Curso Basico Fractales - SSPFRACTALSPREZ

FRACTAL DIMENSION
Dibyendu Roy
MOTIVATION FOR DEFINING
FRACTAL DIMENSION
How do we define the “fractal-ness” of a shape?
>
FRACTAL DIMENSION
Familiar dimensions
0 Dimensional
FRACTAL DIMENSION
Familiar dimensions
1 Dimensional
FRACTAL DIMENSION
Familiar dimensions
2 Dimensional
FRACTAL DIMENSION
Familiar dimensions
3 Dimensional
FRACTAL DIMENSION
Familiar dimension?
1.26 Dimensional
?
OVERVIEW
• Compass dimension
• Self similarity dimension
• Box counting dimension
• Hausdorff dimension
COMPASS DIMENSION
THE COASTLINE PARADOX
• First noted by Lewis Fry Richardson and
expanded on by Benoit B Mandelbrot
• Imagine you are a cartographer trying to

find the length of the coastline of Britain
• Take a compass and draw lines with a

fixed length to approximate the shape
• Add the lengths together to estimate

the perimeter of the coast
• Shorter lines seem to be more accurate
• Repeat with smaller compass lengths
• Something strange starts happening…

https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/geologyOfBritain/makeamap/map.html
THE COASTLINE PARADOX
Lets try this method with a circle of radius 1000km to
make sure this works
1000km
THE BIG CIRCLE
Number of Compass Length 1000km
Sides Length (km) (km)
6 500 3000
12 258.82 3106
24 130.53 3133
48 65.40 3139
96 32.72 3141
192 16.36 3141

THE BIG CIRCLE
6 500 3000
12 258.82 3106
24 130.53 3133
48 65.40 3139
96 32.72 3141
192 16.36 3141

THE BIG CIRCLE
6 500 3000
12 258.82 3106
24 130.53 3133
48 65.40 3139
96 32.72 3141
192 16.36 3141

THE BIG CIRCLE
6 500 3000
12 258.82 3106
24 130.53 3133
48 65.40 3139
96 32.72 3141
192 16.36 3141

THE BIG CIRCLE
6 500 3000
12 258.82 3106
24 130.53 3133
48 65.40 3139
96 32.72 3141
192 16.36 3141

THE BIG CIRCLE
6 500 3000
12 258.82 3106
24 130.53 3133
48 65.40 3139
96 32.72 3141
192 16.36 3141

THE BIG CIRCLE
• The method seems to work

great for the circle
• Converges relatively quickly
• Reaches expected result
1000km
Lets try the coastline of Britain and see what happens
THE RESULTS BRITAIN
Compass Setting
Length (km)
(km)
500 2600
100 3800
54 5770
17 8640
THE RESULTS BRITAIN
Compass Setting
Length (km)
(km)
500 2600
100 3800
54 5770
17 8640
THE RESULTS BRITAIN
Compass Setting
Length (km)
(km)
500 2600
100 3800
54 5770
17 8640
THE RESULTS BRITAIN
Compass Setting
Length (km)
(km)
500 2600
100 3800
54 5770
17 8640
THE RESULTS BRITAIN
Compass Setting
Length (km)
(km)
500 2600
100 3800
54 5770
17 8640
RESULTS DON’T SEEM TO
CONVERGE!
Compass Setting
Length (km)
(km)
500 2600
100 3800
54 5770
17 8640
GRAPHING THE RESULTS
Circle Britain
9000
6750
Length (km)
4500
2250
0
0 125 250 375 500
Compass Size (km)
LOG LOG PLOT
Circle Britain
d≈0 Gradients d ≈ 0.36
4
3.825
log10(Length)
3.65
3.475
3.3
-2.8 -2.275 -1.75 -1.225 -0.7
−log10(Compass Length)
WHAT CAN WE GET FROM
THIS?
• Some objects do not have an easily definable
perimeter
• The gradient of the line on the log-log plot seems

to be an indicator of “roughness”
• Try applying this to more shapes

LOOKING AT THE KOCH
CURVE
27
LOOKING AT THE KOCH
CURVE
Number of Compass
Length
Sides Length
1 27 27
4 9 36 27
16 3 48
64 1 64
GRAPHING THE RESULTS
Koch Curve
log(4)
d= − 1 ≈ 0.26
log(3)
4
3.7
log10(Length)
3.4
3.1
2.8
-3 -2.25 -1.5 -0.75 0
−log10(Compass Length)
EVALUATING COMPASS
DIMENSION
Koch Curve
• Let us take the Koch snowflake as an d=
log(4)
− 1 ≈ 0.26
log(3)
example 4
• Trace around the object with compass

size s 3.7
• Find the length of the path traced out at

3.4
different sizes N(s)
• Plot log(N(s)) vs log(1/s) 3.1
• Fit a straight line and find the gradient d

which is the compass dimension 2.8
-3 -2.25 -1.5 -0.75 0
COMPASS DIMENSION
SUMMARY
• Allows us to find the “Fractal-ness” of a line
• Quite easy to compute
• Not generalisable to all kinds of shapes
• What about surfaces in more dimensions?
• Doesn’t match up with normal definitions of dimension

SELF SIMILARITY DIMENSION
BRIEF DEFINITION OF SELF
SIMILARITY
If a shape Fractal ⇏it Self

is self similar, can besimilar
constructed from
smaller copies of its self
SIMILARITY
Self similar ⇏ Fractal

SIMILARITY
Self similar ⇏ Fractal

LOOKING AT DIMENSION
• We can view dimension in terms of scaling factors
• A scaling factor is how much we linearly decrease the

size of an object
• Different dimensions have relationships with scaling factors

and the number of pieces in which an object can be divided
• We can define dimension as the interaction of scaling

factors and divided pieces
SCALING FACTORS FOR
SIMPLE SHAPES
Let us scale each of the following objects by a reduction factor
and observe how many pieces fit into the original
1
Object
Reduction
Pieces 2
factor
1
Line 2
2
1
Square 4
2
1
Cube 8
2
SCALING FACTORS FOR
SIMPLE SHAPES
1
Reduction
Object Pieces
factor
1
Line 2
2
1
Square 4
2
1
Cube 8
2
SCALING FACTORS FOR
SIMPLE SHAPES
Reduction
Object Pieces
factor
1
Line 2
2 1
Square
1
4 2
2
1
Cube 8
2
SCALING FACTORS FOR
SIMPLE SHAPES
Reduction
Object Pieces
factor
1
Line 2
2
1
Square 4
2
1
Cube 8
2
1
SCALING FACTORS FOR
SIMPLE SHAPES
Reduction
Object Pieces
factor
1
Line 2
2
1
Square 4
2
1
Cube 8 1
2
2
SCALING FACTORS FOR
SIMPLE SHAPES
Reduction
Object Pieces
factor
1
Line 2
2
1
Square 4
2
Cube
1
8 1
2
SCALING FACTORS FOR
SIMPLE SHAPES
Generalising to an arbitrary reduction factor makes the trend
clear
Reduction
Object Pieces
factor
1 n
Line
n
1
Square n2
n
1
Cube n3
n
DEFINING SELF SIMILARITY
DIMENSION
From the pattern we saw before we can create a definition
for dimension:
1 log a
a= D or Ds =
S s log 1/S
a = Pieces
S = Reduction factor
Ds = Dimension
DIMENSION
for dimension:
1 log 8
8= or 3=
13 log 2
2
1
2
DIMENSION
for dimension:
1 log 8
8= or 3=
13 log 2
2
1
LOOKING AT THE KOCH
CURVE (AGAIN)
• Now let us look at the corresponding
scaling factor for the Koch curve
• We observe that four copies scaled

by one third make the original fractal
• Then evaluating the fractal dimension

1
as per the equation above gives us:
LOOKING AT THE KOCH
CURVE (AGAIN)

• Then evaluating the fractal dimension

1
LOOKING AT THE KOCH
CURVE (AGAIN)

1
• Then evaluating the fractal dimension 3
log 4
Ds = ≈ 1.26
log 3
THE RELATION WITH
COMPASS DIMENSION
Ds(Koch) ≈ 1.26
d(Koch) ≈ 0.26
THE RELATION WITH
COMPASS DIMENSION
• There exists a surprising relation between
compass dimension and self similarity dimension
• Therefore we can similarly define compass

dimension to align with our current perceptions of
dimension
Dcs = 1 + d
SELF SIMILARITY DIMENSION
SUMMARY
• Based off the power laws when scaling a shape
• Gives clean and elegant results for well defined

fractals
• Hard to apply to random shapes

BOX COUNTING DIMENSION
BOX COUNTING DIMENSION
• Most commonly used definition
• This definition looks at the number of boxes inside an

object at different mesh sizes
• Kind of an extension of the compass definition
• Versatile and easy to computationally find
• Easily generalised to higher and lower dimensions

EVALUATING BOX
COUNTING DIMENSION
Koch Curve
• Let us take the Koch snowflake as an Ds =
log(4)
≈ 1.26
log(3)
example 4
• Put the object onto a square grid with

size s 3.7
• Count the number of squares that go

3.4
through the object N(s)
• Plot log(N(s)) vs log(1/s) 3.1
• Fit a straight line and find the gradient Ds

which is the box counting dimension 2.8
-3 -2.25 -1.5 -0.75 0
Lets look at a few examples in Mathematica
ISSUES WITH THESE
DEFINITIONS
• Some definitions actually give different answers
• The block counting definition takes the highest

fractal dimension present in the shape
• None are rigorous
• Not easily generalised to general metric spaces

THE HAUSDORFF DIMENSION
A MORE RIGOROUS DEFINITION:
THE HAUSDORFF DIMENSION
• More rigorous definition
• Defines dimension in any metric space
• Generalises the concept of “length”, “area” and

“volume”
• Can be seen as an extension of box counting
• Very difficult to compute, exists more as a theoretical tool

WHAT IS THE DEFINITION?
• Hausdorff measure: Hδd(S)
• Gives a definition to generalised “volume”
• Similar to looking at the “boxes” in the box counting measure
• Hausdorff dimension DH(X)
• Is a function of the Hausdorff measure
• Similar to looking at different grid sizes and finding the

gradient of the line in box counting
HAUSDORFF MEASURE:
WHAT IS AN OPEN COVER?
• An open cover of a set S is the union of
open sets Ui such that:
• The union of the open sets has S

as a subset ∞
⋃
• We define B(x, r) to be the set of
S⊂ Ui
points in a open ball of radius r at i=1
point x in space
• So the cover of S (a rectangle) by

balls of radius r looks like:
HAUSDORFF MEASURE:
WHAT IS AN INFIMUM?
• The infimum of a set S is written
as: inf{S}
• The largest lower bound of a set
{n }
1
inf inf{1,2,3,4}
: n ∈ ℕ = 1= 0
• The biggest number that is
smaller than or equal to all the
other numbers in the set
• Some examples:
HAUSDORFF MEASURE:
INTERMEDIATE STEP
∞
{∑ }
d d
⋃
Cδ (S) := inf ri :S⊂ B(xi, ri) and ri < δ
i i=1
• In english this reads as:
• The infimum of:
• The sums of the radii to the dth power of:
• Balls that form an open cover of S such that:
• All radii are less than “d”

HAUSDORFF MEASURE:
INTERMEDIATE STEP
∞
{∑ }
d d
⋃
i i=1
• The infimum of:

HAUSDORFF MEASURE:
INTERMEDIATE STEP
∞
{∑ }
d d
⋃
i i=1
• The infimum of:

HAUSDORFF MEASURE:
INTERMEDIATE STEP
∞
{∑ }
d d
⋃
i i=1
• The infimum of:

HAUSDORFF MEASURE:
THE FINAL PART
Define the Hausdorff measure as:
{∑ }
C d(S) = lim Cδd(S) = lim inf rid : S ⊂
⋃
B(xi, ri) and ri < δ
δ→0 δ→0
i i=1
• Looking at the sum of the radii to the d th power as the radii
tend to zero
• Very similar to integration when looking at the area of an object
• This is an interesting way of looking at generalised the

generalised ‘volume’ of an object
BRITAIN AS AN EXAMPLE
• Here is an open cover of
the coast line of Britain
using a set of balls in red
• At each step we make

the radii smaller such
that ri < δ as δ → 0
• Note similarities to box

counting dimension and
compass dimension
HAUSDORF DIMENSION:
THE DEFINITION
We can show that:
{0
∞ for d < DH(S)
C d(A) =
for d > DH(S)
So we can define the Hausdorff dimension as:
DH(A) = inf {d | C (A) = 0}

d
HAUSDORFF DIMENSION OF
THE KOCH CURVE
• Sequence of balls that form an open
cover of the Koch curve
• Clearly see that the a ball diameter 1

covers the curve
• Each curve is made of 4 smaller ones

at 1/3 scale 1
• Cover each of these with balls of
radius 1/3
• At each step we multiply number of

balls by 4 and the balls get scaled
down by 1/3
THE KOCH CURVE

covers the curve

at 1/3 scale r =1
radius 1/3

down by 1/3
Balls = 1
THE KOCH CURVE
1
• Clearly see that the a ball diameter 1 r=
covers the curve
3

at 1/3 scale

radius 1/3

down by 1/3
Balls = 4
THE KOCH CURVE
Sequence of balls that form an open
•
1
cover of the Koch curve r=
9
covers the curve

at 1/3 scale

radius 1/3

down by 1/3
Balls = 16
THE KOCH CURVE
• Sequence of balls that form an open 1
cover of the Koch curve r=
27
covers the curve

at 1/3 scale

radius 1/3

down by 1/3
Balls = 64
THE KOCH CURVE
• Sequence of balls that form an open 1
r= k
cover of the Koch curve 3
covers the curve

at 1/3 scale

radius 1/3

down by 1/3
Balls = 4k
HAUSDORFF MEASURE OF
THE KOCH CURVE
• Definition of the Hausdorff measure C d(Koch) = lim Cδd(Koch)
δ→0
Using the set of open covers that we found ∞
{∑ }
•
rid : S ⊂
⋃
before = lim inf B(xi, ri) and ri < δ
δ→0
i i=1
( )
• Simplifying d
{ }
k 1 1
= lim inf 4 × : k <δ
• Re-stating the condition for the radius to δ→0 3 k 3
solve for k
{( 3 ) 3
k
}
4 1
= lim inf d
: k
<δ
• Cases: δ→0
( )
4 k
{ 3 }
• If ≥ 1 the infimum of the set will be 4
3d = lim inf : k > − log3(δ)
at the minimum value of k δ→0 d
δ→0 ( 3d ) k→∞ ( 3d )
⌈−log3(δ)⌉ k
• If ≤ 1 then we take the largest value 4 4
3 d
= lim or lim
of k
K→∞ ( 3d )
K
• Make the substitution shown and the 4
= lim (K = ⌈−log3(δ)⌉ or k)
corresponding change in limit
THE KOCH CURVE
δ→0
{∑ }
•
rid : S ⊂
⋃
δ→0
i i=1
( )
• Simplifying d
{ }
k 1 1
solve for k
{( 3 ) 3
k
}
4 1
= lim inf d
: k
<δ
• Cases: δ→0
( )
4 k
{ 3 }
δ→0 ( 3d ) k→∞ ( 3d )
⌈−log3(δ)⌉ k
3 d
= lim or lim
of k
K→∞ ( 3d )
K
THE KOCH CURVE
δ→0
{∑ }
•
rid : S ⊂
⋃
δ→0
i i=1
( )
• Simplifying d
{ }
k 1 1
solve for k
{( 3 ) 3
k
}
4 1
= lim inf d
: k
<δ
• Cases: δ→0
( )
4 k
{ 3 }
δ→0 ( 3d ) k→∞ ( 3d )
⌈−log3(δ)⌉ k
3 d
= lim or lim
of k
K→∞ ( 3d )
K
THE KOCH CURVE
δ→0
{∑ }
•
rid : S ⊂
⋃
δ→0
i i=1
( )
• Simplifying d
{ }
k 1 1
solve for k
{( 3 ) 3
k
}
4 1
= lim inf d
: k
<δ
• Cases: δ→0
( )
4 k
{ 3 }
δ→0 ( 3d ) k→∞ ( 3d )
⌈−log3(δ)⌉ k
3 d
= lim or lim
of k
K→∞ ( 3d )
K
THE KOCH CURVE
δ→0
{∑ }
•
rid : S ⊂
⋃
δ→0
i i=1
( )
• Simplifying d
{ }
k 1 1
solve for k
{( 3 ) 3
k
}
4 1
= lim inf d
: k
<δ
• Cases: δ→0
( )
4 k
{ 3 }
δ→0 ( 3d ) k→∞ ( 3d )
⌈−log3(δ)⌉ k
3 d
= lim or lim
of k
K→∞ ( 3d )
K
THE KOCH CURVE
δ→0
{∑ }
•
rid : S ⊂
⋃
δ→0
i i=1
( )
• Simplifying d
{ }
k 1 1
solve for k
{( 3 ) 3
k
}
4 1
= lim inf d
: k
<δ
• Cases: δ→0
( )
4 k
{ 3 }
δ→0 ( 3d ) k→∞ ( 3d )
⌈−log3(δ)⌉ k
3 d
= lim or lim
of k
K→∞ ( 3d )
K
THE KOCH CURVE
δ→0
{∑ }
•
rid : S ⊂
⋃
δ→0
i i=1
( )
• Simplifying d
{ }
k 1 1
solve for k
{( 3 ) 3
k
}
4 1
= lim inf d
: k
<δ
• Cases: δ→0
( )
4 k
{ 3 }
δ→0 ( 3d ) k→∞ ( 3d )
⌈−log3(δ)⌉ k
3 d
= lim or lim
of k
K→∞ ( 3d )
K
THE KOCH CURVE
δ→0
{∑ }
•
rid : S ⊂
⋃
δ→0
i i=1
( )
• Simplifying d
{ }
k 1 1
solve for k
{( 3 ) 3
k
}
4 1
= lim inf d
: k
<δ
• Cases: δ→0
( )
4 k
{ 3 }
δ→0 ( 3d ) k→∞ ( 3d )
⌈−log3(δ)⌉ k
3 d
= lim or lim
of k
K→∞ ( 3d )
K
THE KOCH CURVE
We found the Hausdorff measure of the
Koch curve for dimension d
{0
d
∞ for d < DH(Koch)
C (Koch) =
for d > DH(Koch)
Now we need to find DH(Koch) such that:
K→∞ ( 3d )
K
d 4
C (Koch) = lim
THE KOCH CURVE
Observe that:
4
∞ >1
K→∞ ( 3d )
K for
d 4 3d
C (Koch) = lim = 4
0 for <1
3d
Therefore
4 log(4)
DH(Koch) = = 1
3DH(Koch) log(3)
Agrees with all the other definitions!
HAUSDORFF DIMENSION:
INTERESTING FACTS
• All countable sets of points have
Hausdorff dimension 0
• Space filling curves have dimension

corresponding to the space they take up
• Hilbert curve has dimension 2

DS(ℚ ∩ [0,1]) = 1
• For the rationals in [0,1] it has box D
DH(ℚ({1,2,3,4})
H ∩ [0,1]) = 0
counting dimension 1 but Hausdorff
dimension 0
• The Hausdorff dimension of the surface

of the Mandelbrot set is 2
• Britain has Hausdorff dimension 1.36

TYPES OF DIMENSION WE
HAVE LOOKED AT
HAVE LOOKED AT
HAVE LOOKED AT
HAVE LOOKED AT
HAVE LOOKED AT
“A fractal is by definition a set for which the
Hausdorff-Besicovitch dimension strictly exceeds the
topological dimension.”
–Benoit Mandelbrot
FRACTAL DIMENSION AND
BIOLOGY
METABOLIC RATES AT
VARIOUS SIZES
• The metabolic rate of an animal is the rate at
which chemical processes occur to maintain
life
• Measured in Joules/Second
• The larger the animal the larger the rate
• In the 1985 paper by M. Sernetz Et al. we

look at the metabolic rate of different animals
• Leads to interesting fractal properties

•
METABOLIC RATES AT
VARIOUS SIZES
4
3
log(Metabolic rate)
-1
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
log(Body Mass)
METABOLIC RATES AT
VARIOUS SIZES
• Volume scales as r 3 where r is the scaling
factor
• To provide the same energy density,

intuitively energy production should
be proportional to volume
• We would expect a gradient of 3
• Actually the gradient is 2.25
• Hints at some link between fractal

dimension and biological function
•
FRACTAL DIMENSION OF
ORGANS
Lung Alveoli
Anatomical Institute, Bern
Dimension 2.97
ORGANS
Human auricular artery
Fractals and Fractal Dimension of Systems of Blood Vessels: An Analogy

between Artery Trees, River Networks, and Urban Hierarchies
Yanguang Chen
Dimension 2.3
ORGANS
General fractal vascular tree
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Three-dimensional-geometry-of-fractal-
vascular-tree_fig3_5265743
ORGANS
The surface of the brain
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1303704/figure/fig3/?
report=objectonly
Dimension 2.5
IS THE DEVIL’S STAIRCASE A
FRACTAL?
CONSTRUCTING THE DEVIL’S
STAIRCASE
• Take the middle third of the interval [0,1]
and create a line at height 0.5
• For each of the next steps take the

middle third of the interval and
create a line in the middle of the
adjacent intervals
• Rinse and repeat!
• Observe that the horizontal lines that we

create are the compliment of the cantor
set
IS THE DEVIL’S STAIRCASE A
FRACTAL?
• Has length of 2
• Compass dimension of 1
• All objects of finite perimeter

and/or length have dimension 1
• Not self similar even though it looks

otherwise
• By all definitions doesn’t seem to be

a fractal!
THANK YOU FOR YOUR
ATTENTION
REFERENCES
• Peitgen, H., Jürgens, H. and Saupe, D. (n.d.). Chaos and fractals.
• Chen, Y. (2015). Fractals and Fractal Dimension of Systems of Blood Vessels: An

Analogy between Artery Trees, River Networks, and Urban Hierarchies.
Fractal Geometry and Nonlinear Analysis in Medicine and Biology, 1(2).
• https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/CantorFunction/
• http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/BoxCountingTheDimensionOfCoastlines/
• Chen, Y. (2015). Fractals and Fractal Dimension of Systems of Blood Vessels: An

Analogy between Artery Trees, River Networks, and Urban Hierarchies.
Fractal Geometry and Nonlinear Analysis in Medicine and Biology, 1(2).

Curso Basico Fractales - SSPFRACTALSPREZ

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FRACTAL DIMENSION

• Self similarity dimension

• Box counting dimension

• Imagine you are a cartographer trying to

• Take a compass and draw lines with a

• Add the lengths together to estimate

• Shorter lines seem to be more accurate

• Repeat with smaller compass lengths

• Something strange starts happening…

192 16.36 3141

192 16.36 3141

192 16.36 3141

192 16.36 3141

192 16.36 3141

192 16.36 3141

• The method seems to work

• Converges relatively quickly

• Reaches expected result

• The gradient of the line on the log-log plot seems

• Try applying this to more shapes

• Trace around the object with compass

• Find the length of the path traced out at

• Plot log(N(s)) vs log(1/s) 3.1

• Fit a straight line and find the gradient d

• Quite easy to compute

• Not generalisable to all kinds of shapes

• What about surfaces in more dimensions?

• Doesn’t match up with normal definitions of dimension

If a shape Fractal ⇏it Self

Self similar ⇏ Fractal

Self similar ⇏ Fractal

• A scaling factor is how much we linearly decrease the

• Different dimensions have relationships with scaling factors

• We can define dimension as the interaction of scaling

• We observe that four copies scaled

• Then evaluating the fractal dimension

• We observe that four copies scaled

• Then evaluating the fractal dimension

• We observe that four copies scaled

• Therefore we can similarly define compass

• Based off the power laws when scaling a shape

• Gives clean and elegant results for well defined

• Hard to apply to random shapes

• This definition looks at the number of boxes inside an

• Kind of an extension of the compass definition

• Versatile and easy to computationally find

• Easily generalised to higher and lower dimensions

• Put the object onto a square grid with

• Count the number of squares that go

• Plot log(N(s)) vs log(1/s) 3.1

• Fit a straight line and find the gradient Ds

• The block counting definition takes the highest

• None are rigorous

• Not easily generalised to general metric spaces

• Defines dimension in any metric space

• Generalises the concept of “length”, “area” and

• Can be seen as an extension of box counting

• Very difficult to compute, exists more as a theoretical tool

• Gives a definition to generalised “volume”

• Similar to looking at the “boxes” in the box counting measure

• Hausdorff dimension DH(X)

• Is a function of the Hausdorff measure

• Similar to looking at different grid sizes and finding the