Module 4 Reference - Dale Crane:Jepps

Section 7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance
7.1 Measuring and Layout Tools Page 135

7.2 Holding Tools Page 141
7 .3 Safety Wiring Tools Page 143
7.4 Bending and Forming Tools Page 144
7.5 Cutting Tools Page 145
7.6 Hole Cutting Tools Page 151
7.7 Threads and Threading Tools Page 159
I
7.8 Torque and Torque Wrenches Page 162
7.9 Pounding Tools Page 166
7.10 Punches Page 167
7.11 Wrenches Page 169
7,12 Screwdrivers Page 173
7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 133

7.1 Measuring and Layout Tools
Steel Rule
Forgreater accuracy, when making a measurement with a steel rule do not
use the end of the rule, but measure the distance between two marks away
from the end.
Hook Rule
Hook rules are a special type of
steel rule that are usually stiff and
have a hook on one end accurately
aligned with the end of the rule, for
measuring from the edge of an
object where a radius is involved.
Combination Set
A combination set consists of a 12-inch steel rule with three heads held onto
the rule by clamps. The stock head converts the rule into a square to
measure 90° and 45° angles. The protractor head can be set to measure any
angle between the rule and the bottom of the head. When the two arms of
the center head are heldagainst a circular object, the edge of the rule
passes across its center.

Dividers
Dividers are used to transfer
distances from a steel rule to a piece
of sheet metal that is being laid out.
They are also used for dividing a line
into equal increments.
Outside Calipers
On outside calipers, the ends of the
legs are pointed inward so that the
outside of an object can be
measured. Adjust the legs so the
ends are exactly the same distance
apart as the outside of the object,
and then measure the distance
between the ends with a steel rule.
Inside Calipers
Adjust the legs of inside calipers so
the ends exactly fit into the object
being measured, and then measure
the distance between the ends with
a steel rule.
Hermaphrodite Calipers
Hermaphrodite calipers are used to
scribe a line along a piece of
material a specific distance from the
edge.
Scriber
Scribers have a needle-sharp point
1111 ]I used to mark very line lines on the
surface of a piece of metal to be cut.
Scribed lines on highly stressed
metal can cause stress risers.
Vernier Calipers
Vernier calipers are used to make rapidand accurate inside and outside
measurements over a greater range than that of a micrometer caliper. Each
inch on the main scale is divided into 10 numbered increments, each
representing 1/10 inch (0.1 inch). One inch on the vernier scale is divided into
25 increments, with each increment representing 1/25 inch or 0.040 inch.
136 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

How to Read the Vernier Seate
The vernier scale's "zero" is beyond the main scale's 3-inch mark
(3.000). It is also past the 4/10-inch mark (0.400), and past one of the
1/40-inch marks (0.025). Only one mark on the vernier scale aligns with
I
a mark on the main scale: the "11" mark (see asterisk in figure). Add
0.011 to the total: 3.000 + 0.400 + 0.025 + 0.011 = 3.436 inches.
7s e I3,
l111l11d111 11il11
456
l11d11il111l111
1
1000 INCH Vernier scale
The vernier scale's "zero" is beyond the main scale's 41.5-mm mark.
Only one mark on the vernier scale aligns with one of the marks on the
main scale: the ".18" mark (see asterisk in figure). Add 0.18 to 41.5 to
get a total reading of 41.68 mm.
0.02 mm Vernier scale

Micrometer Caliper
Micrometer calipers are available as inside and outside calipers, with ranges
from 0 to 1 inch, to special calipers that measure up to 60 inches. Standard
micrometer calipers can be read to 0.001 inch (one one thousandth of an
inch) and vernier micrometer calipers can be read to 0.0001 inch (one ten
thousandth of an inch).
Thimble
3'NDS.
UKJ12
3.0938
6.11562
7.2188
9.2812
11"""8
13,4062
15.4688
17.5312
19.S93tl
21 .
23. 7188
25.7812
27.8438
2,9 9082
31,9688

How to Read the Vernier Vernier scale
Micrometer Scale
In the figure shown, the thimble 10
0
was screwed out more than eight
complete turns, which moved the
spindle out two tenths of an inch
(0.200); then it stopped, before
another turn, with the reference
line on the barrel between the 22
and 23 thousandth-inch marks on
the thimble. The measuring faces 0
are between 0.222- and 0.223- 0
inch apart. The "5" mark on the
vernier scale lines up with one of
the marks on the thimble. This zo
means that the spindle moved out
five ten thousandths of an inch
beyond 0.222. The total separa- 16
tion of the measuring faces is
0.2225 inch.
In the metric example, the thimble

moved out more than 8.5 mm,
Vernier scale
I
and then more than 25 gradua-
lions, or 0.25 mm, beyond the 35
reference mark. The vernier mark
representing 6 divisions is aligned
with one of the marks on the
thimble, indicating the spindle 30
moved 0.006 mm beyond 0.25. Thimble
The total separation of the
measuring faces is therefore
8.5 + 0.25 + 0.006 = 8.756 25
millimeters .

Dial Indicator
Dial indicators are used to measure
end-play in shaft installations, gear
backlash, bevel gear preload, and
shaft out-of-round or runout.
Feeler Gages
Feeler gages are used for measur-
ing clearances in valve trains and
breaker points, gear backlash,
piston ring end-gap and side
clearance, and the flatness of
objects when used with a precision
surface plate.
Smal-l Hole Gages

Small holes, up to approximately
1/2-inch in diameter, may be
accurately measured with small-hole
Ia gages. Place a ball-type small-hole
a gage into the hole to be measured
and twist the knurled end of the
Lo handle to expand the ball enduntil it
exactly fits in thehole. Remove the
gage and measure its diameter with
a vernier micrometer caliper.
Tel e scoping Gages

Select the gage with the proper
range and place it in the hole.
Loosen the knurled end of the
handle to release the hardened steel
plungers in the telescopinghead.
This allows an internal spring to
force the plungers out against the
walls of the cylinder bore. Hold the
gage so the T-head is perpendicular
to the inside wall of the bore and
tighten the end of the handle.
-
Remove the gage and measure the
distance between the ends of the
plungers with a vernier micrometer
/ I I Ill caliper.
e,, 1 11

7.2 Holding Tools
Vise s
Bench Vise
Bench vises normally have replace-
able serrated jaws to hold the
material without slipping and are
mounted on a swiveling base. The
size of a vise is indicated by the
width of the jaws, which normally
range from 3-1/2 to 6 inches.
Drill Press Vise

Drill-press vises have a flat bottom with slots which allow them to be bolted
to the table of a drill press.
I
Pliers
Combination/Slip Joint Pliers
Standard pliers that have serrated
jaws for gripping round objects and
flat jaws for holding flat materials.
When the jaws are open wide, the
handle pivot may be slipped from
one pivot hole to the other, allowing
the jaws to open wider to hold larger
objects.

Water Pump Pliers
Also called adjustable-joint pliers.
The long handles are for applying
force to the jaws and torque to the
object being turned. Available with a
slip-joint adjustment or a tongue and
groove type of adjustment that
cannot slip, in lengths from 4-1/2
inches with parallel jaws that open
to 1/2 inch, to 16 inches with jaws
that open to more than 4 inches.
Vise-Grip®P li e rs
These patented locking pliers have a
knurled knob in the handle that
adjusts the opening of the jaws.
When the handles are squeezed
together, a compound-lever action
applies a tremendous force to the
jaws, and an over-center feature
holds them tightly locked on the
object between the jaws.
Needle-Nose Pliers
Used to hold wires or small objects
and to make loops or bends in
electrical wires. Some have straight
jaws and others are bent to reach
into obstructed areas; available in
lengths from 4-1/2 to more than 1O
inches .

7.3 Safety Wiring Tools
Diagonal Cutting Pliers

Diagonal cutters. or "dikes," are
used to cut safety wire and cotter
pins. The name of these pliers is
derived from the shape of the jaws
that have an angled cutting edge.
Duckbill Pliers
Duckbill pliers have long handles
and wide serrated jaws that hold
safety wire firmly while it is being
twisted.
Safety Wire Twisting Tool

This safety-wiringtoolgrips wire securely, and the jaws lock on the wire;
when the knob in the handle is pulled out, the tool twists the safety wire with
a uniform twist. Can be used to give wire a left-hand or right-hand twist.
I

7.4 Bending and Forming Tools
Tools for Making Straight

Bends and Curves
Cornice Brake
The cornice, or leaf brake is a heavy
shop tool used to make straight
bends across a piece of sheet metal.
The bend radius appropriate for the
thickness and temper of the metal
can be chosen by using the
appropriate radius block on the
upper jaw of the brake.
Box Brake
A box, or finger brake is similar to a
cornice brake, except the upper jaw
is made up of a number of heavy
steelfingers so all four sides of a
box can be folded up.
Press Brake
Apressbrake is used when a large
- - - - Punch number of duplicate pieces of
Metal being material must be made with exactly
forme<:1
the same amount of bend. The
metal is placed over the female die
whose inside radius is the same as
the outside radius of the finished
bend. A matching male die, or
punch, with the correct radius forces
the material into the die with energy
stored in a large flywheel or with
hydraulic pressure. Angles and
Bed channels are formed on press
brakes.

Slip Roll Former
Used for making large radius bends
across a piece of sheet metal. The
metal is clamped between the drive Radius
roller and the gripping roller, and the roller
Drive roller
handle is turned to pull the metal
through the machine against the
radius roller, which is adjusted to
control the radius of the bend.
Forming Compound Curves in Sheet Metal

English Wheel
Aluminum alloy sheets are formed by stretching them, which is initially done
with a soft mallet and a sandbag, resulting in a rough surface that must be
smoothed out. The smoothing is done by moving the stretched aluminum
sheet back and forth between the two rollers in an English wheel. The upper
roller is a large cast-iron wheel with a highly polishedand very slightly
concave surface. A smaller, lower wheel is adjustable so it can be moved
closer to or further from the upper wheel. The lower wheel has a convex
surface , and there are a number of wheels available with differing radii to
vary the radius of the metal being formed. The metal being worked is moved
I
back and forth between the two wheels to smooth and form it.
7.5 Cutting Tools
Shears
Throatless Shears
Throatless shears have two short
cutting blades that cut much like a
pair of scissors. The lower blade is
fixed to the base and the upper
blade is operated by a long hand,le

Squar ing Shears
Crosshead
Foot-treadle-operated shears can
Squaring Front Cutting make a straight cut across aluminum
fence gage blade
alloy sheets up to approximately
0.051-inch thickness and mild steel
of 22-gage or thinner. Power-
operated shears that use a small
electric motor to store a large amount
of energy in a heavy flywheel can cut
much thicker sheets. Place the metal
to be cut on the bed and square it by
holding it against the squaring fence.
Lock the hold-down clamp in place to
hold the metal tight on the table and
keep your fingers out of the way of
the' blade. The blade is angled so
that it slices its way through the sheet
Canaccept a 48' wide sheet when the foot-treadle is pressed or
when the energy stored in the
flywheel forces the blade down.
Scroll Shears
Used to pierce a piece of sheet
metal and cut irregular curves on the
il'ISide of the sheet without having to
cut through to the edge. The upper
blade has a sharp point for piercing
the metal and is fixed to the frame of
the shears; the lower blade is raised
against the upper by the compound
action of a hand-operated handle.
Hand Shears
Tin Snips
Used to cut sheets of aluminum
alloy up to about 0.032-inch thick to
roughly the size needed to fabricate
a part. Final cutting and trimming is
done with other tools.

Compound Shea rs Cuts left-redhandle
Also known as aviation shears or
Dutchman shears. They have short
serrated blades, actuated by a
com-pound action from the handles.
There are three shapes of blades,
Cuts straight-yellow handle
one designed to cut to the left, one
to cut to the right, and one to make
straight cuts. The serrated blades
leave a rough edge that must be
filed off to prevent stress risers.
The handles of these shears are
often colorcoded. Shears with red
handles cut to the left, green han-
dles cut to the right, and yellow
handles cut straight.
Saws
I
Band Saw
This contour band saw has
a work table adjusted for tilt,
and a variable-speed drive
that allows the cutting
speed of the blade to be
adjusted to meet the
requirements for the
material being cut. It also
has a cutter, welder, and
grinder that allows the saw
to be used for cutting inside
a piece of sheet material
without cutting through to Variablespeed
the edge. Drill or punch a handwheel
hole in the area to be sawed
and remove the blade from
the wheels of the saw. Cut the blade in
two and place one end through the hole
in the material. Clamp the two ends of
the blade in the butt welder. Electric
current flows through them, and heats them enough to melt the ends so they
flow together. Shut the current off and allow the joint to cool, then grind it
smooth. Reinstall the blade over the wheels, and cut the inside of the material.

Hack sa w
A hacksaw uses a narrow replace-
able blade held under tension in a
steel frame. The blades are
available in 10 and 12-inch lengths
and from 14 to 32 teeth per inch. A
blade should be chosen that will
allow at least two teeth to be on the
material at all times. When cutting,
pressure should be applied on the
forward stroke and relaxed on the
return stroke.
Wood Sa ws
Crosscut Saw
A crosscut saw is a handsaw used
for cutting across the grain of wood.
The teeth, or points, are filed so they
have a knife-like cutting edge on the
7 r-Kerl
same side of each alternate tooth.
The teeth are set by bending every
other tooth to one side and the
alternate teeth to the opposite side.
The set of the teeth results in a cut
TI that is wider than the saw blade. This

widened cut, called the kerl, keeps
the blade from binding in the cut.
Ripsaw
Ripsaws are similar to crosscut saws
except for the shape and number of
the teeth. They have fewer teeth per
inch than a crosscut saw and the
teeth are shaped to act as chisels
and dig into the wood fibers.
Compass, or Keyhole Saw

A compass, or keyhole saw is a
00
small saw with teeth similar to those
of a crosscut saw. The blade is thin
and tapered so it can enter a drilled
hole and cut curves or circles.

Backsa w
Backsaws have teeth similar to
crosscut saws, but much smaller
with more teeth per inchand less
set. The blade has a stiffener across
its back to keep it from bending.
Backsaws produce a smooth cut
across the grain for wood stringers
or capstrips and they are often used
with a miter box.
Chisels
Flat Chisel
Made of a piece of hardened steel
that is ground with a cutting angle of
70°. The cutting edge is ground to a
convex shape to concentrate the
point the cut is being made. «

Cape
force ofChisel
the hammer blows at the
Cape chisels have a narrow cutting
edge used to remove the head of a
solid rivet after the head has been
drilled through.
I
Diamond Paint Chisel
These are forged to a sharp-
cornered square, and the end is
ground to an acute angle to form a
sharp pointed cutting edge. They are
used for cutting V-shaped grooves,
and for cutting the sharp corners in
square or rectangular grooves.
Q
--
RoundNose Chisel
These chisels look much like
diamond-point chisels except the
cutting edge is ground to a circular Q
point. They are used for cutting radii
in the bottom of grooves.

Files
Flat file:Rectangular cross-section, tapered toward point in both width and
thickness.
Hand flle: Rectangular cross-section, sides parallel, tapers in thickness. One
edge is safe(there are no teeth cut on it). Used for finishing flat surfaces.
Half-roundfile: Flat side and rounded side. Tapers in both width and
thickness. Used to file the inside of large radius curves.
Triangular, or three-square file:double-cut with triangular cross-section,
tapered. Used to file acute internal angles and to restore damaged threads.
Round file: Commonly called a rattail file. Circular cross-section, tapered in
length. Used to file the inside of circular openings and curved surfaces.
Knife file: Tapered in both width and thickness, cross-sectional shape much
like a knife blade. Used for filing work with acute angles.
Vixen file: Curved teeth across file; used for removing large amounts of soft
metal.
Wood rasp: Resembles file,except teeth formed In rows of individual round-
point chisels. Used to remove large amounts of wood; they do not leave a
smooth surface.
Vixen file
Double-cut file
Single-cut file

7.6 Hole Cutting Tools
Twist Drllls
Twist drills are available in two clearance
materials, carbon steel and high- (125-135' ) e®
speedsteel. Carbon drills cost less
and have a shorter life than high-
speed drills and therefore they have Lip or
limited use. High-speeddrills are cutting edge
Lip angle
made of alloy steel and maintain
(normally59 ' )
their sharpness even when they are
hot. They are available in three Heel angle
groups of sizes: number, letter, and (12-15')
fraction.
Lips or cutting edges
Twist Drill Sizes
Number or
Letter
80
Fraction Decimal
Equivalent
0.0135
I
79 0.0145
78 0.0160
1/64 0.0156
77 0.0180
76 0.0200
75 0.0210
74 0.0225
73 0.0240
72 0.0250
71 0.0260
70 0.0280
69 0.0290
68 0.0310
1/32 0.0313
67 0.0320
66 0.0330
65 0.0350
64 0.0360
63 0.0370
62 0.0380
61 0.0390
60 0.0400
59 0.0410
58 0.0420
57 0.0430

Number or Fraction Decimal
Letter Equivalent
56 0.0465
3/64 0.0469
55 0.0520
54 0.0550
53 0.0595
1/16 0.0625
52 0.0635
51 0.0670
50 0.0700
49 0.0730
48 0.0760
5/64 0.0781
47 0.0785
46 0.0810
45 0.0820
44 0.0860
43 0.0890
42 0.0935
3/32 0.0937
41 0.0960
40 0.0980
39 0.0995
38 0.1015
37 0.1040
36 0.1065
7/64 0.1094
35 0.1100
34 0.1110
33 0.1130
32 0.1160
31 0.1200
1/8 0.1250
30 0.1285
29 0.1360
28 0.1405
9/64 0.1406
27 0.1440
26 0.1470
25 0.1495
24 0.1520
23 0.1540
5/32 0.1562
22 0.1570
21 0.1590
20 0.1610
19 0.1660
18 0.1695
11/64 0.1719

Letter Equivalent
17 0.1730
16 0.1 TTO
15 0. 1800
14 0 .1 820
13 0 .1850
3/16 0.1875
12 0.1890
11 0.1910
10 0.1935
9 0.1960
8 0.1990
7 0.2010
13/64 0.2031
6 0.2040
5 0.2055
4 0.2090
3 0.2130
7/32 0.2187
I
2 0.2210
1 0.2280
A 0.2340
15/64 0.2344
B 0.2380
C
D
0.2420
0.2460 •
E 1/4 0.2500
F 0.2570
G 0.2610
17/64 0.2656
H 0.2660
I 0.2720
J 0.2 TTO
K 0.2810
9/32 0.2812
L 0.2900
M 0.2950
19/64 0.2969
N 0.3020
5/16 0.3125
0 0.3160
p 0.3230
21/64 0.3281
a 0.3320
R 0.3390
11/32 0.3438
s 0.3480
T 0.3580
23/64 0.3594

Letter Equivalent
u 0.3680
3/8 0.3750
V 0.3770
w 0.3860
25/64 0.3906
X 0.3970
y 0.4040
13/32 0.4062
z 0.4130
27/64 0.4219
7/16 0.4375
29/64 0.4331
15/32 0.4688
31/64 0.4844
1/2 0.5000
Drill Gage
To identify the size of the drill, find the hole that exactly fits the drill; the
number beside the hole is the size of the drill.
Twist Drill Sharpening

Twist drills are perhaps the simplest cutting tool used by an AMTbut it is
important that they be properly sharpened for the material they are used on.
The point angles shown here are for aluminum alloys and brass. hard and
tough metals, and transparent plastics and wood. When sharpening a drill,
be sure that the lengths of the lips, or cutting edges, are the same, and the
included angle and lip relief angle are correct for the material to be drilled.

Chisel Included angle
angle 11s•
_i - t !
L,p relief anglffi
1
-
0·
I
I
General purpose point for aluminum alloys,
brass, and laminated plastics.The chisel
angle shouldbe between 125° and 135•. 1
1:_!
f
69
ffi ©I © I
I !
12·P
!
I
I W
!
I I
I • ' I
Point ground for hard and tough metals. Point ground for transparent plastics
The chiselangle should be between 115° and wood.The chisel angle should
and 125°. be between 125° and 135°.
Material Included Lip relief

angle angle
Aluminum,
mildsteel,brass 11a· 10·- 1s·
Hard and tough
materials 135° 50_90
Plastics, wood 90• 12°-15°
Drill Point Gage
Because the points of most drills used in routine aviation maintenance are
ground to an included angle of 118°, or 59° either side of center, a handy drill
point gage is available to determine that the angle is proper and the lips are
of the same lengths.

Large Hole Cutters
Hole Saws
Used to cut large-diameterholes in
thin sheet metal or wood. Different
diameter saws can be installed,
available from 9/19-inch up to more
than 4 inches. A shank fits into a drill
press or a handdrill motor, and the
pilot drill has a short section of flutes
with a longer smooth shank. This
allows the drill to cut the pilot hole,
then when the saw reaches the
material, the shank of the pilot drill is
in the hole and therefore does not
enlarge the hole, yet holds the saw
centered.
Fly Cutter
Used to cut large holes in thin sheet
metal, but not limited to specific size
holes. A cutting tool is mounted in
the arm of the fly cutter, and the arm
is adjusted so the tip of the cutter is
exactly the radius of the desired hole
from the center of the pilot drill.The
shank of the fly cutter is chucked in
a drill press, and the pilot drill cuts
the guide hole.
WARNING: It is important when cutting
holes in thin sheet metalto support the Operate the drill press at a slow
metalon a piece of scrap plywood and speed, and feed the cutter into the
clamp the metal andplywood firmly to work very slowly and carefully so it
thedrill press table. This prevents the cuts rather than grabs.
metal from becoming a lethal spinning
knife if the cutter should dig Into It. Countersink
A stopcountersink cutsa countersink
Cutter shaft Stop to the correct depth. Place the proper
cutter in the tool and adjust the fiber
collar so it contacts the skin when the
countersink hole is the correct depth.
To determine the correct adjustment
of the skirt, make some test counter-
sinks in scrap material until the
Body Fiber collar recess is just deep enough so the top
of the fastener is flush with the metal
surface.

Re amer s
A special cutting tool with sharp
knife-edge blades, or flutes, cut into
its periphery that are extremely hard
and easily chipped. When preparing
a hole for a close-tolerancebolt, drill B
the hole about one to three Fixed-diameter reamers
thousandths of an inch (0.001 to
0.003 inch) smaller than the outside
diameter of the reamer. Be sure that
the reamer is perfectly aligned with
the hole and turn it steadily in its
8
proper cutting direction to prevent it Expansion reamer
from chattering. Never turn the
reamer backward after it has begun
to cut as this will dull the reamer.
Fixed-diameter reamers enlarge the
hole to the most accurate dimen-
I
sions, but expansion reamers may
be used to ream a hole slightly
larger than a fixed reamer. The hex
on the end of the cutter is turned to
increase the diameter of the cutters
which can be measured with a
vernier micrometer caliper.
Drills for Wood and

Composite Materials
Auger Bits
Auger bits are turned with a bow-
type brace. The feed screw in the
end of the bit screws into the wood
and pulls the bit in. Sharp cutting
edges parallel with the axis of the bit
cut a circle in the wood and the
cutting edge perpendicular to the
axis of the bit cuts the chips from
within the circle. The chips travel up
the spiral flutes and out of the hole.

Forstner Bits
Mounted in a drill press and used for
boring flat-bottomholes in wood.
The vertical cutting edge cutsa
circle the size of the hole being
bored and the horizontal edge cuts
the chips from the area within the
circle.
Flat Wood-Boring Sits

Available in sizes from 1/4-inch to
more than one inch. These bits are
chucked into an electric or pneu-
matic drill motor. The pointed pilot
keeps the bit centered in the hole as
the cutting edge of the bit cuts the
chips and moves them out of the
hole.
Brad-Point Drllls
Brad-point drills are used for cutting
(lb Kevlar reinforced material. The drill
e End v iew i s chucked into a high-speed electric
or pneumatic drill motor and pressed
into the material with little pressure.
The cutting edges cut the fibers and
produce a fuzz-free hole.
Spade Drill
Used to drill graphite materials,
these provide ample space for the
graphite dust to leave so it will not
Side view End view
enlarge the hole. Spade drills are
turned at a high speed in an electric
or pneumatic drill motor, using very
little pressure.

7.7 7 Threads and Threading Tools
Unified and American Threads/Inch

Standard Thread Form Screwsize UNF UNC
There are a number of forms of #0 80

#2 64 56
threads usedon bolts and screws, #4 48 40
but the Unified and American #6 40 32
Standard Thread form has been #8 36 32
accepted as the standard for most #10 32
24
aircraft hardware. This thread form #12 28
is available in both fine (UNF} and 24
coarse (UNG) threads. Bolt size
3/16 32 24
1/4 28
20
5/16 24
18
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
5/8
3/4
24
20
20
18
18
16
16
14
13
12
11
10
I
7/8 14 9
1 14 8
Thread-Cutt ing Tools
Cut threads are formed with a die as
shown at right. The adjusting screw
is screwed in to spread the split in
the die in order to shallow the
threads being cut. The die is put in
the die stock, and the four set Adjusting screw
screws are tightened to hold the die
in place. The die is then placed over
the end of the rod to be threaded
and turned to cut the threads. The
depth of the threads can be
increased by screwing out on the
adjusting screw.

Taps
Taper tap
Miusoe Threads are cut inside a hole using
a series of taps. A taper tap is used
to start the threads as the first
several threads are ground back so
the tap will enter the hole and easily
begin to cut the threads. For thick
j
'\- --------c material, a plug tap is used to follow
the taper tap. If the threads are to
Plug tap
extend all the way to the bottom of a
blind hole, a bottoming tap is used to
follow the plug tap. The threads on a
iiiuiiii
Bottoming tap
bottoming tap are full depth all the
way to the end. Taps are held in a
tap wrench which is turned with both
hands to ensure that the tap is
perpendicular to the material as
threads are cut.
Body and Tap Drill Sizes
ForUNF threads
Size and Body Preferred
threads diameter Body drill hole diameter Tap drill
0-80 0.060 52 0.0472 3/64
1-72 0.073 47 53
0.0591 50
2-64 0.056 42 46
0.7000
3-56 0.099 37 0.0810 42
38
4-48 _0 112 31 0.0911
5. 44 0_125 29 0.1024 33
6-40 0.138 27 29
0.1130 21
8-36 _0 154 18 0.1360 15
10-32 0.190 10 0.1590 3
12-28 0.216 2 I
0.1800 a
1/4-28 0.250 F 0.2130 w
5/16-24 0.3125 5/16 0.2703 7/16
3/8-24 0.375 3/8 0.3320 1/2
7/16-20 0.4375 7/16 0.3860 9116
112-20 0.500 1/2 0.4490 11/16
9/16-18 0.5625 9/16 0.5060 51/64
5/8-18 0.625 5/8 0.5680 59/64
3/4-16 0.750 3/4 0-6688
7/8-14 0.875 7/8 0.7822
1"-14 1.000 1" 0-9072
For UNC threads
Size and Body Preferred
threads diameter Body drill hole diameter Tap drill
1-64 0.073 47 0.0575 53

2-56 0.086 42 0.0682 51
3-48 0.099 37 0.078 5164
4-40 0.122 31 0.0866 44
5-40 0.125 29 0.0995 39
6-32 0.138 27 0.1063 36
8-32 0.164 18 0.1324 29
10-24 0.190 10 0.1476 26
12-24 0.216 2 0.1732 17
1/4-20 0.250 1/4 0.1990 8
5/16-18 0.3125 5/16 0.2559 F
3/8-16 0.375 3/8 0.3110 5116
7/16-14 0.4375 7/16 0.3642 u
1/2-13 0.500 1/2 0.4219 27/64
9/16-12 0.5625 9/16 0.4TT6 31/64
518-11 0.625 5/8 0.5315 17/32
3/4-10 0.750 3/4 0.6480 41/64
7/6-9 0.875 7/8 0.7307 49/64
1"-8 1.000 1" 0.8376 7/8
For NationalTaper Pipe Serles
Nominal
pipe size
(Inch)
Threads Root
per inch diameter
of pipe
Tap
drill
For metric threads
Metric threads
M2.5 x0.45
M3x 0.5
Metric tap drill
2.05
2.5
I
1/8 27 0.3339 a M3.5 X 0.6 2.9
1/4 18 0.4329 7/16 M4 x 0.7 3.3
3/8 18 0.5676 9/16 MSx0.8 4.2
1/2 14 0.7013 45/64 M6.3 X 1 5.3
3/4 14 0.9105 MBx 1.25 6.8
29/32
M10x 1.5 8.5
M12X 1.75 10.2
M14 X 2 12.0
M16 x 2 14.0
M20 X 2.5 17.5
M24x 3 21.0
Screw Pitch Gage

Screw pitch gages help to identify
the thread type and size on a bolt or
nut. Each leaf in the gage has teeth
that correspond to bolt or nut
threads, with the number of threads
per inch stamped on it. To find the
number of threads per inch on a bolt
or nut, select the leaf with an exact
fit to the threads and note the
number stamped on the leaf.

7.8 Torque and TorqueWrenches
NOTE : The strongest threaded joint is one in which the load applied to
the fastener when it is installed is greater than the maximum load that
will be applied to the joint in service. If a threaded fastener does not fail
when it is being properly torqued, it will not fail in service.
CIiek-Type Torque Wrench

Twist the handle until a reference mark aligns with a graduation on the shaft of
the wrench indicates the desired torque. Place the correct socket on the
wrench and put it on the fastener to be torqued. With the wrench perfectly
square to the fastener, apply a smooth pull on the wrench until it clicks. Click-
type torque wrenches do not limit the amount of torque that can be applied;
rather, they indicate the set amount of torque being applied when they click.
Stop the pullas soon as the wrench clicks.
Deflecting-Beam Torque
Wrench
L = Lever length (inches) It is important that the socket is
square on the fitting and the force
applied to the wrench is concen-
0 ...,,..- o trated at the pivot point on the
handle. The torque readon the
wrench (Tw) measured in inch-
pounds is the product of the lever
length (L) in inches and the force (F)
F=Force (pounds)
in pounds.
162 Aviation Mect,anic Handbook

When using an adapter on a torque wrench that adds to the lever length, you
must use the formula below to determine the torque reading on the wrench
Tw in order to attain the required amount of torque applied to the fastener by
the adapter TA.
L --------------------------------------------- ,
0
Tw= TA·L
L+E
Tw = Torque indicated on the wrench Tw
TA= Torque applied at the adapter
L = Lever length of torque wrench
E = Arm of the adapter
When the extension subtracts from the lever length of the wrench, use this
formula.
I
L- - - - - - - - - -
Tw
Tw = Torque indicated on the wrench

TA= Torque applied at the adapter
L = Lever length of torque wrench
E = Arm of the adapter

Torque Conversions
Inch Inch Inch Foot Centimeter Meter
grams ounces pounds pounds kilograms kilograms
7.09 0.25
14.17 0.5
21.26 0.75
28.35 1.0
113.40 4.0 0.25
226.80 8.0 0.50
453.59 16.0 1.00 0.08 1.11
96.0 6.00 0.50 6.92
192.0 12.00 1.00 13.83 0.138
384.0 24.00 2.00 27.66 0.277
576.0 36.00 3.00 41.49 0.415
768.0 48.00 4.00 55.32 0.553
960.0 60.00 5.00 69.15 0.692
72.00 6.00 82.98 0.830
84.00 7.00 96.81 0.968
96.00 8.00 110.64 1.106
108.00 9.00 124.47 1.245
120.00 10.00 138.31 1.383
Recommended Torque Values

Recommended TorqueValues for Fine-Thread-Serles Steel Fasteners
Standard AN and MS High strength MSand NAS
steel boltsIn tension steelbolts In tension
Nut-Bolt Nuts tension Nut shear Nuts tension Nut shear
size torque lim Its torque limits torque llmlts torque limits
(ln.-lbs.) (ln.-lbs.) (ln.-lbs.) (ln.-lbs.)
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
8-36 12 15 7 9
10-32 20 25 12 .15 25 30 15 20
1/4-28 50 70 30 40 80 100 50 60
5/16-24 100 140 60 85 120 145 70 90
3/8-24 160 190 95 110 200 250 120 150
7/16-20 450 500 270 300 520 630 300 400
1/2-20 480 690 290 410 770 950 450 550
9/16-18 800 1,000 480 600 .1,100 1,300 650 800
5/8-18 1,100 1,300 660 1,250 1,550 750 950
3/4-16 2,300 2,500 1,300 1, gg. 2,650 3,200 1,600 1.900
7/8-14 2,500 3,000 1,500 1,800 3,550 4,350 2,100 2,600
1-14 3,700 4,500 2,200 3,300 4,500 5,500 2,700 3,300
1-1/8-12 5,000 7,000 3,000 4,200 6,000 7,300 3,600 4,400
1-114-12 9,000 11,000 5,400 6,600 11,000 13,400 6,600 8,000

Recommended Torque Values for Coarse-Threa-dSerlesSteel Fasteners
Standard AN and MS steel boltsIn tension
Nut-Bolt Nuts tension torque llmlta Nuts shear torque IImlts
size (ln.-lba.) (ln.-lbs.)
Min. Max. Min. Max.
8-32 12 15 7 9
10-24 20 25 12 15
1/4·20 40 50 25 30
5/16·18 80 90 48 55
3/8-16 160 185 95 110
7/16-14 235 255 140 155
1/2·13 400 480 240 290
9/16-12 500 700 300 420
5/8·11 700 900 420 540
3/4-10 1,150 1,600 700 950
7/8-9 2,200 3,000 1,300 1,800
1-8 3,700 5,000 2,200 3,000
1-1/8-8 5,500 6,500 3,300 4,000
1·1/4-8 6,500 8,000 4,000 5,000
Recommended Torque Values for Fine-Thread-Serles Aluminum Alloy Fasteners
Nut-Bolt
size
8-36
10-32
Aluminum bolts In tension
Nuts tension torque llmlts
Min.
5
10
(ln.-lbs.)
Max.
10
15
Nutsshear torque limits
Min.
3
(tn.-lbs.)
Max.
6
■
5 10
1/4-28 30 45 15 30
5/16-24 40 65 25 40
3/8-24 75 110 45 70
7/16-20 180 280 110 170
1/2-20 280 410 160 260
7: Tools tor Aircraft Maintenance 165

7.9 Pounding Tools
Carp enter 's Claw Hammer

This hammer is used for driving and
removing nails, but is seldom used
when working on an aircraft. It is not
designed for use in metal working
because its face is slightly crowned
9
to concentrate the force when
driving nails.
Ball Peen Hammer

This is the most widely used
hammer for general aviation
maintenance; available with head
weights from a few ounces to
several pounds. The face of the
hammer is flat with slightly rounded
edges, and the opposite end of the
head is rounded like a ball.
Metalworking Hammers
Straight Peenand Cross Peen
Hammers
These are similar to the ball peen
except the peen end is in the form of
a wedge. The wedge on a straight
peen hammer is parallel to the
handle; the wedge on a cross peen
hammer is across the handle.
Body, or Planlshlng Hammer

To form compound curves in sheet
aluminum, the metal may be
stretched by hammering it into a
sandbag, then smoothed out by
hammering it over a smooth steel
dolly block with a planishing, or body
hammer, a lightweight hammer with
a large-area smooth face.

Mall ets and Soft-Face Hammers
Q
Sheet aluminum is formed by first
stretching it, then smoothing it so the
stretched metal forms the desired
curves. The initial stretching is done
by pounding the metal into a
sandbag or around a form with a soft-face hammer, or mallet. These
hammers may have replaceable faces of soft metal, resilient plastic, or coils
of rawhide. Some hammer faces are domed to better stretch the metal; some
are flat for the initial smoothing.
Sledge Hammers
Sledge hammers are long-handled, heavy-head hammers that have two
parallel flat faces. They are wielded with two hands and used for heavy
pounding work, or for driving stakes in the ground.
7.10 Punches
Prick Punch
Has a sharp point; used to mark the
exact location for drilling a hole in a
I 188888888888888L
"' ""' """ """ """ """ """ """"
]>_
I
piece of sheet metal. The point of
the prick punch is placed at this location, and the punch is tapped with a
lightweight hammer, leaving a small indentation at the location for the hole.
Cent er Punch
Similar to a prick punch, but its point I :J>
is more blunt. It is ground to an
angle of approximately 60°, which is
correct for starting a properly ground twist drill to cut. The point is placed in
the indentation formed by the prick punch, and the punch is hit with a
hammer to create a depression for holding the drill as it begins to cut.
Drift, or Starting Punch

Has a tapered shank; used to drive
bolts from their holes and to align
parts for assembly. Especially
useful when installing wings or other large airplane components. The wing is
put in place, and a drift punch is used to align the holes in the wing spars
and the fuselage before the bolts are put in place.

Pin Punch
Used to remove rivets after the
manufactured head has been drilled t:::=============Cs. ....
through. A punch of the proper size
is placed in the drilled hole, and the
rivet head is broken off. The punch is then tapped with a lightweight hammer
to punch the rivet shank from the hole. Also used to align components being
assembled.
@
Transfer Punch
Used to locate rivet holes when
making a new aircraft skin using the
old skin as a pattern. A transfer
punch whose outside diameter is the same as the diameter of (J(c),
the rivet hole is placed in the hole in the old skin. The punch is LY
tapped with a lightweight hammer and the sharp point in the
center of the flat endmakes a small indentation; this transfers a
location for a center punch to the new skin.
Automatic Center Punch

Used when a large number of holes
must be marked. A spring inside the • 00
handle is adjusted by twisting the
handle. Place the point in the
indentation made by a prick punch and press the punch into the metal. As
you press, the spring is compressed, and when the proper compression is
reached, the spring automatically releases and drives the point into the
metal.

7 .11 Wre nches
Open End Wrench

Open end wrenches have parallel
jaws on each end. These jaws are
angled 15° to the axis of the wrench
to allow the wrench to be flipped
U.S. wrench Metric wrench
over to get a new grip on the sizes (Inches) sizes(mm)
fastener when turning it in a
1/4 - 5-16 6-8
confined space. Most have different- 3/8 - 7/16 7-9
sized openings on the ends. 1/2 - 9/16 10 - 11
5/8 - 3/4 12 - 14
11/16 - 13/16 13 · 15
3/4 - 7/8 16 - 18
25/32 - 13/16 17 · 19
■
15/16-1 20· 22
1-1/16 - 1-1/8 21 - 23
1-1/4 - 1-5/16 24 - 26
Adjustable Open End Wrench
Adjustable end wrenches have one
fixed jaw and one jaw that slides in a
groove and moves by a worm gear
that is rotated by the user. Impor-
tant: Place the wrench on the
fastener so the pull is away from the
fixed jaw. When the wrench is held
in this way, the strain is placed on
the tip of the fixed jaw and at the
base of the movable jaw where it is
the strongest.
Ratcheting Open End Wrench

A ratcheting open end wrench allows a
fastener to be turned down or removed
without having to lift the wrench at each turn.
It looks like an ordinary open end wrench
except one of the jaws is much shorter than
the other. When you pull thewrench toward
you the pressure is applied near the end of
the long jaw and the root of the short jaw. When the direction of wrench
movement is reversed the short jaw moves around to the next flat.

Box End Wrench
Much more torque can be applied
with a box end wrench than with an
open end, as they cannot be sprung
open. Available in both 6-point and
12-point ends, with gripping surfaces
offset so the wrench can be flipped
over to get a new grip on the
fastener while working in close quarters. The handles of some box end
wrenches are offset so they extend upward, for clearance, when the box of
the wrench is flat.
Ratcheting BoxWrench
These have two thin 6- or 12-point
open sockets mounted in the ends,
in the same way as the box ends of
a standard box end wrench. The
outside of the sockets have ratchet teeth cut in them, and the ratchet pawls
are inside the wrench handle- to get a new grip on the fastener, just ratchet
the handle for a new grip each time the pawl slips over a ratchet tooth. To
reverse the wrench, remove it and flip it over. Made with both straight and
offset handles.
Combination Wrench
This wrench has a box end and an
open end of the same size handy for
removing tight fasteners. The box
end is used to apply maximum
torque for breaking the fastener loose, then the open end is used as it is
much quicker to get a new grip with an open end than with a box end.
Flare Nut Wrench

Flare nut wrenches resemble a
straight box end wrench that has a : ;:;:;: : : ;;;: : : : : : ;;;;:: ;;;;
portion of the box removed so the
wrench will slip over the fluid line to
loosen or tighten the fitting. These are weaker than box end wrenches and
should not be used in place of a box end wrench for general nut tightening or
loosening.

Socket Wrenches
Socket Wrench Handles
The ratchet-type allows a socket to be placed on a fastener, and by moving
the handle back and forth, it is possible to tighten or loosen the fastener
without removing the socket. The break-over handle, or breaker bar, is a
long handle with the socket drive mounted on a pin that allows its angle
relative to the handle to be varied. Break-over handles can apply the
maximum torque to a fastener to tighten or loosen it. Speed handles, or
speeders, resemble a crank that allows a fastener to be rapidly spun into
place. Very little torque can be applied with a speed handle.
Ratchet handle
■
Speed handle
Breakover handle
Hand Impact Tool

Used to break loose nuts and screws that have been corroded or rusted to
the extent that an ordinary socket or screwdriver cannot budge them.
Especially useful when fitted with a screwdriver bit to loosen structural
screws in stressed inspection plates. The recess in
the screw is cleaned out, and the screwdriver bit is
installed on the driver and placed in the recess. The
end of the driver is struck with a ball peen hammer;
the blow rotates the screwdriver bit and at the
same time prevents it from jumping out of the recess.

Typical Socket Wrenches
Available in 6- and 12-point openings, and in U.S. and metric sizes. Varieties
are shallow sockets, semi-deep sockets, and deep sockets. Sockets with
universal joints are available, as well as universal joints that can be placed
between a normal socket and a drive. Crowfoot wrenches with an open end
or a flare-nut end can be mounted on an extension to reach fasteners that
cannot be reached by any other type of wrench.
Shallow soci<et Deep socket Crowfoot Universal socket
Extension and Adapters

Straight extensions are available from less than 2 inches long to more than
36 inches. Some extensions are made of double-wrapped steel wire and are
flexible so the socket can be oriented at any angle relative to the drive
handle. Universal joints allow any socket to be used as a universal socket.
Ratchet adapters can be installed between a handle and a socket, or an
extension and a socket, so the socket can be ratcheted.
Straight extension Universal joint Ratchet adapter
Alle n Wre nche s

Allen wrenches are made of
hardened tool steel with a hexagonal
cross section, in the shape of the
letter L with a long and a short leg.
They normally come in sets and
have dimensions across their flats of
from 1/16 inch to 5/8 inch.

7 .12 Screwdrivers
Slot Screwdrivers
Slot-headscrews have limited use in
aircraft because they cannot be ctt===::::, J
installed or removed with power
screwdrivers-the blade slips out of
the screw slot and can damage the Q:======iia
component. Mostly they have been
replaced with recessed-head screws. The blade of a slot screwdriver must
be property sharpened to prevent damage to the screw or the component in
which the screw is installed. The sides of the tip should be ground parallel
with the shank, and the edges should be sharp to grip the screw at the
■
bottom of the slot.
Offset Screwdriver
Used to tum screws in locations that
a straight screwdriver cannot reach.
Recessed-Head Screwdrivers
Power screwdrivers require a screw
head that will notallow the bit to slip
out. Two types of recessed-head, or
cross point screws have been used
in aviation maintenance for decades:
the Phillips and the Reed & Prince.
The point of the Phillips screwdriver
1s blunt, and the sides of the point
have a double taper. The Reed &
Phi lli ps Reed & Prince
Prince has a sharp point and a
single taper.

Sc re w H ead s for Spec ial Structural Screws
Theairlines and the military use screws with other types of recessed heads
that hold the point of the screwdriver bit more tightly to prevent its slipping
out when used with a power screwdriver. Screwdriver bits are made to fit all
of these special screws. The Pozidriv screwdriver tips are an improvement
on the Phillips because the tip is not as tapered, with wedges that ensure a
tight fit in the screw head. Phillips screwdriver bits should not be used on
Pozidriv screws as they will ride up out of the recess and round the corners
of both the screw head and the screwdriver bit.
Hi-Torqu®e Torq-Set '" Tri- Wing'" Pozidriv"' Torx'" Spline

SERVICING AIRCRAFT
GROUND SERVICING EQUIPMENT

From time to time, most large aircraft require some
form of auxiliary power to start the engines, provide
electricity while the aircraft is on the ground, or
provide cabin heating or cooling. For this reason,
various types of ground power units (GPUs) are
available for supplying power when the engines are to the aircraft's hydraulic system so the landing gear
not running. Some GPUs are mobile units that are can be cycled through its retraction and extension
driven to the aircraft while others are pulled behind cycles to verify that it operates properly.
a tug. Some newer airports have power and air out-
lets built into the tarmac. These hydraulic power supplies, or mules as they
are commonly called, connect into the aircraft
hydraulic system with quick-disconnect fittings.
When the fitting is screwed onto the hydraulic
ELECTRICAL GROUND POWER UNITS power supply, it automatically opens so it can sup-
ply hydraulic pressure to the aircraft.
The batteries used in most smaller aircraft have very
limited capacity and, therefore, engine starting Before connecting a hydraulic power supply make
requirements may be more than the battery is capa- sure that all of the lines are clean so no dirt or con-
ble of supplying. For this reason, most airports are tamination gets into the aircraft's system. Normally,
equipped with battery carts and cables that can be these power supplies do not furnish fluid for the air-
used to assist an aircraft's battery. For large aircraft, craft; rather, they use the fluid in the aircraft. Some
a large self-propelled generator unit is used to assist of the fluid, however, remains in the pump and
in starting the aircraft. lines of the unit. [Figure 13-30]
It is extremely important when installing a battery Because of the incompatibility of different types of
on a battery cart that its polarity match the polarity hydraulic fluid, such as MIL-H-5606 and Skydrol ,
of the aircraft. Reversed polarity can damage the a different hydraulic power unit must be used with
alternator as well as the battery. each type of fluid. If the wrong type of hydraulic
fluid is introduced into an aircraft's hydraulic sys-
Most turbojet transport category aircraft carry an tem the entire aircraft hydraulic system would have
auxiliary power unit (APU). An APU is a small to be purged and refilled with fresh,
turbine engine that supplies compressed air for uncontami-nated fluid. Should any of the aircraft's
engine starting and cabin air conditioning, as well systems be
as electrical power for various aircraft systems. If
the APU is not working, a ground unit is used for
these purposes.
HYDRAUL|C
Many aircraft have hydraulieally retracted landing

gear that must be periodically tested for operation.
To do this, the aircraft is lifted off the hangar floor
with jacks, and a hydraulic power unit is connected
Figure 13-30. A hydraulic power unit replaces the engine-dri-

ven pump to produce hydraulic pressure for gear retraction
tests.
13-26 Ground Handling and Servicing
operated with the wrong type of fluid in the system, be done under a wide variety of conditions and typ-
all components would have to be cleaned, flushed, ically must be completed in a timely manner. The
or possibly disassembled for seal replacement. This knowledge of aviation fuels and the use of correct
would be extremely expensive and may even procedures are of extreme importance for safety and
require the services of a certified repair station. efficiency. Use of the wrong type, wrong grade,
intermixed, or contaminated fuels can lead to
engine failure and catastrophe. Therefore, steps
OXYGEN SERVICING EQUIPMENT
must be taken at all levels to assure a clean supply
Modern aircraft fly at altitudes where life support of the proper fuel is delivered to an aircraft.
systems are needed. Even though most of these air-
craft are pressurized, emergency oxygen must be To better understand what is required to maintain
carried in the event the pressurization equipment fuel quality as well as the importance of proper fuel-
fails. Most civilian aircraft carry gaseous oxygen in ing procedures, it is first necessary to have a basic
steel cylinders, or bottles, pressurized to approxi- knowledge of aviation fuels. This knowledge should
mately 1,800 psi. The cylinders are painted green include the characteristics of various grades of avia-
and labeled "Aviator's Breathing Oxygen." tion fuels as well as the importance of controlling
contamination.
SERVICE CARTS
Oxygen systems are typically serviced from oxygen CHARACTERISTICS OF AVIATION FUELS
carts, which usually carry six high-pressure bottles Weight is always a primary consideration in aircraft
of oxygen and one bottle of nitrogen. The nitrogen is operation. Every extra pound used in the airframe
used for filling hydraulic accumulators and oleo and powerplant subtracts one pound from the air-
shock struts. To prevent inadvertently mistaking it craft's useful load. For this reason, aviation fuels
for oxygen, it is usually laid on the cart opposite the must have the highest possible energy, or heat value
direction of the oxygen cylinders. The oxygen cylin- per pound. Typical 100LL aviation gasoline has
ders are all manifolded together and connected to 18,720 British Thermal Units (BTUs) per pound. Jet
the aircraft service port. A turbine fuel has about 18,401 BTUs per pound.
However, Jet A weighs 6.7 pounds per gallon while
THE "CASCADE" SYSTEM a gallon of 100LL weighs 6 pounds. In other words,
jet fuel is denser than avgas and, as a result, Jet A
When servicing an oxygen system always use two
supplies 123,287 BTUs per gallon whereas 100LL
people, one to control the flow at the cart and one to
supplies 112,320 BTUs per gallon.
monitor the pressure in the aircraft system. To begin
servicing, open the valve on the cylinder having the
lowest pressure and let the oxygen flow until the The dynamics of the internal combustion cycle
pressure stabilizes. Then shut the valve off and demand certain properties from gasolines. Aircraft
open the cylinder having the next lowest pressure. engines compound these demands because of the
Continue this process until the system is charged wide range of atmospheric conditions they must
from the cylinder having the highest pressure. operate under. One of the most critical characteris-
tics of aviation gasoline is its volatility, which is a
This procedure keeps the oxygen cart from having measure of a fuel's ability to change from a liquid
several bottles with pressures too low to charge the into a vapor. Volatility is usually expressed in terms
system. When done properly, the last two or three of Reid vapor pressure which represents the pres-
bottles increase the pressure without adding signif- sure above the liquid required to prevent vapors
icantly to the volume. from escaping from the liquid at a given tempera-
ture. The vapor pressure of 100LL aviation gasoline
Since oxygen presents such a serious fire hazard, is approximately seven pounds per square inch at
you should avoid parking an oxygen cart beside a 100 degrees F. Jet A, on the other hand, has a vapor
hydraulic mule, or in any area where petroleum pressure of less than 0.1 psi at 100 degrees F and Jet
products are likely to come in contact with the oxy- B has a vapor pressure of between two and three
gen servicing equipment. pounds per square inch at 100 degrees F.
For obvious reasons, a fuel's volatility is critical to

AIRCRAFT FUELING its performance in an aircraft engine. For example,
Aircraft fueling is an operational procedure that is in a piston engine, the fuel must vaporize readily
conducted more frequently than any other. It must in the carburetor to burn evenly in the cylinder.
Ground Handling and Servicing 13-27
Fuel that is only partially atomized leads to hard bers used to designate fuel grades, you must first be
starting and rough running. On the other hand, familiar with detonation in reciprocating engines.
fuel which vaporizes too readily can evaporate
in the fuel lines and lead to vapor lock. As you know, when a fuel-air charge enters the cylin-
Furthermore, in an aircraft carburetor, an exces- der of a piston engine it is ignited by the spark plugs.
sively volatile fuel causes extreme cooling Ideally, the fuel burns at a rapid but uniform rate. The
within the carburetor body when the fuel evapo- expanding gases then push the piston downward,
rates. This increases the chances for the forma- turning the crankshaft and creating power.
tion of carburetor ice, which can cause rough
running or a complete loss of engine power. Detonation is the explosive, uncontrolled burning
Therefore, the ideal aviation fuel has a high of the fuel-air charge. It occurs when the fuel burns
volatility that is not excessive to the point of unevenly or explosively because of excessive cylin-
causing vapor lock. der temperature or pressure in the cylinder. Rather
than gently pushing the piston down, detonation
slams against the cylinder walls and the piston. The
DETONATION
pressure wave hits the piston like a hammer, often
Reciprocating engine aircraft require high-quality damaging the piston, connecting rods, and bearings.
aviation gasolines to insure reliable operation. This is often heard as a knock in the engine.
These fuels are specially formulated to possess cer- Detonation also causes high cylinder head tempera-
tain characteristics that allow them to function reli- tures and, if allowed to continue, can melt engine
ably in aircraft. To understand the different num- components. [Figure 13-31]
Figure 13-31. This chart illustrates the pressure created in a cylinder as it passes through its various strokes. As you can see, when
normal combustion occurs, cylinder pressure builds and dissipates evenly. However, when detonation occurs, cylinder pressure
fluctuates dramatically.
Detonation can happen anytime an engine over- Another way petroleum companies help prevent
heats. It also can occur if an improper fuel grade is detonation is to mix tetraethyl lead into aviation
used. The potential for engine overheating is great- fuels. However, it has the drawback of forming cor-
est under the following conditions: use of fuel grade rosive compounds in the combustion chamber. For
lower than recommended, takeoff with an engine this reason, additional additives such as ethylene
that is already overheated or is very near the maxi- bromide are added to the fuel. These bromides
mum allowable temperature, operation at high rpm actively combine with lead oxides produced by the
and low airspeed, and extended operations above tetraethyl lead allowing the oxides to be discharged
75 percent power with an extremely lean mixture. from the cylinder during engine operation.
PREIGNITION COLOR CODING OF AVIATION GASOLINES

In a properly functioning ignition system, combus- In the past, there were four grades of aviation gaso-
tion is precisely timed. In contrast, preignition takes line, each identified by color. The old color identi-
place when the fuel/air mixture ignites too soon. fiers were as follows:
Preignition is caused by residual hot spots in the
cylinder. A hot spot may be a small carbon deposit on 80/87 ed
a spark plug, a cracked ceramic spark plug insulator,
or almost any damage around the combustion cham- 91/96 lue
ber. In extreme cases, preignition can cause serious
damage to the engine in a short period of time. 100/130 reen
Preignition and detonation often occur simultane- 115/145 urple

ously, and one may cause the other. Inside the air-
craft, you will be unable to distinguish between the The only reason for mentioning the old ratings is
two, since both are likely to cause engine roughness because manuals on older airplanes may still con-
and high engine temperatures. tain references to these colors.
The color code for the aviation gasoline currently

PERFORMANCE NUMBERS available is as follows:
Aviation gasoline is formulated to burn smoothly 80 ed

without detonating, or knocking, and fuels are
numerically graded according to their ability to 100 reen
resist detonation. The higher the number, the more
resistant the fuel is to knocking. The most common 100LL lue
grading system used for this purpose is the octane
rating system. The octane number assigned to a fuel Turbine engines can operate for limited periods on
compares the anti-knock properties of that fuel to a aviation gasoline. However, prolonged use of leaded
mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane. For avgas forms tetraethyl lead deposits on turbine
example, grade 80 fuel has the same anti-knock blades and decreases engine efficiency. Turbine
properties as a mixture of 80 percent iso-octane and engine manufacturers specify the conditions under
20 percent heptane. which gasoline can be used in their engines, and
these instructions should be strictly followed.
Some fuels have two performance numbers, such as Reciprocating engines do not operate on turbine
100/130. The first number is the lean mixture rating, fuel. Never put jet fuel into a piston engined aircraft.
whereas the second number represents the fuel's rich
mixture rating. To avoid confusion and to minimize
errors in handling different grades of aviation gaso-
lines, it has become common practice to designate TURBINE FUELS
the different grades of fuel by the lean mixture per- Aviation turbine fuels are used for powering turbo-
formance numbers only. Therefore, aviation gaso- jet, turbo-prop, and turboshaft engines. The types of
lines are identified as Avgas 80, 100, and 100LL. turbine fuel in use are JET A and JET A-l, which are
Although 100LL performs the same as grade 100 fuel; kerosene types, and JET B, which is a blend of gaso-
the "LL" indicates it has a low lead content. line and kerosene.
The difference between Jet A and Jet A-l is that Jet ADDITIONAL MARKINGS
A-l has a freeze point of-47蚓 (-52.6蚌) whereas Jet
In addition to coloring fuels, a marking and coding
A has a freeze point of-40蚓 (-40蚌). Jet B, which
system has been adopted to identify the various air-
is similar to JP-4, is normally used by the military, port fuel handling facilities and equipment, accord-
particularly the Air Force. This fuel has an allowing to the kind and grade of fuel they contain. For
able freeze point of-50蚓 (-58蚌). example, all aviation gasolines are identified by
name, using white letters on a red background. In
One thing to keep in mind is that jet fuel designa- contrast, turbine fuels are identified by white letters
tions, unlike those for avgas, are merely numbers on a black background.
that label a particular fuel and do not describe any
performance characteristics. Valves, loading and unloading connections,
switches, and other control equipment are
color-coded to the grade or type of fuel they
COLOR CODING OF TURBINE FUELS
dispense. The fuel in piping is identified by name
Unlike the various grades of aviation gasoline that are and by colored bands painted or decaled around
dyed different colors to aid in recognition, all turbine the pipe at intervals along its length. [Figure 13-32]
fuels are colorless or have a light straw color. Be
aware that off-color fuel may not meet specifications Fuel trucks and hydrant carts are marked with large
and, therefore, should not be used in aircraft. fuel identification decals on each side of the tank or
Figure 13-32. This illustration depicts the colors of the various grades and types of aviation fuels as well as the markings and color
codes used on fuel conduits and controls.
body and have a small decal on the dashboard in the Static electrical charges are generated in various
cab. These decals utilize the same color code. The degrees whenever one body passes through or against
fixed ring around the fueller dome covers and another. For example, an aircraft in flight through the
hydrant box lids are also painted in accordance air, a fuel truck driving on a roadway, the rapid flow
with the color code. In short, all parts of the fueling of fuel through a pipe or filter, and even the splash-
facility and equipment are identified and keyed into ing of fuel into a fuel truck or aircraft during fueling
the same marking and color code. operations all generate static electricity.
To minimize this hazard, it is necessary to eliminate

static electrical charges before they can build up to
FIRE HAZARDS create a static spark. This is accomplished by bond-
Any facility that is storing or handling fuel repre- ing and grounding all components of the fueling sys-
sents a major fire hazard. This also holds true for tem together with static wires and allowing sufficient
facilities that store or handle aviation fuels. time for the charge to dissipate before performing any
Therefore, all personnel should be aware of the dan- act which could draw a spark. Contrary to popular
ger and be trained on how to handle fuel. belief, the bleeding off of an electrical charge from a
body of fuel is not always an instantaneous act. In
fact, it can take several seconds to bleed off all static
charges from some fuels. Because of this, it is
VOLATILITY absolutely essential that the following procedures be
followed to bleed off static charges. [Figure 13-33]
When an aircraft is fueled, vapors rise from the tank.
The more volatile the fuel (the higher its vapor pres-
sure) and the higher the outside temperature, the When handling aviation fuels:
more vapors are released and the more caution is 1. Connect a grounding cable (static wire) from the
required when fueling. fuel truck or hydrant cart
to ground.
Furthermore, when loading a fuel truck connect
Because of the flammable nature of fuel vapors, no
the static wire from the loading rack to the fuel
fueling or defueling should be done in a hangar or
truck before operating the dome cover.
an enclosed area. Furthermore, if fuel is spilled, it
must be wiped up or washed away with water as 2. Connect a static wire from the
fuel truck,
soon as possible. It is extremely important that
hydrant cart, pit or cabinet to the aircraft.
spilled fuel never be swept away with a dry broom,
3. When conducting overwing fueling,
as the static electricity generated by the broom can
connect
ignite the fuel vapors.
the fuel nozzle static wire to the aircraft before
the tank cover is opened. Underwing nozzles
When it comes to storing fuel, aviation fuel should need not be bonded to the aircraft.
be stored in approved containers only. These con- 4. In general, the dispensing unit
tainers must be kept closed and stored in a cool and should be
isolated area that has been approved for fuel storage. grounded first, and should
ultimately be
bonded to the receiving unit. Dome or tank cov
STATIC ELECTRICITY ers should never be opened during a fuel trans
All aviation fuels burn under conditions where they fer unless all grounds and bonds are in place.
have sufficient oxygen and a source of ignition.
Sufficient air and fuel vapors to support combustion When handling turbine fuels:
are normally present during any fuel-handling oper-
ation. Therefore, it is vitally important that all 1. Minimize splashing during the loading of a fuel
sources of ignition be eliminated in the vicinity of truck by placing the end of the loading spout at, or
any fuel-handling operation. Obvious sources of as near as possible to the compartment bottom.
ignition include matches, cigarette lighters, smok- 2. Do not suspend or lower metal or conductive
ing, open flames, even backfires from malfunction- objects such as gauge tapes, sample containers,
ing vehicles. However, one source of ignition that or thermometers into a tank or fuel truck while
may not be so obvious is the sparks created by static it is being filled. Give any static charge which
electricity. may be present a few minutes to bleed off after
filling before using these devices.
3. When filling large storage tanks, minimize the
splashing action by slowing the initial flow rate
until the end of the tank inlet line is covered
with at least two feet of fuel.
the air in storage tanks, fuel trucks, and even in air-

craft fuel tanks. Water exists in aviation fuels in one
of two forms, dissolved and free.
All aviation fuels dissolve water in varying amounts

depending upon the fuel composition and tempera-
ture. This can be likened to humidity in the air. Any
water in excess of that which dissolves is called free
water. Lowering the fuel temperature causes dis-
solved water to precipitate out as free water, some-
what similar to the way fog is created. Typically,
dissolved water does not pose a problem to aircraft
and cannot be removed by practical means.
Figure 13-33. Before opening the fuel tanks or connecting
the fuel hose, be sure that the aircraft and the fuel truck are
connected together by an electrical bonding cable.
Free water can appear as water slugs or as entrained
water. A water slug is a relatively large amount of
water appearing in one body or layer. A water slug
CONTAMINATION CONTROL can be less than a pint and is sometimes measured
in hundreds of gallons. Entrained water is water
Aviation fuels are subject to several types of conta- which is suspended in tiny droplets. Individual
minants. The more common forms of aviation fuel droplets may or may not be visible to the naked eye,
contaminants include solids, water, surfactants, but they can give the fuel a cloudy or hazy appear-
micro-organisms, and intermixing of grades or types ance, depending upon their size and number.
of fuel. Surfactants and micro-organisms contami- Entrained water usually results when a water slug
nants have become serious problems with the and fuel are violently agitated, as when they pass
advent of turbine fuels. through a pump, and usually settles out in time.
Entrained water may also be formed by lowering the
As a general rule, the ease with which a fuel can temperature of a fuel saturated with dissolved
hold contaminants varies with the fuel's viscosity. water. Because of its high viscosity, entrained water
Viscosity is the property of a fluid that describes its is often visible in turbine fuel as a water haze.
thickness or resistance to flow. Fluids that have a
high viscosity tend to retain contaminants in sus-
pension. This is a disadvantage with turbine fuels Most aircraft engines can tolerate dissolved water.
since their high viscosity allows them to hold liquid However, large slugs of free water can cause engine
and solid material that does not easily settle out. failure, and ice from slugs and entrained water can
Furthermore, since the quantity of fuel passing severely restrict fuel flow by plugging aircraft fuel
through a turbine engine per hour is considerably filters and other mechanisms.
greater than with piston engines, any contamination
in the fuel can accumulate in the fuel control unit Most fuel systems that are subject to ice crystals are
rapidly. As a result, turbine engines are much more protected by filter-heating devices. These devices
sensitive to fuel cleanliness. can satisfactorily deal with dissolved and even
entrained water, however, there is little margin for
Operational differences between piston and turbine handling large amounts of free water.
powered aircraft also affect requirements for clean
fuel. For example, in turbine powered aircraft, it is
not uncommon to record in-flight fuel temperatures Water can enter an airport fuel system though
of 25 degrees F. These temperatures can cause leaks in the seals of equipment, or it may be
water molecules to precipitate out of the fuel and brought into a system when fuel is delivered. The
freeze. This produces ice crystals that can then best means of minimizing the amount of water
accumulate and interrupt fuel flow. entering a system is through inspection and main-
tenance of equipment, and by making certain that
only dry fuel is received.
WATER
Water has always been one of the major contamina- Water can be detected in many ways. Free water,
tion problems with aviation fuel. It condenses out of lying in the bottom of underground storage tanks,
can be discovered by applying a water finding paste Because solid contaminants generally appear in rel-
to the end of a gauge stick and placing the gauge in atively small numbers and sizes in relation to the
the storage tank. When doing this, you must always volume of fuel, their detection can be difficult.
allow at least 30 seconds for the paste to react, as its Aviation gasoline is generally considered "clean" if
reaction time can be slowed by other contaminants. a one-quart sample is clear of any sediment when
In the case of above ground tanks and equipment, a viewed in a clean and dry clear glass container. It
sample can be drawn into a container and the free may be helpful to swirl the container so that a vor-
water actually observed. A small amount of liquid tex is created. The solid contaminants, if present,
vegetable dye (cake coloring) is sometimes helpful tend to collect at the bottom beneath the vortex.
to outline the free water in a sample. It mixes with
and colors the water but is insoluble in the fuel.
Because the fuel control units used on turbine pow-
ered aircraft are extremely sensitive, turbine fuels
Water is removed from fuel by providing adequate must be cleaner that aviation gasoline. While a
filtration or separation equipment. With turbine visual inspection is adequate for operational
fuels, floating suction devices, and allowing the fuel checks, a millipore test should be performed from
to settle for at least two hours after filling minimizes time to time. The millipore test is a filter-type test
water contamination. All storage and fuel truck tank capable of detecting microscopic solid contami-
bottoms and filter/separator sumps should be nants down to .8 of a micron in size, or about 1/120
checked for water, and any accumulations removed the diameter of a human hair.
on a daily basis.
MICROBiAL GROWTHS
Microbial growths have become a critical problem in
SOLID CONTAMINANTS some turbine fuel systems. There are over 100 differ-
Solid contaminants are those which do not dissolve ent varieties of micro-organisms which can live in the
in fuel. The most common contaminants are iron free water which accumulates in sumps and on the
rust and scale, sand, and dirt. However, other debris bottom of storage and aircraft tanks. Many of these
such as metal particles, dust, lint, particles of filter micro-organisms are airborne and, therefore, fuel is
media, rubber, valve lubricants, and even bacterial constantly exposed to this type of contaminant.
sludge can be encountered. Solid contaminants are
typically introduced into fuel at every stage of its The principle effects of micro-organisms are:
movement from the refinery to the aircraft.
1. Formulation of a sludge or slime which can foul
filter/separators and fueling mechanisms.
The maximum amount of solids that an aircraft can 2. Emulsification of the fuel.
tolerate depends on the type of aircraft and fuel sys- 3. Creation of corrosive compounds and offensive
tem, and the number and size of the solid contami- odors.
nants. Close tolerance mechanisms in modern tur-
bine engines can be damaged by particles as small Severe corrosion of aircraft fuel tanks has been
as 1/20 the diameter of a human hair. attributed to micro-organisms and considerable
expense has been incurred removing these growths
and repairing the damage they cause. The actual
The best method of controlling solids is to limit determination of microbial content, or number of
their introduction into the fuel. Rusty lines, tanks, colonies, is reserved for the laboratory. Any evi-
and containers obviously should not be used. dence of black sludge or slime, or even a
Furthermore, covers and caps should be kept tightly vegetative-like mat growth should be removed.
closed until you are ready to begin pumping fuel. Growths also appear as dark brown spots on some
Exercise care to keep lint from wiping rags or wind- filter/separator element socks. The socks should be
blown sand, dirt, and dust from entering the system replaced whenever this condition is discovered.
during filling or fueling operations. Fueling nozzles
and loading spouts should be cleaned before use, Because microbes thrive in water, a simple and
and dust caps and other protective devices replaced effective method to prevent or retard their growth is
after they are used. Furthermore, filters should be to eliminate the water. A common way of doing this
regularly inspected and maintained in accordance is by introducing a fuel additive during the fueling
with the operating specifications. process. [Figure 13-34]
taminated by mixing with other grades or types of

fuels, by picking up compounds from concentra-
tions in rust and sludge deposits, by additives, or by
any other of a number of soluble materials.
The greatest single danger to aircraft safety from

contaminated fuels cannot be attributed to solids,
exotic micro-organisms, surfactants, or even water.
It is contamination resulting from human error. It is
the placing of the wrong grade or type of fuel into an
aircraft, the mixing of grades, or any other type of
Figure 13-34. A biocidal agent is added to turbine fuel to pre- human error that allows off-specification fuels to be
vent microbial growths that cause corrosion in the fuel tanks. placed aboard an aircraft. The possibility of human
error can never be eliminated, but it can be mini-
mized through careful design of fueling facilities,
SURFACTANTS
good operating procedures, and adequate training.
The term surfactants is a contraction of the words
SURFace ACTive AgeNTS. Surfactants consist of
soap or detergent-like materials that occur naturally
in fuel, or can be introduced during refining or han- FUELING PROCEDURES
dling. Surfactants are usually more soluble in water
than in fuel and reduce the surface tension between The fueling process begins with the delivery of fuel
water and fuel. This stabilizes suspended water to the airport fueling facility, usually by tank truck.
droplets and contaminants in the fuel. They are Quality control begins by checking the bill of lading
attracted to the elements of filter/separators and can for the proper amount and grade of fuel.
make them ineffective. Surfactants, in large concen-
trated quantities, usually appear as a tan to dark
brown liquid with a sudsy-like consistency. Fuel testing should begin with the tank truck. The
personnel receiving the fuel delivery must deter-
mine that the proper type of fuel is in the truck, and
Surfactants alone do not constitute a great threat to samples taken and checked for visible contamina-
aircraft. However, because of their ability to sus- tion. Once all of these checks are completed, the
pend water and dirt in the fuel and inhibit filter truck is connected to the correct unloading point,
action, they allow these contaminants to get into an and unloading can proceed.
aircraft's fuel system. Surfactants have become one
of the major contaminants in aviation turbine fuels,
and can cause fuel gauge problems. There is no Turbine fuel should be allowed to settle a minimum
established maximum limit on the level of surfac- of two hours after any disturbance. Therefore, once
tants which can be safely contained in a fuel, and a quantity of turbine fuel is delivered, it should be
there are no simple tests for determining their con- allowed to sit in its storage tank for at least two
centration in fuel. The common danger signals of a hours before it is pumped into an aircraft. Aviation
surface contaminated facility are: gasolines do not need time to settle before being
withdrawn for use; however, no withdrawals may
1. Excess quantities of dirt and/or free water going be made from a tank while it is receiving fuel from
through the system. a transport truck.
2. Discovery of sudsy-like liquid in tank and fil
ter/separator sumps.
3. Malfunctioning of filter/separators.
4. Slow effective settling rates in storage tanks. FROM A FUEL TRUCK
Aircraft can have fuel pumped directly into their
tanks from over the wing tank openings, or from a
single point source under the wing. Typically,
MISCELLANEOUS CONTAMINANTS
over-wing fueling is done with a fuel truck whereas
Miscellaneous contaminants can include either sol- underwing fueling is done from a pit through
uble or insoluble materials or both. Fuel can be con- single-point fueling.
Before driving a fuel truck to an aircraft, be sure that UNDERGROUND STORAGE SYSTEM
the sumps have been drained and that the sight Most of the large airports that service transport cat-
gauges show that the fuel is bright and clear. egory aircraft have underground storage tanks and
Furthermore, fire extinguishers must be in place buried fuel lines. This arrangement allows the air-
and fully charged. Approach the aircraft with a fuel craft to be fueled without having to carry the fuel to
truck parallel to the wings and stop the truck in the aircraft in tank trucks. Since most aircraft that
front of the aircraft. Set the parking brake on the are fueled from this type of system use under-wing
truck and connect the static bonding wire between
fueling, the method is discussed here.
the truck and the aircraft.
A service truck having filters, water separators, and
Prior to removing the aircraft's fuel tank cap ver- a pump is driven to the aircraft and its inlet hose is
ify that you have the proper grade of fuel. This is connected to the underground hydrant valve. The
done by reading the placard near the filler cap. discharge hose or hoses from the servicer are
[Figure 13-35] attached to the fueling ports on the aircraft and,
with a properly qualified maintenance person in the
aircraft monitoring the fuel controls, the valves are
Put a mat over the wing so the fuel hose can not opened and the pumps started. The person moni-
scratch the finish, connect the static bonding wire toring the fuel controls can determine the sequence
between the nozzle and the aircraft and remove in which the tanks are filled and can shut off the
the fuel tank cap. Remove the dust cap from the fuel when the correct load has been taken on board.
nozzle, and when inserting the nozzle into the
tank be sure that the end of the nozzle does not Some large corporate aircraft also have single point
contact the bottom of the tank, as it could dent the refueling systems. However, in most cases, control
thin metal. Should the fuel tank be a fuel cell, con- of the fueling sequence is from an outside control
tact with the nozzle could puncture the cell and panel located under an access cover. A service tech-
cause a serious leak. nician must be checked out on these systems before
operating them. Should there by any questions
Misfueling is a constant danger that can frequently about the operation, ask for assistance from the
result in a complete engine failure. To help prevent pilot-in-command of the aircraft. [Figure 13-36]
misfueling accidents, the nozzles used to pump tur-
bine fuel are larger than the nozzles used to pump
aviation gasoline. Furthermore, FAR 23.973 speci- DEFUELING
fies that all general aviation aircraft utilizing avia- It is sometimes necessary to remove fuel from an air-
tion gasoline have restricted fuel tank openings that craft, either for maintenance reasons or because of a
will not allow the nozzle used to pump Jet A to fit change in flight plans after the aircraft was serviced.
in the tank opening. While it is possible for a jet or Defueling is accomplished in much the same man-
turbine engine to run on gasoline, a piston engine ner as fueling, with many of the same safety pre-
will not run on Jet A. cautions used.
Figure 13-35. An aircraft fuel tank must be clearly marked Figure 13-36. High rates of fuel flow can be put into an air-
with the proper grade of fuel required. craft system from the underwing fueling ports.
Never defuel an aircraft inside a hangar, or in any 2. Be sure that the fuel truck, or servicer, is prop
area with inadequate ventilation. Be sure that all of erly bonded to the aircraft and the fuel nozzle is
the proper safeguards are taken with regard to neu- bonded to the structure before the cover is taken
tralizing any static electricity that builds up when from the fuel tank.
the fuel flows through the lines. 3. Wipe up spilled fuel or flood it with water. Do
not sweep spilled fuel with a dry broom.
If only a small quantity of fuel is off-loaded and 4. Be sure that there are no open fires in the vicin
there is no reason to suspect contamination, the ity of the fueling or defueling operations.
fuel may be taken back to stock. On the other hand, 5. Be sure that fire extinguishers suitable for a
the quality of the off-loaded fuel could be suspect Class B fire are available. Either CO2 or dry
if an engine failed and a large quantity of fuel was powder units are generally used.
removed. This fuel should be segregated, prefer- 6. Protect the aircraft structure from damage from
ably in a fuel truck, and quarantined until its qual- the fuel hose and from the nozzle.
ity is assured. 7. Be sure that the radio or radar are not used dur
ing fueling or defueling, and that no electrical
In no event should suspected fuel be returned to equipment is turned on or off, except for the
storage or placed aboard another aircraft. If accept- equipment needed for the fueling operation.
able fuel is returned to storage, make sure it is 8. When defueling, be sure that the fuel is not con
taken back into a tank containing the same grade of taminated if it is to be used again.
fuel and that complete quality control procedures 9. Be sure that the filters in the tank truck or ser
are followed. vicer remove all traces of water and contamina
tion and that the fuel pumped into an aircraft is
If an aircraft is defueled into drums, be sure that the bright and clear.
drums are clean and that the bungs are replaced and 10. If a biocidal additive is required, be sure that it
tightened immediately after the drums are filled. is mixed with the fuel in the proper concentra
Some companies, and some aircraft operations man- tion.
uals, do not allow fuel that has been stored in drums 11. If the aircraft is being fueled in the rain, be sure
to be reused in an aircraft. Frequently this fuel is that the tank opening is covered to exclude
used in ramp vehicles, space heaters, and GPUs. water from the tank.
12. Be sure that dust covers and caps are placed
over the end of the fuel nozzles and any open
REVIEW OF SAFETY PROCEDURES fuel lines when they are not in use.
Review the safety procedures that must be observed 13. Drive the tank truck parallel to the wing of the
when fueling or defueling an aircraft: aircraft and be sure that the parking brake is set
so the truck cannot roll into an aircraft.
1. Be sure that only the correct grade of fuel is put 14. When conducting underwing pressure fueling,
into an aircraft. Remember that aviation gaso- be sure that the pressure used and the delivery
line comes in various grades and the wrong rate are those specified by the manufacturer of
grade can cause severe damage to the engine. the aircraft.
Turbine fuel in a reciprocating engine can cause 15. If any fuel is spilled onto your body, wash it off
severe detonation and engine failure, and the with soap and water as soon as possible. Do not
improper use of aviation gasoline in a turbine wear any clothing on which fuel
engine can also be harmful. has been
spilled.

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Section 7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance

7.1 Measuring and Layout Tools Page 135

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 133

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 135

136 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

0.02 mm Vernier scale

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 137

138 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

In the metric example, the thimble

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 139

Smal-l Hole Gages

Tel e scoping Gages

140 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Drill Press Vise

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 141

142 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Diagonal Cutting Pliers

Safety Wire Twisting Tool

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 143

Tools for Making Straight

144 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Forming Compound Curves in Sheet Metal

7.5 Cutting Tools

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 145

146 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 147

TI that is wider than the saw blade. This

Compass, or Keyhole Saw

148 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

point the cut is being made. «

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 149

150 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 151

152 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 153

Twist Drill Sharpening

154 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Material Included Lip relief

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 155

156 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Drills for Wood and

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 157

Flat Wood-Boring Sits

158 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Unified and American Threads/Inch

There are a number of forms of #0 80

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 159

Body and Tap Drill Sizes

1-64 0.073 47 0.0575 53

For NationalTaper Pipe Serles

Screw Pitch Gage

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 161

CIiek-Type Torque Wrench

162 Aviation Mect,anic Handbook

Tw = Torque indicated on the wrench

7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance 163

Recommended Torque Values

164 Aviation Mechanic Handbook

Recommended Torque Values for Fine-Thread-Serles Aluminum Alloy Fasteners

Nuts tension torque llmlts

7: Tools tor Aircraft Maintenance 165

Carp enter 's Claw Hammer

Ball Peen Hammer

Body, or Planlshlng Hammer