertension can be reduced by dietary changes, exercise, and/or
medication 46
 Section (V): Gas exchange occurs across
specialized respiratory surfaces
• Gas exchange(氣體交換) supplies O2 for cellular
respiration and disposes of CO2
• Partial pressure (分壓)is the pressure exerted by a particular gas
in a mixture of gases. A gas diffuses from a region of higher
partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure
• Gases diffuse down pressure gradients in the lungs and other
organs as a result of differences in partial pressure
• Animals can use air or water as a source of O2, or respiratory
medium (呼吸介質)
• In a given volume, there is less O2 available in water than in air
Obtaining O2 from water requires greater efficiency than air
breathing 47
 Respiratory Surfaces
• Animals require large, moist respiratory surfaces
(呼吸表面) for exchange of gases between their cells and
the respiratory medium, either air or water
• Gas exchange across respiratory surfaces takes place by
diffusion
• Respiratory surfaces vary by animal and can include the
outer surface, skin (皮膚), gills (鰓), tracheae (氣管), and
lungs (肺) 48
 Gills (鰓) in Aquatic Animals
• Gills are outfoldings of the body that create a
large surface area for gas exchange
• Ventilation (換氣) moves the respiratory medium over the
respiratory surface
• Aquatic animals move through water or move water over
their gills for ventilation
• Fish gills use a countercurrent exchange (逆流交換),
system, where blood flows in the opposite direction to
water passing over the gills; blood is always less saturated
with O2 than the water it meets 49
 體腔

疣足
管足
海蟲 螯蝦 海星 50
鰓弧

鰓板
鰓蓋

逆流交換

鰓絲

51
 Tracheal Systems in
Insects
• The tracheal system (氣管系統) of insects consists of tiny
branching tubes that penetrate the body
• The tracheal tubes supply O2 directly to body cells
• The respiratory and circulatory systems are separate
• Larger insects must ventilate their tracheal system to meet
O2 demands
52
 氣管
氣囊

氣門
53
 Lungs
• Lungs are an infolding of the body surface
• The circulatory system (open or closed) transports
gases between the lungs and the rest of the body
• The size and complexity of lungs correlate with an animal’s
metabolic rate
• A system of branching ducts conveys air to the lungs
• Air inhaled through the nostrils is warmed, humidified, and
sampled for odors
• The pharynx (咽)directs air to the lungs and food to the
stomach
• Swallowing tips the epiglottis (會厭) over the glottis(聲門) in
the pharynx to prevent food from entering the trachea 54
• Air passes through the pharynx (咽), larynx (喉),
trachea (氣管), bronchi (支氣管), and bronchioles
(小支氣管) to the alveoli (肺泡), where gas exchange
occurs
• Exhaled air passes over the vocal cords (聲帶) in the
larynx to create sounds
• Cilia (纖毛)and mucus(黏液) line the epithelium of the air ducts
and move particles up to the pharynx
• This “mucus escalator” cleans the respiratory system and
allows particles to be swallowed into the esophagus(食道)
• Gas exchange takes place in alveoli, air sacs at the tips of
bronchioles
• Oxygen diffuses through the moist film of the epithelium and
into capillaries
• Carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries across the
epithelium and into the air space 55
 終端
小支氣管
咽
鼻腔
喉
肺泡
氣管

支氣管
小支氣管
橫膈
56
• Alveoli lack cilia and are susceptible to contamination
• Secretions called surfactants(介面活性劑) coat the
surface of the alveoli
• Preterm babies(早產兒) lack surfactant and are
vulnerable to respiratory distress syndrome (呼吸窘迫
症); treatment is provided by artificial surfactants
57
 Section (VI): Breathing ventilates
the lungs
• The process that ventilates the lungs is breathing, the
alternate inhalation and exhalation of air
How an Amphibian Breathes
• An amphibian such as a frog ventilates its lungs by positive
pressure breathing(正壓呼吸), which forces air down the trachea
How a Bird Breathes
• Birds have eight or nine air sacs (氣囊) that function as bellows
that keep air flowing through the lungs
• Air passes through the lungs in one direction only
• Every exhalation completely renews the air in the lungs 58
59
 How a Mammal Breathes
• Mammals ventilate their lungs by negative
pressure breathing, which pulls air into the lungs
• Lung volume increases as the rib muscles (肋間肌) and
diaphragm (橫膈) contract
• The tidal volume(潮氣容積) is the volume of air inhaled
with each breath
• The maximum tidal volume is the vital capacity (肺活量)
• After exhalation, a residual volume (肺餘容積) of air
remains in the lungs
60
61
 Control of Breathing in
Humans
• In humans, the main breathing control centers
(呼吸控制中心) are in two regions of the brain, the
medulla oblongata (延腦) and the pons (橋腦)
• The medulla regulates the rate and depth of breathing in
response to pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid (腦脊髓液)
• The medulla adjusts breathing rate and depth to match
metabolic demands
• The pons regulates the tempo
• Sensors in the aorta (大動脈) and carotid arteries (頸動脈)
monitor O2 and CO2 concentrations in the blood
• These sensors exert secondary control over breathing 62
63
 Section (VII): Adaptations for gas
exchange include pigments that bind and
transport gases
• The metabolic demands of many organisms require that the
blood transport large quantities of O2 and CO2
• Blood arriving in the lungs has a low partial pressure of O2 and
a high partial pressure of CO2 relative to air in the alveoli
• In the alveoli, O2 diffuses into the blood and CO2 diffuses into
the air
• In tissue capillaries, partial pressure gradients favor diffusion of
O2 into the interstitial fluids and CO2 into the blood
64
65
 Respiratory Pigments
• Respiratory pigments(呼吸色素), proteins that
transport oxygen, greatly increase the amount of
oxygen that blood can carry
• Arthropods (節肢動物) and many molluscs (軟體動物) have
hemocyanin (血青素) with copper as the oxygen-binding
component
• Most vertebrates and some invertebrates use hemoglobin (血紅
素)
• In vertebrates, hemoglobin is contained within erythrocytes
66
 Hemoglobin(血紅素)
• A single hemoglobin molecule can
carry four molecules of O2, one
molecule for each iron containing
heme(血基質) group
• The hemoglobin dissociation curve (解
離曲線) shows that a small change in the
partial pressure of oxygen can result in
a large change in delivery of O2
• CO2 produced during cellular
respiration lowers blood pH and
decreases the affinity of hemoglobin
for O2; this is called the Bohr shift(波爾
移轉效應) 67
68
 Carbon Dioxide Transport
CO2 from respiring cells diffuses into the blood and
is transported either in blood plasma, bound to hemoglobin,
or as bicarbonate ions (HCO3–,碳酸根)
Only about 7% of CO2 from respiring cells diffuses into the
blood and is transported in blood plasma, bound to
hemoglobin
The remainder reacts with water to form H2CO3, which
dissociates into H+ and bicarbonate ions (HCO3–)
69
 Respiratory Adaptations
of Diving Mammals
• Diving mammals (潛泳動物) have evolutionary adaptations
that allow them to perform extraordinary feats
• For example, Weddell seals in Antarctica (南極洲海豹) can
remain underwater for 20 minutes to an hour
• For example, elephant seals (象鼻海豹) can dive to 1,500
m and remain underwater for 2 hours
• These animals have a high blood to body volume ratio
70
• Deep-diving air breathers stockpile O2 and deplete it slowly
• Diving mammals can store oxygen in their muscles in
myoglobin (肌紅素) proteins
• Diving mammals also conserve oxygen by
• Changing their buoyancy (浮力)to glide passively
• Decreasing blood supply to muscles
• Deriving ATP in muscles from fermentation once
oxygen is depleted
71